1.

1
THE PHILOSOPHY OF POWER CONTROL

THE PHILOSOPHY OF
POWER CONTROL

CONTENTS
1. Controlling electrical energy using switches
2. Switching matrix
3. Controllable semiconductors
4. Properties of switches
5. Commutation
6. Power converters
7. Power frequency domain
8. Evaluation

In the first half of the twentieth century electronics was synonymous with telecommunications.
At that time this included telephony, radio and TV technology. During the Second World War
(W.W.II) radar technology was developed and also the first electrical servo systems were built.
Directly after W.W.II these servo systems were directly responsible for the birth of industrial
automation. A new field was started: industrial electronics, also known as power electronics. This
enabled electrical power to be controlled using electronic technology. Examples of this are control
of motors (speed and torque), temperature control of ovens and buildings, lighting levels of lamps.

Electronic power control is a marriage of typical electronic technology and applications from the
field of power engineering. It is a difficult marriage because power engineers don’t easily think in
terms of electronic components and micro second time scales and on the other hand electronic
engineers have little concept of motors in the megawatt range. So there is a need for engineers that
have a knowledge of both fields.

The control of electrical power is extremely important for the following reasons:
1. Environmental reasons: preserving the environment requires cleaner electrical power
2. Reliable applications: increase of speed and accuracy
3. Energy saving: efficiency is very important and the accurate control of electrical power is a
priority.
Only electronics can realize this level of control.

Power Electronics: Switches and Converters

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814643-9.50001-5, Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1.2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF POWER CONTROL

1. CONTROL OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY USING SWITCHES

In power electronics to control the flow of electrical energy with maximum efficiency switches are
always used. To illustrate this:
Imagine the resistive element of an oven with ​R​v​ = 5 Ω connected to a voltage of 500V (fig. 1-1).
To control the electrical energy in the oven a variable resistor R ​ 1​ ​ is required to be connected
between the supply and the load R ​ ​v ​. For various values of R
​ ​1​ we calculate the energy delivered by
the supply and the energy consumed by the oven. Additionally we calculate the efficiency of this
​P​oven​
circuit: η = ​ ______
​P​ ​  ​  
  . The results of the calculation are presented in table 1-1. The efficiency as a
source
function of R
​ ​1​ is shown in fig. 1-2.
η (%) η
R1
100
+
75
Rv
Vs = 500 V 50
=5 Ω
-
25
0
oven 15 5 5/3 0
R1 (Ω)

Fig. 1-1: Power control using a resistor

Fig. 1-2: Efficiency of circuit in fig. 1-1
Table 1-1
Next we examine the circuit in fig 1-3 in
​R​1​ (Ω) ​P​source​ (kW) ​P​oven​ (kW) η (%) which the series resistance is replaced by a
0 50 50 100 switch S. This switch is periodically opened
5/3 37.5 28.125 75 and closed. We call t​​ON​  the time that the
switch is closed and t​​OFF​the time that the
5 25 12.5 50
switch is open. The time taken to open (​t​on​ )
15 12.5 3.125 25
and close (​t​off ​) the switch is negligible.
∞ 0 0 −−
​t​ON​ ​t​ON​
We determine the duty cycle of the circuit using : δ = ​ ________ = ​ ___
​t​ ​ + ​t​   ​​   T   ​ (1-1)
ON OFF

T is the period time. Multiplying by 100 gives the δ in %. Table 1-2 shows the calculated
values of ​P​source​ , ​P​oven​ and the efficiency η for a number of values of δ. The efficiency as a
function of the duty cycle is shown in fig. 1-4 .

η (%) η
S
100
+
75
Rv
Vs = 500 V
=5 Ω 50

- 25
oven δ (%)
0 25 50 75 100

Fig. 1-3: Power control using a switch Fig. 1-4: Efficiency of configuration in fig 1-3
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF POWER CONTROL 1.3
Table 1-2
Comparing the graphics of fig.1-2 with fig. 1-4
​δ ​  ​(%) ​P​source​ (kW) ​P​oven​ (kW) η (%)
shows that efficiency of power control is the
0 0 0 --- reason switches are used instead of continuously
25 12.5 12.5 100 varying elements. If the power flux is passed
50 25 25 100 through the switches and the switches are power
semiconductors, then we use the term power
75 37.5 37.5 100
electronics.
100 50 50 100

2. SWITCHING MATRIX
Every energy transformation can be derived to a switching matrix (fig.1-5). The voltage between
“b” output lines is formed by selected connections with “a” input lines during a specific part of
the working cycle. Via suitable control signals the individual switches are operated. The output
voltage is composed of segments of the input voltage.

