c6 PDF

C6 – MAIN & AUXILIARY MACHINES
EVALUATION OF COMPETENCE
Function: Marine Engineering Practice at Operational Level
COMPETENCY 6
Operate Main and Auxiliary Machinery and Associated Control Systems.
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GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

TAR BOOK
(1) Theoretical knowledge of Construction and Operation of Main Machinery.
Different parts of Two Stroke Diesel Engine are:-
Air starting valve, fuel injector, and exhaust valve are mounted on the cylinder head. Piston,
piston rings, piston rod are under the cylinder liner. Cross head, connecting rod, bottom end
bearings and crank shaft are under the crankcase. Bed plate, A-frame and cylinder head are held
together by tie rod.
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Working principle of Two Stroke Engine:
There is a power stroke for every revolution of the crankshaft. The power stroke occurs at every
down stroke which means the two stroke engine to be twice as efficient. On large plants, the two
stroke is about 1.8:1 more powerful than a four stroke engine of similar weight.
Describing the action of the piston within the cylinder generally start with the piston in the
bottom dead center position (BDC), at the end of its travel downward before it‟s travel upwards.
With the piston, having covered the intake ports, travels upwards, compressing the trapped air
from its original volume to a fraction of it, generally anywhere from 17:1 to 23:1 (gas engines
are about 9:1) to about 42 bars (~600psi). The air‟s volume reduction crushes the air molecule
together and as a result they build up heat.
Slightly before top dead center (TDC), around 10 degrees, injection of atomized fuel begins, it
burns, ignited by the high temperature from to the air being compressed. Injection last about 30
degrees, this varies depending on load. The fuel continues to burn and expands which increases
the pressure and temperature within the cylinder. Around 15 degrees after TDC, combustion is
complete and maximum pressure is reached within the cylinder, this stage is commonly called
Pmax. Pmax is anywhere between 180 bars to 195 bars; this is why Diesel engine construction is
so robust; it is to withstand this pressure.
(2) Define :
a) Crosshead Type Diesel Engines:
In cross head type diesel engines the piston is connected to cross head through piston rod. The
reciprocating motion is transmitted to rotary motion by crosshead. The Two Stroke Crosshead
Engine has long been the favored main propulsive power unit for most types of merchant vessels.
In this type of two stroke engines, there is a crosshead which has shoes sliding over the cross
head guides.
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(b) Trunk Type Diesel Engines:
In trunk type diesel engines the piston is connected to connecting rod by gudgeon pin. The
reciprocating motion is converted to rotary motion by gudgeon pin. The name "Trunk Piston"
refers to the piston skirt or trunk. The purpose of the skirt or trunk in four-stroke cycle engines is
to act in a similar manner to a crosshead. It takes the thrust caused by connecting-rod angularity
and transmits it to the side of the cylinder liner, in the same way as the crosshead slipper
transmits the thrust to the crosshead guide. With such engines, which are termed trunk-piston
engines, the engine height is considerably reduced compared with that of a crosshead engine of
similar power and speed. The engine-manufacturing costs are also reduced. It means of course
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that there is no separation between the crankcase and the liner and piston. This has its
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disadvantages, especially when considering the choice of lubricating oils when burning high

sulfur residual fuels. These types of engines are much lighter and smaller than equivalent slow
speed engines but require gearing or some other means to reduce the drive speed for ships‟
propellers
c) Slow Speed Diesel Engines:

It is basically used for propulsion purpose. Its speed is below 150 rpm. This slow speed, around
150 rpm, has two benefits to an owner of ships. The first, probably the most important, allows
the engine to burn residual oil efficiently. Slow speed, also allows a direct coupling of the
propeller shaft to the crankshaft, eliminating the need for gearing. The most prominent builders
of large, slow speed, two stroke engine are Sulzer of Switzerland, and Burmeister & Wain
(B&W) of Denmark.
d) Medium Speed Diesel Engines:
It is basically used for power generation (electrical generators) purpose. Its speed lies between
150-1500 rpm.
e) High Speed Diesel Engines:
Its speed lies above 1500 rpm. High speed engines are the most common. Their high
revolutions are ideal for driving vehicles such as busses and yachts. All Diesel trucks and
vehicles on our roads use this class of Diesels, having an rpm over 1500.
(3) Define Scavenging process.
Also differentiate between (a) Loop Scavenging (b) Uniflow Scavenging

Scavenging is the process in a diesel engine, in which low pressure air is utilized to blow
out the waste gases of combustion i.e. scavenging, and refill the cylinder with fresh pressurized
air for the next compression stroke.
Air cooler is used to cool the scavenge air to about 420C. The cooler is designed with an air
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receiving chamber which incorporate a water mist catcher built of a number of smaller units,
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which separate the condensate water from the scavenge air during the passage of flow. The
separated water is collected in chamber incorporated in the air cooler housing unit and removed
by a drainage system.
Types of scavenging are:-
 Uniflow scavenging
 Loop scavenging
 Cross scavenging
Uniflow Scavenging:
With Uniflow scavenging the incoming air enters at the lower end of the cylinder and leaves at
the top. The outlet at the top of the cylinder is a large poppet valve. The process is shown in
Figure (c).
Loop Scavenging:
In loop scavenging the incoming air passes over the piston crown then rises towards the cylinder
head. The exhaust gases are forced before the air passing down and out of exhaust ports located
just above the inlet ports. The process is shown in Figure (b).
Cross Scavenging:
In cross scavenging the incoming air is directed upwards, pushing the exhaust gases before it.
The exhaust gases then travel down and out of the exhaust ports. Figure (a) illustrates the
process.
The construction of liner in engines with reverse flow scavenging is complicated as it has to
incorporate the scavenge and exhaust ports which due to constraints have to be located very
close to each other.
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Each of the systems has various advantages and disadvantages. Cross scavenging requires the
fitting of a piston skirt to prevent air or exhaust gas escape when the piston is at the top of the
stroke. Loop scavenge arrangements have low temperature air and high temperature exhaust gas
passing through adjacent ports, causing temperature differential problems for the liner material.
Uniflow is the most efficient scavenging
System but requires either an opposed piston arrangement or an exhaust valve in the cylinder
head. All three systems have the ports angled to swirl the incoming air and direct it in the
appropriate path.
(4) Explain reasons for Super Charging and indicate typical Supercharging pressures.
The power developed in diesel engine cylinder is limited by the capacity of air it
can breathe in. By super charging an air quantity, larger than the engine can naturally aspirate, is
admitted in the cylinder at a pressure above atmospheric. Though super charging implies high
pressure at intake that is the larger mass of air that is required to obtain more power within a
given dimension of cylinder. However slight gain in thermal efficiency may result because of
better combustion of fuel. Thus it is means of obtaining more power without increasing
correspondingly the weight of the engine .As a result super charging improves the power to
weight ratio of the engine.
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(5) Explain what Indicator diagrams are and how following can be read or calculated
from it:
(a) Peak pressure (b) Compression pressure (c) Indicated horsepower.
Instrument for obtaining Indicator Cards
The Draw Card diagram is used for measuring the compression pressure and maximum
cylinder pressure, and for evaluating the ignition / combustion characteristics of the injected fuel
oil. Any faulty conditions prevailing inside the combustion chamber is reflected on the draw
card. The various faults indicated are discussed below in the chapter.
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The Power Card is used for calculating the Mean Effective Pressure in the Cylinder by tracing
the area using an instrument called Planimeter and the value converted to pressure units and
used further for calculating IHP, BHP & Engine Performance and compare it to sea / shop trials
results.
The Compression Card is used for the pressure developed inside the combustion chamber by
compression of scavenge air. It can be drawn by using the indicator instrument after cutting off
fuel to the particular unit.
The Light Spring Diagram show the condition of the exhaust and scavenge ports. It only
measures the pressures inside the cylinder during the scavenging process.
Faults as shown on the indicator cards.
Faulty Instrument Diagrams:
1) For engines fitted with indicator drive: Vibrations in the cord, or drive, give a wavy
indicator diagram, but a smooth draw diagram.
2) For engines fitted with indicator drive: The drum hits the stop at one of the end points,
before the diagram is completed: The cord is too long or too short.
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3) The indicator piston works sluggishly in the cylinder, and moves in jerks: If only the
expansion curve is wrong (wavy), the cause may be gas pulsations in the combustion
chamber or indicator bore.
4) The Indicator Spring is too Weak. The piston strikes against the top of the indicator
cylinder. Change to a more rigid spring.
5) The Indicator Valve Leaks: Gives an untrue atmospheric line.

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 Fuel injection too late.

 Fuel pressure too low.
 Defective fuel valve(s).
 Defective fuel pumps suction valve or shock absorber.
 Exceptionally poor fuel (bad ignition properties)
 Delayed injection of fuel.
 Wrong VIT index.

 Early fuel injection.
 Blow past in the piston rings.

 Leaking exhaust valve.
 Piston crown burnt, or worn out.
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 Low scavenge pressure.

 Fouling of exhaust and/or air system.
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METHOD OF MAIN ENGINE POWER CALCULATION

Ref: MAN B&W Main Engine Instruction Manual ‘Operation and Data’
STEP 1: MIP
Calculate Mean Indicated Pressure ( pi ) bar

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A = Area of the indicated diagram by Planimetering in mm
pi (bar) = A L = Length of the indicator diagram in mm
L x Cs Cs = Spring Constant in mm / bar
STEP 2: MEP
Calculate Mean effective Pressure ( pe ) bar
pe ( bar ) = pi – k1 pi = mean indicated pressure in bar
k1 = mean friction loss in bar.( approx 1 bar )
STEP 3: IHP
Calculate Indicated Engine Power ( Pi )
Pi = k2 x n x pi k2 = Cylinder constant = 0.78 x D2 x S
D = Cylinder dia in m
S = Piston stroke in m
n = Engine RPM
pi = Mean indicated pressure in bar
STEP 4: BHP
Calculate effective engine power ( Pe )
Pe = k2 x n x pe k2 = Cylinder constant = 0.78 x D2 x S
n = Engine RPM
pe = Mean effective pressure in bar
SHP : Shaft Horse Power will be 1 % less than BHP

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Note : To calculate IHP in KW then k2 = Cylinder constant = 0.57 x D2 x S

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For fast calculation : ( Only approximate )
Take Load Indicator Value (Fuel Index) or Average Fuel pump racks x 0.97 = q
From performance curve on shop trial with fuel index (q) obtain power output in percentage = r
then, BHP = (r x Maxm Rated Output ) / 100.
ENGINE DISTANCE = REVOLUTIONS x PROP CONSTANT
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6) Describe the Fuel Injector and its Operation.
A typical fuel injector is shown in Figure; it can be seen to be two basic parts, the nozzle and the
nozzle holder or body. The high-pressure fuel enters and travels down a passage in the body and
then into a passage in the nozzle, ending finally in a chamber surrounding the needle valve. The
needle valve is held closed on a mitered seat by an intermediate spindle and a spring in the
injector body. The spring pressure, and hence the injector opening pressure, can be set by a
compression nut which acts on the spring. The nozzle and injector body are manufactured as a
matching pair and are accurately ground to give a good oil seal. The two are joined by a nozzle
nut. The needle valve will open when the fuel pressure acting on the needle valve tapered face
exerts a sufficient force to overcome the spring compression. The fuel then flows into a lower
chamber and is forced out through a series of tiny holes. The small holes are sized and arranged
to atomize, or break into tiny drops, all of the fuel oil, which will then readily burn. Once the
injector pump or timing valve cuts off the high pressure fuel supply the needle valve will shut
quickly under the spring compression force. All slow-speed two-stroke engines and many
medium-speed four stroke engines are now operated almost continuously on heavy fuel. A fuel
circulating system is therefore necessary and this is usually arranged within the fuel injector.
During injection the high pressure fuel will open the circulation valve for injection to take place.
When the engine is stopped the F.O. booster pump ensures fuel supply, which the re-circulation
valve directs around the injector body. Older engine designs may have fuel injectors which are
circulated with hot water. Some injectors have internal cooling passages in them extending into
the nozzle through which cooling water is circulated. This is to prevent overheating and burning
of the nozzle tip.
Injectors on modern 2 stroke crosshead engines do not have internal water cooling passages.
They are cooled by a combination of the intensive bore cooling in the cylinder head being close
to the valve pockets and by the fuel which is recirculated through the injector when the follower
is on the base of the cam or when the engine is stopped.
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In cooled nozzle there will be an additional passage provided for the inlet and outlet of the
cooling medium.
Fuel at a high pressure is used for achieving proper atomization of the fuel for better combustion.
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(7) State typical definitions for :-

a)Break thermal eficiency
b)Mechanical efficiency
c)Break specific fuel consumption/hrs
a) Brake thermal efficiency: - It is the ratio of energy in the brake power to the fuel
energy.
b) Mechanical efficiency: - It is the ratio of the brake power to the indicated power.
c) Specific fuel consumption: - It is the ratio of the fuel consumed by the engine in
generating 1KW of brake power per hour. It is expressed in gm/KW hour. Typical value of
SFOC is 130 gm/BHP hrs.
(8) Indicate the heat balance diagrams of the diesel engines.

