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Section 5: Reproduction and Inheritance

5.2 Reproduction in Flowering plants

Introduction
Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Pollination
Fertilisation
Seed: formation and dispersal
Germination

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Section 5: Reproduction and Inheritance
5.2 Reproduction in Flowering plants

Introduction
Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Pollination
Fertilisation
Seed: formation and dispersal
Germination

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Introduction

Both animals and plants use sexual reproduction


Animals

and not mobile

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Section 5: Reproduction and Inheritance
5.2 Reproduction in Flowering plants

Introduction
Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Pollination
Fertilisation
Seed: formation and dispersal
Germination

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Flowers, the Reproductive organs

 Flowers = reproductive structures of flowering plants

 Contain reproductive organs

 In most plants, flowers contain reproductive organs of both sexes


Bisexual = Hermaphrodite

 Some plants have unisexual flowers


One plant carries male reproductive organs
Another plant carries female reproductive organs

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Flower structure

Petals

Usually brightly coloured


Sometimes scented
Arranged in a circle or a cylinder
From 4 to 10 in most flowers
Sometimes joined to form a tube

Replaced by bracts in many trees and grasses


Small, leaf-like
Non coloured
Non scented

Flower still in bud


Sepals

Form a ring around petals


Often green
Much smaller than petals
Protect flower when still in the bud

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Flower structure

Stamens

Male reproductive organs of flowers


Number of stamens varies between species
Stamen = stalk (filament) + anther at end of filament
Anther = four pollen sacs
Pollen sacs contain pollen grains
Pollen grains contain nucleus of male gamete
When anther is ripe, splits open and release pollen grains

Carpels

Female reproductive organs of flowers


Number of carpels varies between species
One carpel = one stigma + one style + one ovary
One ovary contains one or more ovule
Ovule contains nucleus of female gamete
Stigma sticky to “glue” the pollen grains

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Flower structure

 All structures described previously all attached to expanded end of flower stalk
= Receptacle

 May become fleshy and edible


e.g. apple, pear and strawberry

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Section 5: Reproduction and Inheritance
5.2 Reproduction in Flowering plants

Introduction
Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Pollination
Fertilisation
Seed: formation and dispersal
Germination

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Pollination
Pollination

 When anther is ripe, splits open and release pollen grains

 Pollen grains are carried to stigma by


- Insects
- Wind
- Water
- Hummingbirds, bats,…

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Pollination
Self-pollination and cross-pollination

Different
Same plant plants

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Pollination
Pollination by insects

 Insects do not come for pollen

 They are attracted by colour (and scent) of petals

 They are looking for food = nectar in nectary

1. Insects recognises flower thanks to colour (and scent) of petals: there is nectar here
2. Insect lands on petals
3. On its way to the nectary, insect brushes against anther
4. Pollen grains stick onto insect’s body
5. Insect flies to another flower
6. Insect brushes against sticky stigma
7. Pollen grains transferred from insect to stigma

Examples of insect-pollinated flowers: Lupin, wallflower

wallflower IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Pollination
Pollination by wind

 Flowers pollinated by wind do not need insects

No nectar, no nectary
No brightly coloured or scented petals
Petals may be small or absent: replaced by bracts

1. Wind detaches pollen grains from opened anthers


2. Wind carries pollen grains to stigma

Examples of wind-pollinated flowers: Grasses, cereals and many trees

Feathery stigma
Pine tree cereal

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Pollination
Adaptation of flowers to pollination by insects or by wind

“Adaptation”
During evolution of the plant, structure and physiology of flower
has been modified to improve the chances of successful pollination by insects

sticky

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Pollination
Advantages and disadvantages of self-pollination and cross-pollination

 Self-pollination:

1. Gametes come from the same plant

No genetic variation in subsequent generations

no variability for natural selection: no adaptation by evolution possible

2. Sexual reproduction possible even in the absence of pollinator


e.g. insects killed by insecticides
Species will not go extinct

 Cross-pollination: gametes come from two different plants

Variation in offspring guaranteed

Better chances of adaptation by evolution

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Section 5: Reproduction and Inheritance
5.2 Reproduction in Flowering plants

Introduction
Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Pollination
Fertilisation
Seed: formation and dispersal
Germination

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Fertilisation

1. Pollen grain lands on stigma

2. Pollen grain germinates and forms pollen tube

3. Pollen tube grows inside style down to ovary

4. Enters ovary through small hole = micropyle

5. Nucleus of pollen grain travels down pollen tube

6. Nucleus of pollen enters ovule

7. Two nuclei of gametes fuse = fertilisation


Forming the zygote

 Each ovule in ovary needs to be fertilised


by a separate pollen grain

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Fertilisation

gamete zygote

gamete

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Section 5: Reproduction and Inheritance
5.2 Reproduction in Flowering plants

Introduction
Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Pollination
Fertilisation
Seed: formation and dispersal
Germination

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Seed: formation and dispersal
Fruit and seed formation
 After fertilisation, zygote undergoes many cell divisions
Forms embryo = tiny root + tiny shoot + 1 or 2 special leaves = cotyledons
Plants making 2 cotyledons = dicotyledons
Plants making 1 cotyledon = monocotyledons
Cotyledons of dicotyledons - get food from mature leaves through phloem
- swell until they enclose the embryo
The unique cotyledon of monocotyledons does not swell up
Food reserves are in the endosperm

 In mono- and dicotyledons, outer wall of ovule thickens and hardens: seed coat = testa

 Petals and stamens fall off

 Ovary enlarges now called fruit = fertilised ovary


Not all fruits are edible

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Seed: formation and dispersal
Fruit and seed formation

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Seed: formation and dispersal

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Section 5: Reproduction and Inheritance
5.2 Reproduction in Flowering plants

Introduction
Flowers, the Reproductive organs
Pollination
Fertilisation
Seed: formation and dispersal
Germination

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Germination

 Newly formed seed = 5-20% water


 Germination takes place after water has been absorbed from soil through micropyle

Hypocotyl: below cotyledons


Epicotyl: above cotyledons

Once green leaves can photosynthesise,


the new plant is autonomous

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Germination
Importance of water, oxygen and temperature in germination
Water is needed to:

- Activate the enzymes in the cotyledons: starch to glucose, proteins to amino acids
- Transport glucose and amino acids from cotyledons/endosperm to growing regions
- Expand vacuoles in new cells for root and shoot growth
- Maintain turgor to keep shoot upright and leaves expanded
- Photosynthesis when leaves are formed
- Transport mineral ions absorbed in roots to growing regions

Oxygen is needed for:

- Cell respiration to make energy for all reactions

Testa is not very permeable to oxygen


When soaked or split open, oxygen can reach the embryo’s cells
Temperature high enough is needed to:

- Bring kinetic energy to enzymes

Too low temperature: enzymes inactive


Too high temperature: enzymes denatured

Optimum temperature for germination varies a lot between species


IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.
Germination
Importance of light in germination

 Light is NOT necessary for germination in most species


Most seeds germinate below soil level

 But needed absolutely as soon as food stores in cotyledons are depleted


For photosynthesis by newly made leaves

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.


Germination
Dormancy in germination

 Many species of plants make their seeds in summer/autumn


Conditions are then suitable for germination
But seeds will only germinate in the following spring
Seeds are “dormant”’
“dormant”= sleeping in French

 If seeds germinate in late autumn, soon winter conditions may kill the young plants

Dormancy delays germination to avoid unfavourable conditions

 Dormancy is controlled by mechanisms which are not totally understood yet

IGCSE Edexcel Xavier DANIEL, Ph.D.

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