switches
IN

OUT

output filter
input filter

a input lines b output lines

Fig. 1-5: General switching matrix

To connect “a” lines with “b” lines a x b switches are required (fig. 1-5). In the configuration of
fig. 1-6 one line is common to input and output and therefore no switch is required for this line.
Here b = 1 and a = 1 and (a x b) one switch is sufficient. With the exception of the triac, semicon-
ductors are unidirectional, in other words they conduct in only one direction. To make the circuit
bidirectional, that is with a reversible output and input function, 2 x a x b switches are required.
Example: A dc-motor with (b = ) 2 lines bidirectionally connected with (a = ) 3 lines from an
AC grid requires 12 switches.
vin
a =1 b =1 10
S
5
vout 7 8 9 t (s)
v R
in 0
-5 1 2 3 4 5 6

-10

Fig. 1-6: Simple switching matrix

1.4 THE PHILOSOPHY OF POWER CONTROL
Filters
As a result of switching action undesired frequencies are generated in the supply lines which may
necessitate an input filter. On the other hand the switching of the output produces a waveform that
is only an approximation of the desired waveform. An output filter helps to approximate the ideal
waveform by blocking undesirable ripple voltages and currents from reaching the load.
Filters significantly increase the cost price, weight and volume of the installation. It should be de-
termined if filters are necessary for a particular application and if so, how much should be filtered.

3. CONTROLLABLE SEMICONDUCTORS
As far as controllability is concerned, three types of semiconductors can be distinguished:

TYPE 1 = NON CONTROLLABLE SWITCHES = DIODE:

conducts automatically when the anode is positive in relation to the cathode
and reverse biases before the current goes through zero.

TYPE 2 = CONTROLLED ON SWITCHES = THYRISTOR:

conducts in response to a control signal and reverse biases before the current
goes to zero.

TYPE 3 = CONTROLLED ON − OFF SWITCHES = TRANSISTORS, GTO, MCT, IGCT:

via control signals the switches conducts or reverse biases.

Note that a higher type number corresponds to more possibilities. A type -2 switch can be used as
a type-1 switch but not the other way around.

4. PROPERTIES OF SWITCHES
A switch is characterised by the voltage (​V​nominal ​)  which it can continually handle in the open
position and the current ( ​I​nominal ​) which it can conduct in the closed position. These static proper-
ties can be seen in fig 1-7, in which the difference between an ideal switch and a real switch is
highlighted.

I I
+ +
R R

Vs Vs Vsw
sw sw

– –

{ Ideal: I = 0 ; Vbo = ∞
Real : Ileak; V bo> Vnominal { Ideal: Vsw= 0 ; I = ∞
Real: Vsw low ; I = I nominal
bo = break over
Fig. 1-7: Static properties of ideal and real switches
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF POWER CONTROL 1.5
A switch is also characterized by its dynamic properties, especially the time to close (​ t​on​ ) and
open ( ​t​off​ ). This is illustrated in fig. 1-8. Once again the distinction between an ideal and real
switch is clear.

Vs Vs

i
R I R I
Vs
/R
close S open S
t
0 ton toff

{ Ideal : ton = 0
Real : ton > 0 { Ideal : toff = 0
Real : toff > 0

Fig. 1-8: Dynamic properties of a switch

In fig. 1-9 we can also now determine the operating points A and B for a switch in a I - V graph.
This has been done for both the ideal and real switch of fig 1-7.
I I

I nom

V/ A
SR A

R R

Ileak B
B VS VS
0 V V=∞ 0 Vsw V Vnom
S S
(ideal switch) (real switch)
Fig. 1-9: Operating points in a V - I graph

5. COMMUTATION
Commutation is the process whereby the current through a switch goes through zero. If the supply
is AC then it can be natural or net commutation (line commutation) because:
1. The current through the switch goes to zero because of the zero crossover of the grid, or
2. The circuit is switched via another switch to a higher potential.
With a type 3 switch commutation can be “artificial” at any random time. This is referred to as
forced commutation but in fact all commutation is forced so to distinguish it the term artificial
commutation is preferred. It is also possible that the load characteristic is such that the switch is
forced into commutation, this is load commutation.
1.6 THE PHILOSOPHY OF POWER CONTROL

6. POWER CONVERTERS
In the industrial world electrical energy is available in two forms:
1. As alternating current (AC) via a distribution network
2. As direct current (DC) via a battery system or via an overhead cable or rail for traction systems.
In addition to the two distribution forms (DC and AC) of electrical energy we can also distinguish
two types of consumers:
1. Direct current consumers
2. Alternating current consumers
To regulate the power flow between current source (DC or AC) and consumer (DC or AC) four
types of power converters are used (fig. 1-10):
1. DC controller: An AC voltage from the grid is converted into a controllable DC voltage
2. AC controller: An AC voltage from the grid is converted into a variable AC voltage with the
same frequency
3. Chopper: A constant DC voltage is converted to another constant or variable DC voltage
4. Inverter: A DC voltage is converted into an AC voltage which may be controlled or not.