A diesel engine working on the basis of an air standard cycle is inherently incapable of utilizing
all the heat that is liberated in the cylinder engine. Heat balance chart is a useful method of
computing thermodynamic losses in the engine.
1. Maximum (heat) power utilized as engine power.
2. Heat transferred to jacket cooling water, utilized for producing fresh water from sea water
using Fresh Water Generator.
3. This heat from the Main Engine exhaust is utilized to run the Turbo charger.
4. Heat from the Turbo Charger exhaust is utilized to generate steam on Composite Boiler /
Exhaust Gas Boiler.
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(9) Sketch the section through:
a) Piston showing Cooling Arrangement
b) Water Cooled Piston
c) Engine Bed Plate showing Girders, Main bearings, Tie Bolt Housing
(a) Piston showing Cooling arrangement: Oil Cooled Piston
(b)Water Cooled Piston:
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c) Engine Bed Plate showing Girders, Main Bearings, Tie Bolt housing:
(10) List the normal Operating Pressures and Temperatures in a Diesel Engine for:
a) Exhaust gas b) Inlet air

c) Circulating Water Inlet & Outlet d) Lubricating oil e) Fuel Oil
(a) Exhaust gas temperature = 350oc to 400oc
(b) Inlet air pressure = 1.8 to 2 bar
(c) Circulating water (i) Inlet temperature = 60-70oc
(ii) Outlet temperature = 80-90oc
Circulating water pressure = 2.5 bar
(d) Lubricating oil pressure = 2.5 bar for two stroke

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(e) Fuel oil pressure = Above 5 bar

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(11) Draw line diagram of following systems:
(a) Fuel Oil Transfer & Service:
CHECK RETURN TO FO / DO
SERV TK
(b) Lube Oil for Main Engine:
FILTERS
S
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(c) Piston Cooling: Oil Cooled Piston
(d) Main Engine Jacket Cooling Water System:
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(e) Main Engine Starting Air:
6 BAR CONTROL AIR

FROM CONTROL AIR
DRIER
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(12) Sketch an Air reservoir with its fitting and Safety devices and state typical air
pressures.
Fittings required on air reservoir are:
 Safety valve (30 bar)
 Pressure gauge connection (30bar)
 Filling valve (30 bar)
 Distribution valves to ME & AE starting
 Pneumatic Control System ,Air to ship‟s whistle & Gen Services (6 ~ 8 bar)
 Fusible plug
 Drain valve
Air pressure of main and emergency air reservoir to be maintained at 30 bar
(13) Explain the purpose of the following:

a) Sheathing on High Pressure Fuel Line
b) Lagging on Hot surfaces
c) Guards over moving machinery.
(a) Sheathing in high pressure fuel line: - It is provided on the high pressure fuel line so as to
avoid fuel to fall on the hot surface which ultimately will lead to fire, also to avoid personal
injury. It is a requirement as per SOLAS. Anti splash tapes are also used on fuel oil pipeline
unions and flanges.
(b) Lagging on Hot surface: - It is the insulation provided on the hot surface to reduce heat
transfer and to avoid personal injury. Temperature sensing Laser Guns are available on board as
per SOLAS requirement.
(c) Guards over moving machinery: - the guards are provided on the moving parts like pump
motor couplings - to avoid accidents and to provide safety in operation.
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(14) Explain the purpose of Turning Gear and Interlocks.

The purpose of a turning gear is:
1. Mainly used during maintenance work; e.g. moving piston to different position for
removal, taking the web deflection and bearing clearance etc.
2. Before starting the engine, the crankshaft is rotated using the turning gear for lubricating
the rotating parts, and we also check their freeness.
The purpose of Starting Air Interlock:
It prevents the admission of starting air when turning gear is engaged and prevents the engine
from being started accidentally.
(15) Explain what is an Oil Mist, when does it become dangerous and working and
maintenance of the Oil Mist Detector?
Oil in the crank case vaporizes when it comes in contact with any hot spot. This vapourized oil
being light in weight rises to cooler areas in the crank case and condense forming oil mist. It
becomes dangerous when the density of oil mist increases above a certain limit. Hot spots in the
crank case are generated on the sliding surfaces due improper lubrication. Possible causes are:
 Improper bearing clearance.
 Insufficient lubricating oil pressure
 Clogged lubricating oil passages.
 Crank shaft misalignment.
Two basic methods of measuring the oil mist density. The first is the Comparator type where a
sample taken from each crank chamber is compared in turn with the combined mist from the
remaining chambers.
The second method, called the Level type, involves comparing a sample from each crank
chamber in turn with clear air. The first method is particularly applicable to crosshead type two
stroke engines where there is a low background of oil mist, a sub-divided crankcase and
relatively slow speeds. The second is used for engines where there is a high background of oil
mist and little or no sub-division of the crankcase, i.e. high and medium speed trunk piston
engines.
Maintenance carried out on Oil Mist Detector:-
1. Cleaning of reference tube.

2. Cleaning of rotary valve.
3. Calibration of oil mist detector.
(16) State approximate exhaust gas temperatures at

(a) Discharge from cylinder
(b) At inlet to and outlet from exhaust gas turbine.
(a) Discharge from cylinder : 350oc

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(b) Inlet to exhaust gas turbine : 400oc

: 340oc
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Outlet from exhaust gas turbine

(17) Define Turbocharger “Surging” and action to be taken when it occurs.

Surging (variously known as coughing, barking etc.) is a vibration of audible level emanating
from the compressor end of the rotating element. It is caused by the back flow of air from the
scavenge spaces into the compressor casing because of an increase of air pressure in the
scavenge manifold. The reasons for an increase in scavenge manifold pressure are:
 Fouled nozzle ring.
 Sudden reduction of load on the engine.
 Improper firing of a cylinder.
 Scavenge fire.
 Dirty air suction filter.
The turbocharger should be matched to the engine's air consumption rate and pressure across the
whole operating range.
Action to be taken when surging takes place:

 Slow down the engine.
 To reduce surging as far as possible the development of scale or deposits of any type,
'water washing' of the blades is frequently adopted.
 Clean the suction filter of turbo charger.
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(18) Define “Scavenge Fire” and action to be taken when it occurs.

A scavenge fire may be caused by the ignition of unburned oil and carbon which has been
blown from the engine cylinder into the scavenge spaces. This may include unburned fuel or
cylinder lubricating oil and may be due to incorrect combustion caused by a defective injector,
faulty fuel pump timing, incorrect fuel condition, lack of scavenge air, partially chocked exhaust,
low compression, after burning, by operating the engine at overload conditions, or due to
defective piston rings, badly worn cylinder liner, or by wrongly timed or excessive cylinder
lubrication.
The oil will build up in scavenge spaces where it will become carbonized by further
heating and will then reach a condition in which it can burn in the presence of air. It may be
ignited by hot gases and burning particles from blow fast of piston rings.
Indication of scavenge fire:

 loss in power developed and irregular running of engine,
 high exhaust temperatures of corresponding units,
 high local temperature in scavenge trunk,
 surging of turbocharger,
 sparks and/or smoke emitted from scavenge drains,
 smoky exhaust and the discharge of soot or carbon particles,
 paint peeling off from scavenge manifold and
 external temperature of manifold increases
Action to be taken:
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As per Instructions given in competency C4 (SWK)

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(19) Construction and Operation of Turbocharger.

The turbocharger is driven by the exhaust gas leaving the cylinders of the diesel engine. The gas
has sufficient pressure and heat when released from the cylinder at exhaust opening, to drive the
turbocharger. It is directed on to turbine blades by nozzles which are built into a nozzle ring. The
nozzle ring is fixed to the exhaust casing. The turbine and the compressor are mounted on the
same shaft. The compressor blades operate inside a volute casing. The ends of the shaft are
supported by ball bearings. The lubrication is achieved by keeping the bearings submerged in oil.
Labyrinth seals are provided to prevent the leakage of exhaust gases into the compressor casing.
The casing has a passage for supply of sealing air from the compressor casing to the seals, to act
as additional sealing.
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(20) Construction and Operation of Governor.
The speed control on a marine diesel engine is achieved with the help of a governor. The main
role of the governor is not to increase or decrease the speed which can be done via fuel control
system (similar to an accelerator on your car) but once the speed of the engine has been set, the
job of the governor is to maintain that speed despite the variations in load. In other words the
governor controls the speed variation and keeps the speed within restrained limits despite these
variations.
The variations could arise from several factors such as say rough weather. A ship rolling and
pitching in heavy weather may temporarily come in such position that its propeller is literally out
of water and without the governor the speed of the engine could shoot up to such an extent that it
could damage the engine itself.
Governors are also fitted in auxiliary diesel engines on the ship used for power generation, and
their function remains the same in this situation as well. The power delivered by the alternator
needs to be constant despite load variations and this depends to a great degree on the speed at
which the prime mover of the generator diesel engine is rotating since the alternator is getting its
movement from that engine only. Hence the role of the governor is equally important in this case
as well.
Function of governor: To control the engine speed within the closed limits, from no load to full
rated speed.
Isochronous governors: It is a governor which maintains a “constant speed”, irrespective of

load and power changes. e.g.:- Auxiliary Engines.
Variable speed governors: When there is a facility to adjust the set speed on the governor
according to the load, then the governor is a variable speed governor. e.g.:- Main Engine
governor.
Governors may be classified into
1) Mechanical Governors
2) Relay Governors
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Mechanical Governors:
The figure explains the working of an elementary governor known as direct action governor
popularly used on 4-stroke constant speed engines.
HYD OIL SUMP
It is a purely mechanical device working on the principle of centrifugal force acting on rotating
bodies.
The governor spindle is rotated through a gear mechanism via the engine shaft whose speed
needs to be governed. There are flyweights which rotate along with the governor spindle and
they are thrown outwards , and the degree of their outward motion is in proportion to the speed
at which the shaft and hence the spindle is rotating. A bio directional gear pump with hydraulic
oil supply from a built in sump maintains regulated oil pressure.
The spring fitted on the spindle acts to return the flyweights to their original position and hence
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counters the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights.

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The net results of all this action is that the spindle moves vertically up or down depending on the
position of the flyweights and this motion is transmitted to the appropriate mechanism which
results in actual speed change.
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Drawbacks of Mechanical Governors
 Increased wear
 Friction
 Mechanical damage
 Bearing failure
Maintenance:
Clean, correctly graded and uncontaminated hydraulic oil

All mechanical linkages to be lubricated regularly
Governor to be serviced by authorized personnel as per PMS
All associated trips to be tried out and established as per PMS
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(21) Describe how Engine Speed is varied and how Over Speed is prevented.
When used for alternating current power generation, a diesel engine is normally fitted with a
hydraulic governor. This incorporates a centrifugal speed sensing device (spring loaded
flyweights) controlling a suitably damped oil operated servo-cylinder through a pilot valve. The
governor has adjustable speed droop and load limit controls. A split field, reversible electric
motor-operated speeder gear to facilitate remote alteration of engine speed setting from the
switchboard (frequency modulation) is incorporated. This alters the spring pressure usually
through a screwed rod.
Over Speed trip:

DIESEL ENGINE SPEED, FUEL CONTROLS, AND OVERSPEED PROTECTION
Simplified Operation of the Governor
The governor controls the fuel rack position through a combined action of the hydraulic piston
and a set of mechanical flyweights, which are driven by the shaft connected to the engine.
Figure provides an illustration of a functional diagram of a mechanical-hydraulic governor.
The position of the flyweights is determined by the speed of the engine.
As the engine speeds up or down, the weights move in or out. The movement of the
flyweights, due to a change in engine speed, moves a small piston called the pilot valve in the
governor's hydraulic system. This motion adjusts flow of hydraulic fluid to a large
hydraulic piston (servo-motor piston or actuator). The large hydraulic piston is linked to the
fuel rack and its motion resets the fuel rack for increased or decreased fuel demand.
As shown in the sketch when the engine rpm exceeds 10% above rated rpm the pilot valve
opens and oil trapped under the servo piston bleeds off resulting in the spring loaded buffer
piston pulling the common fuel rack linkage to zero.
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Role in Engine Safety:
Apart from speed control and over speed protection which can be even achieved with a simple
direct action control, the other advantage of using this type of arrangement is to safeguard engine
damage against loss of lubricating oil pressure.
We know that the lubricating oil and cooling water is very necessary for a diesel engine.Hence
the engine should be safeguarded as follows –
 Firstly the engine should not start in the absence of proper lubricating oil pressure
build up.
 Secondly the engine should automatically shut down if the lubricating oil pressure
drops below a certain value.
 Thirdly in the event of jacket cooling water temperature and pressure reaching
critical limit the engine should shut down.
As per the illustrated figure governors are incorporated with

an externally mounted shut off solenoid electrically
connected to the lube oil pressure and cooling water system
sensors.
In normal operating condition the solenoid is de-energized.
However in critical conditions power supply from the
corresponding sensor ensures the shut off solenoid is
energized whereby the pilot valve in the hydraulic system
on the governor operates with help of a plunger connected
to the shut off solenoid resulting in the trapped oil pressure
in the servo piston / actuator bleeding off and fuel to the
engine is thus cut off.
In case of the main engine an independent pneumatic safety system is also provided which
actuates the puncture valve on the fuel pumps (ref pg 36) ensuring no delivery of fuel to the
injector and is connected to the following:
 RPM pick up sensor for over speed
 Camshaft low LO pressure switch
 LO to bearings & piston low pressure switch
 Exhaust valve air spring low pressure switch
 Emergency stop
The safety cut out cannot be reset till the fault in the engine in rectified.
*Fuel to individual units on the main engine can be cut off if required (ref pg 37)
*For restarting after normal stop the hydraulic system in the governor ensures that the fuel
rack position is at the ‘minimum required position’ with assistance from a booster unit.
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(22) Write short notes on Stuffing Box.

Because the crankcase is separated from the cylinder, and scavenges space by the diaphragm
plate on a two stroke crosshead engine, provision must be made for the piston rod to pass
through the plate without oil from the crankcase being carried upwards, or used cylinder oil
contaminated from products of combustion being carried downwards. It is also highly
undesirable to allow the pressurized air in the scavenge space to leak into the crankcase.
The Piston rod passes through a stuffing box which is bolted into the diaphragm plate. The
stuffing box casing which can be split vertically, as shown in the photo, contains a series of rings
which are each made up of three or four segments. On the outside of each set of segments is a
garter spring which provides the tension to hold the ring segments against the piston rod. There
is a clearance between each segment to allow for wear. The rings are either bronze or can
comprise of replaceable cast iron lamella fitted into a steel backing ring.
As the Piston rod passes up through the stuffing box, the oil from the crankcase is scraped off by
the lower sets of rings and is returned via drillings to the crankcase. Any oil that passes this
primary set is scraped off by another set of rings, and is led away through a drain to a tell tale
open ended pipe and drains to a recycling tank.
As the piston passes down through the stuffing box, the top set of scraper rings will scrape off
the contaminated oil into the bottom of the scavenge space, where it is drained away via the
scavenge drains into the dirty stuffing box oil drain tank (not to be purified and mixed with
sump oil ).
34
Page

(23) Explain the working of (i) Valve type fuel injection pump and
(ii) Helix type
(i) Valve type fuel injection pump:
As the roller on the roller guide roll from the cam head circle to the base circle, the receding
plunger draws fuel into the barrel via suction valve. The suction valve is mechanically forced to
the open position by the control lever, push rod, and the regulating tappet during the lower
stroke, it can be lifted additionally by the suction pressure.
Operation of spill and suction valves
When the plunger is pushed upward by the fuel cam the suction valve shuts after a
certain plunger stroke, depending on the position of the eccentric shaft, till this position no fuel is
supplied to the fuel injection valve. This part of stroke is called idle stroke. The timing when the
suction valve shuts is called start of delivery. After the suction valve shuts, the fuel is delivered
under high pressure by the plunger, which is still moving upward, through the injection valve
from where it is injected into the combustion chamber. The stroke through which the plunger
35
travels during the injection period is called delivery stroke.

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Depending upon the position of the eccentric shaft, the spill valve is opened by the control
lever. The remaining fuel in the plunger guide is pressed by the plunger through the spill valve
back into the fuel system.
(ii) Helix type fuel pump:
The plunger has a helix machined into it which also forms a vertical groove and an annular
groove at the base of the helix. The plunger reciprocates in a barrel, located in the pump body
which has spill ports, connected to the suction side of the pump, drilled so that they are above the
top of the plunger when the cam is on the base circle. The plunger is keyed to a sleeve which has
a gearwheel (pinion) machined into it. The pinion meshes with a rack which can rotate the
plunger relative to the barrel. The rack is connected to the engine governor.
As the plunger moves upwards in the barrel, injection will commence once the plunger has
closed off the spill ports and the pressure builds up. As soon as the helix passes the spill ports
the pressure above the plunger will immediately drop, even though the plunger is still moving
upwards. It should therefore be evident that the amount of fuel injected into the cylinder is
dependent on the position of the helix relative to the spill port. When the vertical groove is lined
up with the spill port, then no injection will take place and the engine will stop.
On the scroll or helical fuel pump, although the end of injection can be varied, the start of
injection (i.e. when the top of the plunger covers the spill ports) is fixed. Fuels of different
qualities may require advancing or retarding the injection timing, in addition to which if the
injection timing is advanced when the engine is running at loads below the maximum
continuous rating, then a saving in fuel can be achieved.
This method of varying the injection timing (known as Variable Injection Timing) can be
achieved. The bottom of the barrel has a coarse screw thread cut into it (as shown in fig). This
36
is located in a threaded sleeve which is turned by a rack and pinion. The barrel is free to move
up and down in the pump casing but cannot rotate. This means that as the threaded sleeve is
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rotated by the VIT rack the position of the spill ports relative to the barrel is changed, thus
altering the start of injection.
Similarly the injection timing in a valve controlled pump is varied by adjusting the timing
closing of the suction valve. The timing is controlled by means of an eccentric shaft.
X-SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A FUEL PUMP & SUCTION VALVE ASSEMBLY (MAN B&W)
PUNCTURE
VALVE
VIT
RACK
FUEL
RACK SUCTION VALVE
ASSEMBLY
37
Page

INDIVIDUAL UNIT FUEL PUMP CUT OFF DEVICE
38
Page

39
Page

(24) Explain the operation of Air Starting Valve
The valve is mounted on the cylinder head. It is opened by compressed air from the starting air
distributor.
The valve shown is from a slow speed MAN-B&W two stroke engine but a lot of modern
engines have valves working on similar principles and design.
Materials
The body of the valve could be of mild steel, the spindle of high tensile or stainless steel, and
the valve and seat could have the contact faces stellited or hardened.
Main starting air at about 25~30 bar from the manifold enters chamber above the valve via the
circumferential ports in the valve body mounted on the cylinder head.
The air pressure will not open the valve because a spring is holding the valve shut in shut
position and the area of the balance piston is the same as that of the valve lid so the valve is
pneumatically balanced.
When the valve is required to open, air at 6 bar from the distributor enters the top of the
valve body and acts on the piston. This force overcomes the spring force holding the valve in
shut position and the valve opens allowing 30 bar main starting air into the cylinder. When the
air signal from the air start distributor is vented, the spring closes the valve.
40
When the start sequence is finished the main air start pressure is vented through holes in the
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main start air manifold.

MANOEVRING DIAGRAM FOR A MAN B&W SMC SERIES MAIN ENGINE

PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
ILLUSTRATION AS PER MAN B&W INSTRUCTION MANUAL – CHAPTER 703
41
Page

(25) Explain boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication.
Boundary Lubrication
Boundary lubrication in marine diesel engine bearings occurs during start up and stopping,
relatively slow speeds, high contact pressures, and with less than perfectly smooth surfaces.
As running conditions become more severe such as with rough surfaces, and high contact
pressures, wear becomes a severe problem to the system.
With mineral oil, it is possible to create a lubricant that forms a surface film over the
surfaces, strongly adhering to the surface. These films prevent metal to metal contact.
Boundary lubricating conditions occur when the lubricant film is insufficient to prevent
surface contact. This results in bearing wear and a relatively high friction value.
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
Fluid film or hydrodynamic lubrication is the term given when a shaft rotating in a bearing is
supported by a layer or wedge of oil so that the shaft is not in contact with the bearing material.
The principle which allows large loads to be supported by this film of oil is termed as
Hydrodynamic lubrication. Before the rotation commences the shaft rests on the bearing
surface. When the rotation commences the shaft moves up the bore until an equilibrium
condition is reached when the shaft is supported on a wedge of lubricant. The moving surfaces
are then held apart by the pressure generated within the fluid film. Journal bearings are
designed such that at normal operating conditions the continuously generated fluid pressure
supports the load with no contact between the bearing surfaces. This operating condition is
known as thick film lubrication and results in a very low operating friction and extremely low
bearing load.
The rotating shaft drags a wedge of oil beneath it that develops a pressure great enough to
support the shaft and eliminate contact friction between the shaft and bearing
42
Viscosity of the lubricant is an important feature. The higher the viscosity, the higher the
friction between oil and shaft but the thicker the hydrodynamic film. However friction generates
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heat, which will reduce the viscosity, the thickness of the film and may result in metal to metal

contact. Using oil with a low initial viscosity will also result in a reduced oil film thickness. The
distance between the two surfaces decreases with higher loads on the bearing, less viscous
fluids, and lower speeds. Hydrodynamic lubrication is an excellent method of lubrication since
it is possible to achieve coefficients of friction as low as 0.001 (=0.001), and there is no wear
between the moving parts. However as the lubricant is heated by the frictional force and
viscosity is temperature dependent, additives to decrease the viscosity's temperature dependence
are used.
(27) Discuss Cylinder Lubrication used in Main Propulsion Engines.
During the normal operation of the engine, due to continuous rubbing of the piston rings on the
liner causes a very high frictional force is created. This friction generates high amount of heat
and cause severe damage to the rings and the liner. The wear rate of the liner and the piston rings
becomes very high. To overcome this, cylinder lubricating oil is injected on the liner, which acts
as a lubricant between the piston rings and the liner. Further, residual fuel contains sulfur, whose
acidic properties cause corrosion on the liner surface. The alkaline cylinder lube oil neutralizes
the sulfur and prevents corrosion.
Cylinder lubrication should be injected in carefully metered amounts at the precise timing. The
injection points should be spaced around the periphery in such a way as to ensure adequate
coverage when the piston passes the feed points. The best timing for injection is suggested as
being between the first and second rings. The difficulties in achieving this are great, but injecting
at TDC and to a lesser extent BDC assists
Lubrication is of the total loss system i.e. the oil is expected to be completely combusted without
residue. The oil is injected through quills which pass through the liner wall.
Cylinder Lube Oil Properties
The type of cylinder lube oil required will depend upon the cylinder conditions and the engine
design e.g. crosshead or trunk piston and will vary in degree depending upon the fuel and
operating conditions.
Desirable properties of a cylinder lubricating oil are as follows;
1. the oil should be stable at high temperatures and should form a strong film
2. the oil must provide an effective seal between the rings and liner
3. only a soft deposit must be formed when the oil burns
4. alkalinity level (total base number or TBN) must match the acidity of the oil being
burnt
5. detergent and dispersant properties are required in order to hold deposits in
suspension and thus keep surfaces clean
43
Page