DC - CONTROLLER

LOAD
SOURCE

AC-
C
O
N
changing frequency)

T
POWER C
CYCLOCONVERTER

R
(conversion with

H
O
CONVERTERS
O
L P
L P
E E
R R

MAINS
INVERTER
SOURCE
LOAD

Fig 1-10: Power converters

DC and AC controllers make use of natural commutation since the supply is AC. Type 2 switches
are used. In certain circumstances a DC controller can work in reverse as an inverter.
Choppers and inverters make use of artificial commutation and use type 3 switches. A special
category is the frequency converter. We distinguish between single stage and double stage
converters. With a so called cycloconverter the frequency conversion takes place in one stage. In
the two stage frequency converter the AC supply is first rectified and the DC voltage is converted
back to AC via an inverter. The amplitude and frequency of the AC voltage may be varied.
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF POWER CONTROL 1.7
7. POWER FREQUENCY DOMAIN
Fig. 1.1 illustrates the state of the art in power switches. Currently we see that with the exception
of an SCR of 8.5 kV that thyristors are limited to 4 kV -  4 kA. This is a maximum of 16 MW per
switch. This is considered the mid power domain.
These days an SCR is also known as Phase Controlled Thyristor (PCT).
There are for example single IGBT’s of 1200V - 3600A, 1700 V - 2400 A and 3300V - 1500A.
In a half bridge using IGBT’s a typical rating would be 1700V -1000A. Exceptionally there exist
IGBT modules for 10.2 kV.
State of the art components use 150 and 200 mm Si wafers with a tickness of 70 µm.
One expect within 4 to 5 years 18” wafers. Infineon realised in 2013 the first Coolmos products on
their new 300 mm (= 12”) line.
Intensity kA

SCR

GTO IGCT

4 kA

IGBT -
Voltage
3 kA
module
kV
100 Hz

2 kA 1 kHz

10 kHz
MOS-
1 kA FET
100 kHz

1 MHz

10 MHz
Hz 2 kV 4 kV 6 kV 8 kV

Frequency
Fig 1-11: Properties of silicon power switches

Transport of electrical energy over long distances can be more economical using DC transmission. For example
when the distance is greater than 250 km then transmission of 400kV-1200MW is more economical using HVDC
(high voltage direct current). With submarine cables the distance is even shorter. In China and Brazil where large
hydro electric power stations are more than a 1000 km from the big cities HVDC is used. Example:
the Ultra High Voltage DC (UHVDC) of 800kV between Xiangjiala and Shanghai. With DC the losses are some
3% per 1000 km. On the other hand the investment costs are large at input and output of the transmission line.
Another application of HVDC is the connection between AC - grids of different frequencies. An example is the
Garabi back to back station which connects the 60 Hz grid of Brazil and the 50 Hz grid of Argentina.
1.8 THE PHILOSOPHY OF POWER CONTROL

In table 1-3 an overview is provided of a number of properties of type 3 switches. The indicated
maximum values of voltage and current will not be attainable by one switch simultaneously. We
find for example mosfets for 1000V - 6A or for 100V - 225A.

Table 1-3

GTO Transistors
Type - 3 switch
(IGCT) bipolar powermosfet IGBT
Maximum ratings
5000
Maximum blocking voltage (V) 1200 1200 3300
(10000)
4000
Maximum current (A) 500 225 3600
(2000)
Switch on time (µs) 5 2 0.1 0.2

Switch off time (µs) 25 (7) 25 0.5 1

Max.switching frequency (kHz) 5 50 1 MHz 200

Gate power large average very small very small

Si-surface area of the switch small large very large very large

8. EVALUATION
1.1 What is state of the art?
1.2 What type of power converters can be used between a DC source and DC consumer?
1.3 The switching frequency of a switch is 10 kHz and the duty cycle is 10%. How long is the
switch open during one work cycle?
1.4 When did industrial electronics begin?
1.5 What is the definition of power electronics?
1.6 What is a typical switching frequency for an IGBT? What do the letters IGBT stand for?
1.7 What is considered high current in power electronics?
1.8 Name three methods by which a power electronic switch can commutate?
1.9 In fig. 1-3 if T   =  50 µs en δ = 0.25, sketch I​  oven
​ ​= f (time)
1.10 Sketch the output voltage of the circuit shown in fig. 1- 6, if the switch is closed between
0 and 3 s and between 5.5 and 6.5 s.
1.11 Re-evaluate question 1- 9 with the following data
1) δ = 0.25 and t​​on​ = ​t​off ​= 1 µs ; 2) δ = 0.2 and t​​on​ = ​t​off ​= 12.5 µs
1.12 What do the following terms mean: AC, DC, GTO, SCR, bipolar, mosfet, IGCT?