Consequences of Under and Over Lubricating:
Over lubrication will lead to:
 Hard deposit build on the piston, exhaust valves and liner. This can lead to sticking of
piston rings, causing blow past and loss of performance.
 Build up of oil in the under piston spaces leading to scavenge fires.
 Fouling and loss in performance of Turbochargers, Exhaust gas boilers.
Under lubrication will lead to:
 metal to metal contact between liners causing micro seizure or scuffing.

 excessive liner and piston ring wear.
 incomplete neutralization of sulfur present in the fuel leading to localized corrosion
called clover-leafing.
Cylinder Lubricating Position with respect to the Liner

44
Page

MECHANICAL CYLINDER OIL LUBRICATOR
1. PUMP MAIN DRIVE SHAFT
2. GEAR SHAFT (CAMS-NEW DESIGN )
3. OUTLET PIPE (UPPER & LOWER)
4. CONTROL PLUNGER
5. MAIN PLUNGER
6. PUMP ELEMENT
7. TWISTED DISC - CONTROL PLUNGER
8. TWISTED DISC – MAIN PLUNGER
9. ADJUSTMENT SCREW
10. INLET PIPE
The gear shaft is rotated through the pump shaft using rack and pinion gear arrangement. This
gear shaft has got two twisted discs or plates which move through appropriate
Read more: grooves in two
plungers so that when the gear shaft moves in a rotary fashion, the discshttp://www.brighthub.co
make the two plungers
move in to and fro motion depending on the disc geometry. The suction or inlet pipe draws
m/engineering/marine/a
lubricating oil from a reservoir which is taken up into the pump chamber when the control
rticles/14993.aspx#ixzz
plunger connects the same to the inlet pipe. The main plunger pumps the oil into the two outlet
1LDZS07Kx
pipe one at a time. The arrangement is such for every to and fro motion of the control plunger,
the main plunger does this motion twice.
The fine adjustment is achieved by screwing in the adjusting screw and the stroke of each pump
may be accurately metered. Additionally push pins are provided to give a stroke enabling each
p/p to be tested manually. The eccentric stroke adjuster acts as a coarse adjustment for all the
pumps in the block. Additionally it may be rotated to operate all the pumps, as is the case when
the engine is pre-lubricated before starting. Correct operation of the injection pumps whilst the
engine is running can be carried out by observing the movement of the steel ball in the oil level
sight glass provided for each pump.
Maintenance of these lubricators involves
 Cleaning of all line filters

 Checking the main shaft coupling bolts and greasing them periodically
 Eliminate leakages
 Overhaul of complete assembly as per PMS
These lubricators are incorporated with the following additional features:

45
 Level indicator cum float switch in the main pump block sight glass which will also
trigger a main engine slow down in case oil level is low.
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 Flow sensor to detect non flow of CLO triggering an alarm and main engine slowdown.
 Electrical heating element to maintain CLO viscosity

 Filter to each CLO block to eliminate impurities from the day tank choking the pump.
ELECTRONIC CYLINDER LUBRICATING UNIT
Electronic Cylinder Lubrication

Exact injection timing of cylinder lube oil is essential for efficiency. A move to electronics for
the control of this has been made by some large slow speed engine manufacturers.
The system is based on an injector which injects a specific volume of oil into each cylinder on
each (though more normally alternate) revolution of the engine. Oil is supplied to the injector via
a pump or pumps. A computer, which is synchronised to the engine at TDC each revolution,
finitely controls the timing. Generally most efficient period for lubrication is taken at the point
when the top rings are adjacent to the injection points.
The injection period is governed by the opening of a return or 'dump' solenoid which relieves
46
system pressure.
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Quantity can be adjusted by manually limiting the stroke of the main lubricator piston, by
altering the injection period or by the use of multiple mini-injections per revolution.
The high degree of accuracy with this system allows for lower oil consumption rates.
Shown is the injector unit fitted to modern camshaft less slow speed engines. The motive force is
via a dedicated or common hydraulic system. The hydraulic piston acts on multiple plungers one
for each quill. At the dedicated time the electric solenoid valve energises and allows hydraulic oil
to act on the piston commencing oil injection. One or two pumps per unit may be fitted
dependent on cylinder diameter and oil flow requirements.
Precise control of the timing of injection allows oil to be delivered into the ring pack, something
which has proved impossible with mechanical means. This has reduced oil consumption by as
much as 50%
Pre- lubrication for starting may be built into the bridge remote control system or carried out
manually
(26) Explain the Electronic Fuel Injection System & Camshaft Less Main Engine
The traditional camshaft has the considerable limitation of fixed timing given mechanically by
the cams resulting in greater power loss due to friction and inertia. Instead of the usual camshaft
and its gear drive, fuel injection pumps, exhaust valve actuator pumps, reversing servomotors,
and all their related mechanical control gear, are equipped with a common rail system for fuel
injection and exhaust valve actuation, and full electronic control of engine functions.
The system consists of a common rail for the fuel oil, lube oil for activation of exhaust valve and
for the 30 bar starting air. The individual valves are operated by the control units, which get the
input signals from the main control system. The main control system senses the timing from the
sensors fitted on the flywheel. The fuel pump is replaced by the fuel injection control unit, and
47
the exhaust valve actuator is replaced by the exhaust valve actuating unit. Both Sulzer and B&W,
the major manufacturers of main propulsion engines have developed camshaft less engines and
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call them RT Flex and ME Intelligent engine respectively.

The two major manufacturers of two stroke crosshead engines have both introduced a
camshaft-less engine. Sulzer call theirs the RT Flex engine, and MAN B&W call theirs the
ME intelligent engine. Both engines use electrical and engine driven axial piston pumps to
pressurize servo oil rails to 200 bar which are then used for fuel injection and exhaust valve
operation. In addition MAN B&W use the servo oil to drive the cylinder lubricator units
(Alpha system)
Although they both work without a camshaft and use computers to control, fuel injection,
exhaust valve operation and air starting, the method of fuel injection is different.
Sulzer use a pressurized

fuel rail using a set of jerk
type pumps driven by a
three lobe cam geared to
the crankshaft. The pumps
are variable delivery,
based on the ZA40 fuel
pump, controlled by an
electrically driven fuel
pump shaft linked to the
engine computer.
The engine computer

system known as the
Wartsila Engine Control
System (WECS) controls
the delivery from the
common rail to the
individual cylinders via
the volumetric injection
control system which uses
finely filtered engine LO
pressurized by electric
pumps to 200 bar.
48 Page

When the Rail Valves are energized for

injection by the Valve Driver Module, oil
from the Control Rail opens the Injection
Control Valves. The fuel injectors are
pressurized and fuel oil pressure behind
the Fuel Quantity Piston maintains this
pressure at the injectors. As the Piston
moves to the left a feedback signal is sent
to the Cylinder Control Module.
At low engine load the control system

cuts out one of the three injection valves
per cylinder.
At very low load two of the three

injection valves are cut out. This is used
to avoid visible smoke emission and to
reduce fuel consumption. It is possible to
reduce engine load to 10% with engine
revolutions as low as 7RPM.
Unlike the Sulzer RT Flex engine the MAN

B&W ME engine does not operate the fuel
injection on a common rail system.
Instead a solenoid operated proportioning

valve (the FIVA valve - Fuel Injection Valve
Activation) allows the pressurized servo oil
under a hydraulic piston. This then moves the
fuel pump piston upwards, raising the fuel
pressure and opening the injection valves.
A nitrogen filled accumulator maintains the

hydraulic servo oil pressure during the
operation of the pump.
49Page

To be able to time the fuel injection the Control Systems must know the crank angle of the
individual units. To do this two crank angle sensors are fitted at the free end of the engine.
These sensors are accurate to 0.1°. Cylinder pressures and powers are continually monitored by
using strain gauges built into the cylinder head, and the computer automatically compensates
for twist in the crankshaft when relating crankshaft position to cylinder pressure. the systems
give complete flexibility over start and end of injection and take into account fuel quality, dead
time (the time between injection start command being given and actual injection), and Variable
Injection Timing (VIT).
The exhaust valve actuator replaces the cam operated

exhaust valve hydraulic pump on both make of camshaft
less engines. Both working on a similar principle, servo oil
at 200 bar is used to operate a piston which operates the
exhaust valve "hydraulic push rod" The oil for operating the
"hydraulic push rod" comes from the main engine LO
supply via a non return valve.
50
Page

Theoretical Knowledge of Construction and Operation of Marine Auxiliaries
(1) Air Compressors:
A single stage compressor used to provide air at the high pressures required for diesel engine
starting, will generate compression temperatures of a level similar to those in a diesel. Such heat
would be sufficient to ignite vaporized oil in the same way as in a compression-ignition engine.
The heat produced in a single stage of compression would also be wasteful of energy.
This heat of compression adds energy and produces a resultant rise in pressure apart from
that pressure rise expected from the action of the piston. However, when the air cools the
pressure rise due to the heat generated is lost. Only the pressure from compression remains. The
extra pressure due to heat is of no use and actually demands greater power for the upward
movement of the piston through the compression stroke.
This additional heat can be removed by providing sufficient cooling for the compressor.
But it is impossible to achieve. To eliminate this difficulty, multi stage compressors with inter
coolers fitted between the stages is widely used.
The fitting of an intercooler removes the heat added during the process and helps
maintain the process similar to an adiabatic process.
51
Page

Compressor Suction and Delivery Valves:
Valves- Air compressor use plate type valves which are designed to cover and uncover the parts
in the valve seat, thus controlling flow of air into and out from the compressor. These are
automatic, requiring small pressure differential to operate. For intake of air suction valve is used
and for outtake of air delivery valve is used.
52
Page

Bursting Disc:
These are relatively tamper proof provided that the correct materials and replacement caps
are used. They do vent the manifold completely and, unlike the above relief valve, which resets
once the pressure has dropped, require some form of blanking off if the engine is to be started
again. For this reason, it is usual for several caps to be fitted to the engine (one per unit), unlike
the relief valve where one or two valves are the norm.
Bursting disc comprise of thin metal diaphragms designed to burst at a pressure equal to the
maximum working pressure.
Bursting discs are fitted to the water side of coolers so that in the event of a compressed air
carrying tube bursting the sudden rise in pressure will not fracture the cooler casings. In the
event of the failure of bursting disc a thicker one must not be used for replacement.
53
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Bumping Clearance
This is the term given to the clearance between the piston and the cylinder cover, at the top end
of the stroke. This is necessary to prevent mechanical contact between the moving piston and the
valves and gear. It can be very easily checked, by inserting lead gauge wire of known thickness,
above the piston top. The thickness of the lead wire measured should be around 1% of the
cylinder bore. If bumping clearance is more than the volumetric efficiency decreases. The
volume of space above decides the compression ratio and hence the final pressure.
Bumping clearance changes due to
1) bearing wear down

2) gasket thickness
3) bump clearance adjustment is done by shim packs between connecting
rod and bottom end bearing.
54
Page

(2) Oil Purifier:
Heavy fuel oil, diesel oil and lubricating oil, each of these oils has their separate systems and
need to be cleaned before they are used for various purposes. For example lube oil is used for
cylinder lubrication, while diesel oil is used for diesel marine engines. Centrifuge oil cleaning is
the best option available on ships to clean large quantities of oil in an economical manner.
Why Purification?
Here we have a simple vessel with two pipes which act as entry and exit points to oil which is
being fed at slow speed in a continuous fashion. Just notice that the heights of these two points
are same. So in this process as the oil takes some time to flow to entry to exit point, the force of
gravity separates the major components of Impure Oil = pure oil + water + solid impurities.
Of course this process would be very slow and it would require lots of time to clean even
relatively small quantities of oil.
Note: This principle is being utilized in settling tank.
The Same Process in Faster Manner – Simple Centrifuge
Since time is a commodity which is very much short these days especially on ships, we cannot
wait for ages to purify huge quantities of oil required on board. Hence instead of following the
above method, we use a simple centrifuge for purification of oil. The next diagram shows how it
speeds up the process described above. Just imagine the same arrangement which has been
turned upside down
55
Page

Suppose that now the tank is made to spin about the Y axis as shown in the diagram and oil is
fed from bottom and taken out from top. In this case the centrifugal force will take the place of
gravitational force which is still present but due to high speed of oil injection, there is hardly any
time for gravity separation. Rather the centrifugal force shown by arrow Cf pushes the heavy
matter outside whilst oil remains inside.
What is Centrifugal force?
Centrifugal force is produced through rotation around an axis. The force generated through the
rotation acts in an outward direction. Depending on the speed of the rotating body, it increases or
drops on the circular path.
Mechanical separation technology makes use of this property when light, heavy or substances of
different density have to be separated from each other.
Centrifugal force 1 Centrifugal force 2 Centrifugal force 3
CLARIFIER:
The addition of an inlet and an outlet connection forms a simple clarifier. Rotational speeds
vary according to designs and are of the order of 7,000 to 9,000 rpm. Efficiency is increased by
the inclusion of a number of discs (up to 150) that increase the surface area and thus help
56
separation. Discs are separated at a distance of 0.5-0.6 mm. After passing down the central
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passage, the untreated oil is carried by centrifugal forces towards the periphery of the bowl and

then passes up through the disc stack. Here is where the actual separation takes place, in the
channel formed between two discs. Two forces act on each solid or liquid particle. The particle
is pushed upwards with the oil stream towards the centre while the centrifugal force directs it to
the periphery. The residual force on denser particles (impurities) will drive them towards the
periphery, while the less dense particles (oil) will be directed towards the centre of the bowl
and raise to the outlet connection.
PURIFIER:
Purifiers are used to clean the oil used on ships and there are heavy oil purifiers, diesel oil
purifiers and lubricating oil purifiers. These purifiers come in various sizes and makes, but their
general operating principles remain the same. Just take a look at the picture below and see what
happens when oil and water (plus other impurities) are supplied to a tank which has the typical
structure shown in the picture. In this case the oil will flow from one side, while water will come
out at the other side and any solid particles would settle at the bottom.
This method is not very practical but it shows the basic principle of oil-impurities separation.
Purifiers and clarifiers work on this principle but make use of the centrifuge force created as a
result of fast spinning and you can see this in the next picture. The image shows the construction
of a typical purifier which consists of number of perforated discs of inverted bowl shape, stacked
one over the other (known as disc stack). Dirty oil enters from top and gets separated into clean
oil and dirty component which come out of the respective places as seen in the figure. The
centripetal force shown in the picture is created by spinning the entire arrangement along the
vertical axis with the help of a powerful motor.
57
Page

The basic centrifuge differs than that described above most obviously by sitting on its side. In
reality it takes the form of a round bowl a cross section of which will show something like that
seen above. Gravity is replaced by centripetal force as the bowl is spun at high revolutions
thereby creating very high g-forces.
A disc stack is incorporated to encourage a laminar flow increasing improving the separation
effect. Dirty oil is introduced via a centreline oil feed dip tube. The oil is led to distribution holes
which are reflected in the disc stack but not the dam
The following factors are of importance when understanding the function of the purifier
 Increasing the sg of the oil will tend to push the interface outlet and cause overflow from
the heavy phase outlet until the equilibrium is restored. Should the interface be moved so
far as to breach the dam oil will be issued from the heavy phase outlet and an alarm will
sound. The ideal position for the interface is to lie over the distribution holes
 Reducing the sg of the oil will tend to bring the interface towards the axis, this reduces
the force of separation on the oil mix and reduces the efficacy of the unit possibly leading
to contaminants and water carryover with the light phase outlet
 the "gravity" disc are changeable on virtually all purifiers. Their centre bore is governed
by the sg of the oil being centrifuged. The largest bore should be used without risking
overflow
 The flow rate of a purifier should be set to optimise removal of whole system impurities.
The lower the oil feed the greater the time for impurity removal and the more efficient the
purification. The higher the rate the greater the amount of system oil is treated per unit of
time. For a system such as main engine oil where contaminants are continuously being
added to the system. As a rule of thumb the total volume of the system should pass
through the purifier three times every 24 hours, this rate may be vary depending on
operational parameters. A similar calculation has to be made with fuel oil to ensure
58
removal of water and sludge‟s which may accumulate over time.

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Choosing Gravity Disc:
The graph shown above is one typical of one found in a purifer instruction book for selecting
appropriate gravity disc size. Shown on the diagram is an example of an oil of sg 0.93 at 0'C.
The sg at 15'C for use with this graph is found by projecting along a horizontal line to 15'C. This
step would be omitted if the sg at 15'C was already known. A line is then drawn parallel to the
pre-drawn sloping lines. Where the drawn sloping line cuts the appropriate oil supply
temperature isothermal then This becomes the selection point for the disc. This is found simply
by ascertaining which size band the point lies in.
The exact process which is going on between two adjacent discs is shown more clearly in the
59
diagram .which shows the various forces acting on the oil and other impurities which makes the
separation possible. Hence it can be noted that reducing the rate of flow will improve quality of
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purified oil but will make the process slower hence an optimum speed should be used.

Fluid moving between two plates has a velocity greatest at mid point and minimum
approaching the plates. A particle entering into the plates will tend to be pushed upwards by the
fluid flow. All the time centrifugal force tends to retard the horizontal component of the
movement causing the particle to approach the underside of the top disc. As it approaches the
fluid flow velocity reduces. The centrifugal force eventually overcomes the force acting on the
particle due to fluid movement and the partial starts to move towards the outer rim. The
centrifugal force acting on a particle is proportional to its mass therefore a small particle will
tend to move further under the influence of fluid flow. Indeed a particle small enough will be
carried through the plates and out with the discharge. In this way it can be seen that reducing the
flow rate to a purifier will tend to increase the quality of the output.
When a centrifuge is set up as a purifier, a second outlet pipe is used for discharging water as
shown. In the fuel oil purifier, the untreated fuel contains a mixture of oil, solids and water,
which the centrifuge separates into three layers. While in operation, a quantity of oil remains in
the bowl to form a complete seal around the underside of the top disc and, because of the
density difference, confines the oil within the outside diameter of the top disc. As marine fuel
oil normally contains a small quantity of water, it is necessary to prime the bowl each time that
it is run, otherwise all the oil will pass over the water outlet side to waste. The water outlet is at
greater radius than that of the fuel. Within the water outlet there is a gravity disc, which controls
the radial position of the fuel water interface
A set of gravity discs is supplied with each machine and the optimum size to be fitted depends
on the density of the untreated oil. When the fuel centrifuge is operating, particulate matter will
accumulate on the walls of the bowl. If the centrifuge is set as a clarifier, the particulate matter
will be a combination of water and solid material. If it is set as a purifier, the free water is
continuously discharged; therefore, the particulate matter will consist of solid material. In older
machines it is necessary to stop the centrifuge to manually clean the bowl and disc stack,
however, the majority of machines today can discharge the bowl contents while the centrifuge is
running.
60
Page

Self Cleaning Centrifuge
The majority of purifiers found on board are of the self cleaning type in that they are able to open
the bowl to discharge any accumulated sludge. Apart from the sliding bowl the main difference
is the centripetal pump over the simple design. In this a fixed centrifugal style impeller is
mounted in the light phase outlet drawing the oil and discharging it at pressure sufficient to
deliver it to the receiving tank. A discharge valve is fitted which is adjusted to give a constant
back pressure in the bowl. The adjustment of this back pressure tends to move the position of the
interface but more importantly increases the oil in the light phase delivery chamber increasing
the immersion depth of the lip of the pump. This reduces possibility of air being entrained and
removes foaming.. In the event of bowl failure back pressure will fall, this may be detected by a
pressure switch initiating a shut down
De - Sludge event
1. Bowl online
2. sludge cycle timer activates and bowl comes off line (heater may be disconnected at this
time
3. Oil feed stopped
4. Oil still in bowl displaced by addition of a quantity of displacement water
5. Bowl open control water passed to bowl via distributor, bowl opens
6. Bowl open water discharged via a small orifice
7. Bowl closes
8. Seal water added
9. Oil feed commenced, timer started to give set time for back pressure to build up for oil
discharge
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10. heater reconnected

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Typical Alarms and Shut downs
The following gives a general list of alarms only some of which may be fitted.
 Back Pressure shutdown- this measures the discharge oil pressure and alarms and initiates
a shut down when below a set value
 Heavy phase overflow. Oil has a much higher viscosity than water. The heavy phase
outlet is led to small catchment tank contain a float. The outlet from the tank is restricted
in such a way that water flows freely but oil tends to back up. This initiates an alarm and
shut down
 Bowl not open- This may be dome in several ways, typically by a lever switch operated
by the discharged sludge hitting a striker plate. Another method is by measuring the
motor current, when the bowl opens the bowl speed is dragged down due to friction
effects of the discharging sludge and water. The motor current rises until full speed is re-
established. This is detected by a current sensing relay
 Water in oil- This found on modern designs which have a detection probe mounted in the
oil discharge
 High temperature alarm and shut down
 Low control/seal water pressure. Where control water is supplied via a fixed small header
tanks a float switch may be fitted.
Drive
Considerable torque would be required to direct drive the bowl up to speed using an
appropriately sized electric motor. In addition very high loading would occur on the gear train, to
prevent scuffing due to oil film breakdown would require large mating areas thereby large gear
trains which would again increase the starting load.
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A centrifugal clutch arrangement is fitted which has between 2 and 6 Frodo lined brake pads.
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These are designed to slip during the start up period and also to a much lesser extent during the

speed up period after de-sludge. Purifier manufacturers will usually quote a maximum and
MINIMUM start up time. As the pads wear it may be necessary to remove and restore the mating
surface to keep the start up time correct. As a last measure the number of pads should be altered
The electric motor may be of special design allowing for a long period of slight overload during
the start up period.
The gear train is generally a single stage worm and wheel arrangement with the wheel being
made of a softer material. Lubrication is normally splash only, the viscosity of the oil is essential
to prevent wear as the form of lubrication is mainly boundary therefore the wear is governed by
the viscosity and additives contained within the oil.
When wear occurs it will be scuffing and relative movement between the mating faces polishes
out any pitting. As wear worsens galling occurs destroying the running surface. This damage is
reflected in both elements therefore both should be changed.
As well as overload other causes of premature failure are poor design ( step forward westfalia),
poor material choice, poor lube oil choice, too long a de-sludge period relative to supplied oil
quality, out of balance bowl, failing bearing set in particular the vertical shaft upper resilient
bearing arrangement
The use of planned maintenance is essential particularly with respect to bearing changes. It is
strongly recommended to monitor condition using vibration analysis
Bowl Cleaning
Bowl cleaning should be carried out at regular intervals as per the maker‟s recommendations.
Every care should be taken not to score the surfaces of the bowl especially the sliding surfaces
for de-sludging types. The disc stack is generally numbered and should be built up as per this
system as the stack is a balanced unit.
Water washing
This was a techniques employed some time ago to improve purification of lube oil and to remove
acids. It involved continuously adding a small quantity of water at oil temperature to the oil inlet
which would pass through and overflow. This is much out of favour as it tends to remove the
essential oil additives in particular detergents. An alternative is to inject steam which improves
the removal of colloidal carbon by causing it to coagulate
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Typical Circuit
Shown is a typical circuit for a lube oil system although it can equally be applied to a fuel
system. Control is achieved by the three way valve which either diverts oil to recalculate or
sends it to the purifier.
Oil flow rate is controlled by the oil control valve situated before the positive displacement
delivery pump which is driven off the purifier horizontal shaft via a weak link arrangement
Back pressure from the purifier is controlled at outlet via the back pressure control valve
Purifier Parts:
1. OIL INLET
2. CLEAN OIL OULTET
3. WATER OUTLET
4. WATER PUMPING DISC
5. DISCS
6. TOP DISC
7. WATER OIL BORDER
8. BOWL PERIPHERY
9. BOWL HOOD
10. DISTIBUTOR
11. OIL PUMP DISC

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12. REGULATING DISC

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(3) Heat Exchangers:
The application of heat exchangers to diesel engines is principally in the dissipation of heat to the
environment, either to water or to atmospheric air. The functions which they fulfill can be
classified as:
(i) Engine cooling, to maintain within acceptable temperature limits such components as liners,
pistons, and cylinder covers, etc. The pistons are cooled by a separate circuit in some larger
engines. The materials used in the construction of engines are unable to withstand the thermal
stresses that would be imposed upon them, for any appreciable length of time, without some
form of forced cooling.
(ii) Oil cooling, to control temperature and hence the viscosity of lubricating oil within the limits
required to provide effective lubrication. The lubricating oil is sometimes used also for cooling
the pistons.
(iii) Charge air cooling in pressure-charged engines, to increase the density of the combustion air
entering the cylinders as well as reduce its temperature, enabling engine power to be increased
by burning more fuel on each piston firing stroke, whilst maintaining acceptable exhaust value
temperatures.
Plate type Heat Exchanger.
The plate-type heat exchanger is made up of a number of pressed plates surrounded by seals and
held together in a frame. The inlet and outlet branches for each liquid are attached to one end
plate. The arrangement of seals between the plates provides passageways between adjacent
plates for the cooling liquid and the hot liquid. The plates have various designs of corrugations to
aid heat transfer and provide support for the large, flat surface. A double seal arrangement is
provided at each branch point with a drain hole to detect leakage and prevent intermixing or
contamination.
Operation:
Temperature control of coolers is usually achieved by adjusting the cooling liquid outlet valve.
The inlet valve is left open and this ensures a constant pressure within the cooler. This is
particularly important with sea water cooling where reducing pressure could lead to aeration or
the collecting of air within the cooler. Air remaining in a cooler will considerably reduce the
cooling effect. Vents are provided in the highest points of coolers which should be opened on
first filling and occasionally afterwards. Vertical mounting of single pass coolers will ensure
automatic venting. Positioning the inlet cooling water branch facing downwards and the outlet
branch upwards will achieve automatic venting with horizontally mounted coolers. Drain plugs
are also fitted at the lowest point in coolers.
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Plate type Heat Exchanger
Shell / Tube type Heat Exchanger
In the shell and tube design a tube bundle or stack is fitted into a shell. The end plates are sealed
at either end of the shell and provision is made at one end for expansion. The tubes are sealed
into the tube plate at either end and provide a passageway for the cooling liquid. Headers or
water boxes surround the tube plates and enclose the shell. They are arranged for either a single
pass or, for a double pass of cooling liquid. The tube bundle has baffles fitted which serve to
direct the liquid to be cooled up and down over the tubes as it passes along the cooler. The joint
arrangements at the tube plate ends are different. At the fixed end, gaskets are fitted between
either side of the tube plate and the shell and end cover. At the other end, the tube plate is free to
move with seals fitted either side of a safety expansion ring. Should either liquid leak past the
seal it will pass out of the cooler and be visible. There will be no intermixing or contamination.
Materials:-
Shell: Generally of cast iron or fabricated steel.
Tubes: These are of aluminum-brass (76% copper, 22% zinc and 2% aluminum), or cupro-
nickel or even stainless steel may be used.
Tube-plates: The tube plate material should suit the tube material and the method of fixing.
Naval-brass tube plates are used with aluminum-brass tubes.
Water boxes: Cast iron or fabricated steel always designed to keep turbulence and coated for
corrosion protection.
Shell / Tube type Heat Exchanger

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(4) Steering Gears:
The steering gear provides a movement of the rudder in response to a signal from the bridge. The
total system may be considered made up of three parts, control equipment, a power unit and a
transmission system to the rudder stock. The control equipment conveys a signal of desired
rudder angle from the bridge and activates the power unit and transmission system until the
desired angle is reached. The power unit provides the force, when required and with immediate
effect, to move the rudder to the desired angle. The transmission system, the steering gear, is the
means by which the movement of the rudder is accomplished.
Certain requirements must currently be met by a ship's steering system. There must be two
independent means of steering, although where two identical power units are provided an
auxiliary unit is not required. The power and torque capability must be such that the rudder can
be swung from 35° one side to 350 the other side with the ship at maximum speed, and also the
time to swing from 35° one side to 30° the other side must not exceed 28 seconds.
In brief, a steering gear is required to:

a) Be continuously available.
b) Move the rudder rapidly to any position in response to the orders from the bridge during
maneuvering, and hold it in the required position.
c) Have arrangements for relieving abnormal stress and returning the rudder to its required
position.
d) Maintain the ship on course regardless of wind and waves.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SYSTEM
Complete Steering
Gear system consists of
three main parts
namely:
1. Tele-motor
2. Control Unit
3. Power Unit.
ALARM LIST
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A brief description about the construction and working of these components is as follows:
HUNTING GEAR MECHANISM:
With the Tiller arm going to port the rudder moves to starboard. The rotating stock
movement is led back by a spring link to the pump control floating lever. This constitutes the
hunting gear (feed back) in that when the telemotor movement stops, the floating lever stops
going to the left. The bottom of the lever is being pushed to the right and so the stroke control of
the pump is almost immediately brought back to pump mid position. This means the pump stops
pumping and the unit is virtually fluid locked at the required rudder position.
The pump control is moved by the telemotor through a floating lever.The other end of this
lever, is connected through a safety spring link to the rudder stock or tiller (Fig).
The tele-motor is the receiver of the hydraulic remote control system from the wheel on
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the bridge. The linkage through the floating lever of tele-motor, pump and rudder stock forms the
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hunting gear.

The pump is only required to deliver oil when the steering wheel is moved. The hunting
gear returns the pump operating rod to mid position as soon as the helmsman stops turning the
wheel. When the rudder has moved through the angle corresponding to the wheel position, it will
remain there until the wheel and telemotor are moved again.
The sketch shows simply, the operation of the hunting gear. The telemotor moves the
end of the floating rod A to A1 and the pump control is moved , therefore, from B to B1 .
Pumping of the hydraulic oil causes movement of the rams and the end of rod C moves to C1 thus
causing the pump control to be pulled back to the neutral position B.
If the rudder is displaced by a heavy sea through lifting of the relief valves, the hunting
gear is moved by the rudder stock. This will put the pump on stroke and the rudder will be
restored to its previous position.
FLOATING LEVER
The Floating Lever in Ram type Steering Gear is so called because it is connected to three parts:
(a) Telemeter
(b) Control Rod of variable delivery pump &
(c) Rudder stock
Control rod operation is adjusted by telemotor and rudder stock feedback.
STEERING GEAR DESIGN & OPERATIONAL CRITERIA AS PER:
SOLAS - Chapter II-1, Part C (Machinery Installations), Regulation 29.
MATERIAL FOR HYDRAULIC STEERING GEAR:
MATERIAL
RAM TYPE HYDRAULIC STEERING GEAR
TILLER - FORGED OR CAST STEEL

RAMS - CLOSE GRAIN HARD CAST IRON
OR STEEL
SUPPORT FOR BEARING - DOUBLER PLATE (MILD STEEL) &
STEEL PLATE
RUDDER - MEEHANITE
THRUST RING - GUNMETAL
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EMERGENCY STEERING (NFU)
FROM BRIDGE
The main control panel on Bridge is normally

equipped with the full follow up steering
wheel (electro-hydraulic) and non follow up
push buttons or jog lever (for emergency
steering from Bridge).
The NFU system overrides the main steering

wheel along with the activation of an audio
visual alarm.It is an auxiliary control system on bridge for operating the rudder to the required
angle and is a requirement as per SOLAS.
FROM STEERING COMPARTMENT (LOCAL CONTROL)
The direction valves (for movement of the

rudder) can be operated manually by the use of
an emergency device provided on the solenoid
valves. The selector switch for the steering
system much be changed over to LOCAL
control from Bridge when needed and the
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE must be
clearly displayed locally and on Bridge. The
emergency system must be tried out as per
guidelines given in SOLAS
HYDRAULIC LOCK
The directional valves in the steering system can malfunction (e.g. power units delivering oil in a
closed circuit with each other resulting in loss of oil supply to the rudder actuator) leading to a
hydraulic lock and subsequent loss of steering .The system ensures in such a situation an audio
visual alarm is activated and failure of steering capabilities is notified on Bridge.
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(5) Write short notes on Rudder Carrier Bearing:
The rudder carrier bearing takes the weight of the rudder on a grease lubricated thrust face. The
rudder stock is located by the journal beneath, also grease lubricated.
Support for the bearing is provided by framing beneath the steering gear deck. There is
thicker deck plating in the area beneath the carrier bearing and the latter may be supported on
steel chocks. The base of the carrier bearing is located by side chocks welded to the deck. The
carrier may be of meehanite with a gunmetal thrust ring and bush. Carrier bearing components
are split as necessary for removal or replacement. Screw down (hand) lubricators may be fitted
but automatic lubricators are common. The grease used for lubrication is of a water resistant type
(calcium soap base with graphite).
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RUDDER CARRIER BEARING

(6) Shafting and Propellers:
The simplistic view of the main propulsion shafting and installation is that the system is set up
with initial straight alignment and remains in that state during the life time of the ship unless
affected by accidents or wear.
ENGINE DISTANCE = REVOLUTIONS x PROP CONSTANT (PITCH)
How propeller Thrust is transmitted to the Hull:
The thrust block shaft is comparitively short with the coupling at each end,a thrust coller in the
middle of its length and the journal at each side of the thrust coller.The journals run in the
bearing housed in the thrust block which carry the weight of the shaft.
Each side of the collar bears upon a number of kidney shaped white metal faced pads
supported in the thrust block. Pads on the forward face of the collar being to take the ahead thrust
and those on the after face to take the astern thrust.There is always a film of oil maintained
between the face of the collar and white metal face of the pad and thus there is no metallic
contact.
As the propeller turns, it throws water away from the ship(when running forward
direction). Thus a thrust is created which has equal and opposite reaction on the propeller shaft.
Propeller shaft tends to does enter into the engine room. There actually will be microscopic
inward movement of the entire shaft till the thrust collar hits the forward pads. This way thrust
gets transmitted to the ships hull and ship moves forward.
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Intermediate Shaft and Intermediate Shaft Bearing:
The intermediate shaft are those which connect the thrust shaft to propeller shaft.each
intermediate shaft has a coupling at each end to connect by coupling bolt to the next,and has one
or two journal bearings to carry these bearings with the exception of the after most are white
metal lined on the bottom half only. All bearings are oil cooled.these bearings are sometimes are
also called “plummer blocks”.
Establishing the Shaft Centre Line:
Optical ( or laser) instrument can be used to establish the centre line of the shafting system, to
give a reference for cutting through bulkheads and machining of the aperture in the stern frame.
Deviation while building:
With the ship under construction still firmly supported, faults causing shaft misalignment can
and do occur. Any contraction or expansion of the hull as a result of temperature variation can
conspire with changes cause by welding of the hull to effect change of hull shape. The welding
in place of fabricated stern tube requires constant check to ensure alignment to maintained. Some
stern tube bearing failures have been traced to alignment errors which should have been detected
and remedied during installation.
Alignment deviation in service:
Shaft line is continually change through the life time of a ship as the hull is distorted by a hog or
sag due to different conditions of loading. The weight and distribution of cargo,ballast ,fuel and
fresh water are all subject to change and the changes are known from experiment to affect shaft
alignment.
High deck temperature in the tropics or low sea temperatures can cause differential
expansion and hogging of the hull. These type of change can alter crank shaft deflection or shaft
alignment readings which are taken even a few hours apart. There are also local factors which
alter shaft alignment.
Fair Curve Alignment:
The method of fair curve alignment accepts the changes of line endured by the shaft system and
seeks a compromise installation to suit the varying conditions.
The initial calculation is to determine the load on each bearing,assuming all bearings to
be in a straight line. The computer programme then simulates the raising of each bearing through
a range and calculates,for each small change,the increase of its own load and alteration in load on
each of the other bearings.the progress is then repeated with the simulation of the lowering of
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each bearing in turn with the computer finding resultant load changes on the bearing in question
and others.
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(7) Stern Tube:
What is a Stern Tube:-

The stern tube, as the name suggests, is a hollow tube-like structure at the stern or rear part of the
ship. A ship needs a propeller to drive it forward against the waves. The propeller, located
outside the ship needs to be connected to the engine inside the ship‟s engine room. A long shaft
known as the propeller shaft is used for connecting the ship‟s engine and the propeller. This
narrow hole in the hull structure at the rear end (aft peak) of the ship, through which the
propeller shaft passes and connects the engine and propeller, is known as the stern tube.
Stern Tube Bearings and Glands
The total weight of the propeller shaft inside the stern tube is carried by these bearings which are
known as the stern tube. The weight of the overall stern tube arrangement, along with the
bearings is carried by the stern frame and the internal framing of the ship‟s hull structure at the
aft peak area. Moreover, there are generally two bearings inside the stern tube for supporting the
shaft, located at both the ends. The main function of stern tube bearings is to allow an
unrestricted and smooth rotation of the propeller shaft.
Apart from stern bearings, the stern tube also houses water and oil sealing glands known as the
stern glands. It is also to note that stern tube is that sensitive part of the ship from where the sea
water can easily seep inside the ship. The stern glands thus seal the area between the stern tube
and the propeller shaft. The glands are attached at the forward end of the stern tube and prevent
the passing of sea water into the ship. The glands also prevent the leaking of oil from the stern
bearings into the sea.
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Stern Tube Bearing
Adequate lubrication is required for the rotation of the propeller shaft inside the stern tube. For
this reason, various types of lubrication systems are used.
Thus, the two main purposes of a stern bearing are:
 To prevent the entry of sea water into the machinery spaces

 To support the tail shaft and a considerable proportion of propeller weight.
The stern tube gland should be such that it allows a free movement of the propeller shaft without
causing any harm. In the ancient days, lignum vitae - a dense form of timber, was used as
bearing material. The timber was continuously lubricated by sea water. However, with the advent
of higher tonnage steel ships, the size and weight of propellers increased and timber bearings
became outdated. In most of the modern ships, an oil lubrication system with a white metal lined
stern tube bearing is used.
Construction and Working of Stern Tube Bearing:
The arrangement of a stern tube with oil lubrication system has been shown in the figure. The
bush of the white metal bearing has grooves made into it. Oil is pumped in though this external
axial groves into the bush of the bearing. The oil then passes through the internal axial passages
through the holes made on each side. A return line, at the end of the bush facilitates the flow of
the oil back to the pump. A pump attached with a cooler, continuously pumps oil into the
bearings to maintain the required pressure. In case the pump fails, of the two header tanks under
gravitational pressure, provide the required oil with a back pressure to the bearing system. Thus,
it is imperative that the level of hydraulic oil is well maintained in each header tank. Moreover,
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both the tanks should also be fitted with low level alarms.
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The pressure in the system should be maintained at a level higher than that of the static sea water
head to prevent the water from seeping inside in-case of the seal failure. A low pressure alarm is
also provided to the system to prevent any kind of damage to the bearing due to under
lubrication.
Stern Tube Bearing Clearance
The poker gauge supplied when the vessel is delivered should only be used. This is normally
supplied in a box, with the critical dimensions recorded inside (readings stamped in a metal plate
permanently fixed inside the box).
The bearing clearance can only be determined accurately by using the same tool every time.
Dependant on the operating factors and Class requirements the maximum bearing clearance will
vary .If the wear down is excessive then the Stern Tube Bearing ( Chrome Liner ) needs to be
renewed. Oil lubricated bearings will have a maximum wear down recommended by the maker ,
controlled by design limitations, stress, alignment and loading factors.( Maximum = 2 mm )
Poker Gauge & Deflection Gauge being used on Tail Shaft in Dry Dock prior to removal of Propeller
Stern Tube Seals
A stern tube, which is present at the bottommost part of the ship, connects the engine, inside of
the ship to the propeller outside. A propeller shaft passes through this stern-tube and is used to
connect the propeller to the engine. Stern tube bearings, generally oil lubrication glands, are used
to prevent the ingress of sea water inside the engine room and also to support the weight of the
propeller. But this is not it; the whole stern tube arrangement is packed and sealed from both the
sides for additional protection of the stern tube. The packing materials used for these sealing
arrangements are known as stern tube seals.
Thus, these specially made seals, fitted at the inboard and outboard ends of the tail shaft are used
for two main functions:
 To provide extra protection for preventing the entry of sea water

 To prevent loss of lubricating oil from the stern tube bearings.
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Types of Stern Tube Seals:
In the older ships, where the timber bearings with sea water lubrication systems were used,
conventional stuffing box and glands were used at the aft bulkhead of the ship. However, the
modern ships which uses oil lubricated stern bearings mainly uses two types of seals :
 Lip seals
 Face seals
Lip Seals:
Lip seals are seals made of special kind of materials (elastic) , having a projecting lip or edge.
This peculiar shaped ring is held in close contact with the shaft and the stern tube to prevent oil
leakage or water entry. The shape, size and number of lip seals depends on the size and type of
application.
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Face Seals:
Face Seals are seals made in pairs. The seals consist of two mating radial faces, which are forced
against each other to prevent any kind of leakage. Out of the two faces, one is rotating and the
other is stationary. The rotating seal is attached to the propeller boss and the stationary seal is
attached at the aft bulkhead. The arrangement also consists of a spring which forces the two
faces, one stationary and other rotating towards each other in order to provide the adequate seal.
CHROME LINER – STERN TUBE BEARING

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(8) Windlass and Anchor Chains and Deck Machinery.

Windlass: Different types of machines are used on a ship's deck for the overall and smooth
functioning of deck procedures. Deck procedures such as cargo handling, berthing and anchoring
represent a lion's share of a vessel's total working operations.
Anchoring is one such process that is carried out when the ship requires a stoppage at mid sea or
at the port. For this an anchor is used for holding the ship at one place, to remain unaffected by
waves and weather. Bigger the ship, larger and heavier is the anchor. The anchoring process
requires dropping and lifting of the anchor from the sea. Windlass is the device used for anchor
handling on all the ships.
Usually, a ship is provided with a pair of anchors. On almost all the ships, a single marine
windlass handles both the anchors, but if the size of the ship is more , dedicated windlasses
known as split windlasses are used for individual anchor.
An ideal windlass assembly consists of a cable lifter, mooring drum and a warp end. All these
are rotating equipments that work together for the anchoring process. The cable lifter has cable
shaped snugs that are used to grip the anchor cable on the drum. The cable from the cable lifter
goes around a mooring drum, which guides the cables by paying out or letting go of the mooring
wires. A warp end is used to hold the cable at the desired position and is always driven in
association with the mooring drum for efficient carrying out of the warping duties.
Although all these units work together, they can also be individually controlled. A dog clutch is
used to separately engage or disengage each of this unit. All the rotating parts are connected to a
motor with the help of a spur gear assembly, which is used to transmit the motor drive to the
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shaft where various dog clutches enable the power take off. Moreover, separate band brakes are
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used to lock the cable lifters and the mooring drums to prevent any kind of accidental movement
when the power of the motor is turned off.
The cable lifter guides the anchor by raising and lowering the cable through the spurling pipe.
The spurling pipe is located at the top and centre of the chain or the cable locker. Snug‟s in the
cable lifter are used not only to grip the cables but also to hold the band brakes and the cables.
Anchor capstans, which are windlasses that rotate in the horizontal direction about a vertical
axis, also have cable lifters that rotate about the same axis. These arrangements are generally
used for heavy anchors and have the cable lifter unit located on the deck with the driving
machinery on the deck below. The same unit which drives the cable lifter is used to drive the
warping end, which is generally positioned near the cable lifter.
Nowadays, different types of windlasses are used according to the weight of the anchor and
various other vessel requirements. The driving unit can be electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic,
which also depends on the ship's system requirement.
Anchor:
A ship has all the controls and automation but she is quite helpless when it comes to the simple
concept of braking. There are no brakes on a ship and an anchor is used to hold it from drifting
astray.
There are no brakes on the ship for the simple reason that the ship is floating on water. So
when the ship is stopped and its engines are not running, there needs to be a mechanism to
ensure that the ship does not drift freely in the sea. Just note that this is only necessary when the
ship is stopped in open water. This is not required when the ship is moored at the port, since in
such a situation the vessel is bound by heavy ropes. The mechanism for holding the ship in place
is the ship anchor chain.
Ship Anchor & Chain
Basically the ship anchor chain arrangement consists of two parts - the anchor and the chain. The
anchor is nothing but a heavy piece of metal which is normally in the shape of a fork, The exact
shape and size of the anchor would vary depending on the size and type of ship. The anchor
chain is made out of heavy metal links and it holds the anchor at one end, while the other end is
fastened to the ship
The Sea Anchor:
The sea anchor is also an anchor with the only difference that it does not touch the bottom of the
ocean but haggles midway between the sea surface and the seabed. The role of the sea anchor is
the same as that of the conventional anchor, and is useful in situations where the sea bed is very
deep. It is mostly used in smaller marine vessels such as kayaks, boats and smaller yachts.
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How is Anchoring carried out:
Whenever the anchor needs to be dropped in the seabed, the available marine charts of the sea
area are used to determine the nature and depth of the sea floor. After the appropriate spot has
been selected, the anchor is lowered into the water at a steady pace. A certain length of the
anchor chain is kept loose so as to allow a certain movement of the ship depending on weather
conditions and experience of the master. Of course the actual process of anchoring is not as
simple or easy as described here, and the ship crew might have to try a few times before they
find a proper spot. All types of ocean floors are not suitable for anchoring; especially soft mud-
floors are least suited for anchoring.
Common misconception at this stage is that the weight of the anchor holds the ship in place. This
is not correct because the main role of the anchor is to grip the sea bed. The role of securing the
ship is performed mainly by the chain rather than the anchor, though the latter has a role to play
in that as well.
Once the ship is anchored properly, it is bound to remain in a certain circular area which is
defined by the length of loose chain. Of course there are several other factors which need to be
considered to ensure that the ship is safe during anchor. For example if there are several other
ships in the vicinity, the navigating officers should ensure that the circular movement of one ship
does not come in the way of the circular movement of the other ships lest they collide.
Another point you might be thinking is that when the ship is in the middle of the ocean, it may
not be possible to anchor because of the depth of the seabed but there is hardly a reason why ship
should need to anchor in the deep sea. Even if the engines have to be stopped for some reason in
the deep sea, the ship can keep floating without anchoring since there is hardly a soul (ship) in
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the vicinity.
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Mooring Winch:
A ship is a huge structure and when it comes to a port for any purpose such as cargo loading,
discharging or bunkering; it needs to be "parked" properly so that it does not move from its
position beyond a certain degree. This could lead to disruption of operations and also could mean
damage or harm to life and nearby installations. It is very easy to tie up a small boat to the shore,
but how do you go about securing a big sized vessel. Well, we will learn in detail about the
"berthing operation" as it is called in navigational language, in a separate article. But for now, I
will talk something about an important component of the mooring systems, namely a winch.
Mooring winch is a mechanical device used for securing a ship to the berth. An equipment with
various barrels used for pulling ropes or cables, mooring winches play an important role in
berthing the ship ashore. The barrels, also known as winch drums, are used for hauling in or
letting out the wires or ropes, which will help in fastening the ship to the berth.
Mooring winches assembly comes in various arrangements with different number of barrels,
depending on the requirement of the ship. The main parts of a mooring winch includes a winch
barrel or a drum, a warp end and a driving motor. Modern mooring winches comprises of
elaborate designs with various gear assemblies, which can be electric, pneumatic or hydraulic
driven.
Construction and Working:
A mooring winch assembly consists of a winch drum which has cable or rope wound around it.
The winch drum and warp end is driven with the help of a motor drive. All these parts are
supported with the help of a substantial frame, which also support a band brake, clutch and
geared drives.
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The motor drive is connected to the barrel and warp end using a spur gear transmission system.
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The transmission system is also provided with a clutch and a band brake. Thus, the spur gear

transmission system controls both the barrel and the warp end. The warp end acts like a locking
device, which prevents the rope from sliding off the barrel when pulled excessively. Warp end is
extremely important for moving the ship along the berth for alignment purposes. This is done by
fastening one end of the ropes or wires to the bollards on the shore and the other end around the
warp end of the winch.
Appropriate control of the drum movement is an important aspect of the mooring operation. For
this reason, band brakes are provided to stop the drum whenever required. Also, it is important
that the drum rotates smoothly in both reverse and forward direction. A controller arrangement
of the drive motor facilitates forward and reverse direction as and when required, including
selection of speeds as per the requirement.
Most of the modern mooring winches help in avoiding the stress related to constant monitoring
of the mooring winches when the ship is berthing at a port. It is essential to tension or slacken the
mooring wires according to the flow of the tides and the change in the draught that takes place
due to cargo operations. The modern mooring assemblies act as an automatic self tensioning unit,
which provides for paying out or recovering wires when a pre-set tension is not present.
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(9) Refrigeration Machinery.
Refrigeration works by removing heat from a product and transferring that heat to the outside air.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS
There are five basic components of a refrigeration system, these are:
- Evaporator
- Compressor
- Condenser
- Expansion Valve
- Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product
- Filter drier
- Oil separator
In order for the refrigeration cycle to operate successfully each component must be present
within the refrigeration system.
Evaporator:
The purpose of the evaporator is to remove unwanted heat from the product, via the liquid
refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator is boiling at a low-pressure.
The level of this pressure is determined by two factors:
- The rate at which the heat is absorbed from the product to the liquid refrigerant in the
evaporator
- The rate at which the low-pressure vapor is removed from the evaporator by the compressor
To enable the transfer of heat, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the
temperature of the product being cooled. Once transferred, the liquid refrigerant is drawn from
the evaporator by the compressor via the suction line. When leaving the evaporator coil the
liquid refrigerant is in vapor form.
Compressor:
The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-temperature, low-pressure gas from the
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evaporator via the suction line. Once drawn, the vapor is compressed and it rises in temperature.
Therefore, the compressor increases the refrigerant temperature and pressure and releases it to
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the discharge line.

Condenser:
The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the refrigerant. Sea water is the cooling
medium employed in condensers installed on board ships. The temperature of the high-pressure
refrigerating gas determines the temperature at which the condensation begins. The high-pressure
gas within the condenser is then cooled to the point where it becomes a liquid refrigerant once
more, whilst retaining some heat. The liquid refrigerant then flows from the condenser in to the
liquid line.
Oil Separators:
Some oil is always carried over with the compressed gas and must be removed;
a) To prevent it entering and fouling the internal surfaces of the evaporator and other heat
exchangers; and
b) To ensure its return to the crankcase or reservoir, preventing failure through the shortage of
oil.
Oil separators are placed in the line between compressor and condenser, and consist of a vessel
fitted with internal baffles and screens. The separation of oil is mechanical, the slowing down
and change of direction of the gas/oil stream throwing out the oil. The oil separated from the gas
collects the bottom of the separator and is returned to crankcase or receiver through an automatic
regulating valve.
Expansion Valve:
The expansion valve is located at the end of the liquid line, before the evaporator. The high-
pressure liquid from the condenser reaches the expansion valve. The valve then reduces the
pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the orifice, which is located inside the valve. On
reducing the pressure, the temperature of the refrigerant also decreases to a level below the
surrounding air. This low-pressure, low-temperature liquid is then pumped in to the evaporator.
The expansion valve regulates the passage of refrigerant from the high pressure side of the
system to the low pressure side. The pressure drop causes the evaporating temperature of the
refrigerant to fall below that of the evaporator. Thus, for example, the refrigerant can be boiled
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off by an evaporator temperature of -18°C because the pressure drop brings the evaporating
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temperature of the refrigerant down to say -24°C

The liquid refrigerant leaves the condenser with a temperature just above that of the sea-water
inlet, say 15 °C. As it passes through the expansion valve the evaporating temperature decreases
to- 24°C and some of the liquid boils off taking its latent heat from the remainder of the liquid
and reducing its temperature to below that of the evaporator.
Filter Driers:
The function of filter driers is to remove moisture from all refrigerant systems. Foreign particles,
sediment, and the products of oil breakdown are also filtered out.
The filter driers are fitted in the liquid refrigerant line from the condenser to prevent moisture
and other contaminants entering and blocking the expansion valve.
Filter driers contain a desiccant, which is a moisture absorbing substance which will eventually
become saturated with moisture and have to be replaced.
Two widely used desiccants are silica gel and molecular sieves. Where rechargeable units are
fitted, the desiccant can be removed and the drier casing refitted with a fresh charge.
Hazards:
Frost Bite:
Direct contact with liquid refrigerant may result in frost-bite, due to the rapid evaporation of the
liquid. Refrigerants are not usually caustic.
Eye Injuries:
Refrigerant vapors are not usually harmful to the eyes. However, if liquid refrigerant squirt
directly into the eyes, ensure that the injured person is taken to hospital or a doctor immediately?
Avoid rubbing the eyes.
Mechanical Hazards:
Personnel should be aware at all times that refrigeration systems contain liquids and vapors
under pressure. Suitable precautions must be taken when working any part of the system to guard
against the pressure hazard.
Electrical Hazards:
The electrical power used in this equipment is at voltage high enough to endanger life. Before
carrying out maintenance or repair procedures, persons concerned must ensure that equipment is
isolated from the electrical supply and tests made to verify that isolation is complete.
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(10) Describe preparation for starting Main & Auxiliary Machinery for Departure and
checking important parameters.
Refer competency 4, Watch keeping while Maneuvering (DEPARTURE PORT)
(11) Identify various controls in the E.C.R. for operating the Main and Auxiliary
Machinery.
Various controls in ECR for operating the main and auxiliary machinery are
 Main Engine Speed control & Emergency stop
 Air compressor auto start / stop
 Lube oil temperature control
 Jacket Cooling water temperature control
 Viscosity control
 Sea water temperature control
 Starting and stopping of all associated pumps and machineries.
 Synchronization, and load sharing of the generators, adjusting the frequencies
 Auto change over system for the engine room pumps that are duplicated.
 Emergency stop for the oil fired boiler.
 Steering gear running „lamp indication‟
 Starting and stopping of deck machineries e.g. windlass, mooring winches, cranes etc.
(12) Identify alarms and cut-outs for Main Engine & Auxiliary Engine in E.C.R.
Main engine slows down automatically when there is problem in the system and to avoid the
greater damage in the later stages. When these defects are rectified then only the engine can be
operated at sea speed.
1. Main Engine lube oil high temperature.

2. Jacket cooling water high temperature.
3. Piston cooling oil high temperature.
4. Oil Mist Detector alarm.
5. Thrust Bearing lube oil temperature high
6. Control air Low pressure.
7. Scavenge air high temperature /Under piston space temperature high.
8. Exhaust Gas temperature deviation high.
Main Engine Safety Trips:
Main engine safety trips stop the main engine when no corrective action is taken on the alarm
condition. They prevent major or irreversible damage to the engine due to human negligence or
error.
So when any main engine trips are activated the Main engine stops, it should be started only after
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rectifying / correcting the faults. Main engine is manually stopped in case of external hazards
like grounding, collision, etc.
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SOME OF THE MAIN ENGINE TRIPS ARE:
1. Over Speed Trip

2. Low Lube oil pressure Trip (Bearings)
3. Cam shaft Lube oil low pressure Trip
4. Piton cooling lube oil high temperature.
5. Jacket cooling water high temperature Trip
6. Piston cooling oil low pressure Trip
7. Thrust Bearing High pressure Trip
8. Oil Mist Detector
9. Spring air pressure Low Trip
10. Emergency Stop. (also located on the bridge)
(13) Observing Parameters of Main Engine in E.C.R.
 Exhaust gas temperature : 350 - 400oc

 Lube oil temperature : 40oC(inlet), 50oC(outlet)
 Lube oil pressure : 2.6 - 2.8 bar / 3.5 ~ 5.0 bar for Camshaft
 Jacket cooling water temperature : 60-65oc
 Jacket cooling water pressure : 3 bar
 Scavenge temperature : 40-45oc
 Scavenge pressure : 1.8 ~ 2 bar
 Cooling sea water temperature : Variable
 Cooling sea water pressure : 2 bar
 Air bottle pressure : 30 bar (Max)
 Boiler steam pressure : 7.5 bar
 Fuel oil temperature : 1250C ~ 140oC
 Fuel oil pressure : 6 bar
 Stern Tube lube oil system : 1.5 ~ 1.8 bar
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR CALIBARTION OF PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE MEASURING

DEVICES AND TO ESTABLISH ALARMS & CUT OUT VALUES AS REQD BY PMS
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(14) Theoretical knowledge of Construction and Operation of Marine Boilers including

material used.
Boiler is an integral part of the engine room not only on steam turbine driven ships, but also in
ships using diesel engines for propulsion. A steam powered ship has two or more boilers
provided to produce steam having very high temperature and pressure; while if a ship has a
diesel engine as the main propulsion system, one or two smaller boilers are used for running
various ship's machinery and services.
How do Boilers work :
A basic boiler is a machine with the simplest arrangement of the internal parts. The main job of a
boiler is to make high pressure steam. The feed water supplied to the boiler drum utilizes the heat
of the energy released by burning the fuel. This energy of the burning fuel is stored in the form
of steam with high temperature and pressure. The fuel is burnt in a combustion chamber inside
the boiler. To attain high efficiency and complete combustion, air is supplied to this combustion
chamber through a separate arrangement. The heat generated in this combustion chamber is
transferred to the water from the boiler drum through a large surface area, which enables highest
rate of energy transfer.
Steam Generation Process:
The process of steam generation initiates when the feed water enters the steam drum. The water
from the steam drums enters the water drum through both internal tubes and the tubes that
surround the furnace. The system of tubes that surrounds the furnace is known as water wall or
floor tubes. The feed water gets heated when passed through these tubes. Addition to this, there
is Large-bore down comer tubes that passes outside of the furnace and are used to circulate water
between the drums, to which the tubes are attached from outside of the furnace.
The steam produced in the steam drum is known as wet or saturated steam. This steam cannot be
used directly as it contains high amount of moisture. To make this steam usable, it is first dried
and heated with the help of a super heater located within the boiler. Once all the moisture content
is removed from the steam, the super-heated steam can be supplied to other systems. It is utmost
important to monitor and control the temperature of the superheated steam, or else it can cause
damage to the systems it is supplied to. For this reason, an implement known as attemperator is
used. Attemperator is a kind of cooler which is used to cool down the superheated steam to the
right temperature. Thus, all the steam used in various systems is taken out from the main steam
drum of the boiler.
The energy from the fuel burning are used for various other purposes, the main two are as
follows:
1. For heating feed water to produce steam
2. For superheating the steam from the boiler drum

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To increase the efficiency of the boiler, the feed water that enters the boiler is pre-heated with the
help of an economizer through which, the feed water passes before entering the boiler. The
exhaust gas of the boiler is also put to use by making it pass over an air heater, which heats up
the combustion air entering the furnace. Thus, even the energy exhausted from the boiler is
allowed to go waste which increases the overall efficiency of the system.
All these boilers are fitted with various safety fittings and control system to monitor and control
various aspects such as fuel oil flow rate, flow of combustion air and feed water supply. All these
systems should work in co-ordination to supply the amount of steam required by various
systems. The boiler is also provided with various mounting to ensure safe operation of the boiler.
Types of Boilers:
There are two main types of boilers. These are known as the basic boilers, the rest all are
different versions of them. The main two basic boilers are:
 Water Tube Boiler

 Fire Tube Boiler
 Composite boilers
The design and arrangement of both the types is just the opposite. In water tube boilers, the feed
water passes through the tubes and the hot gases are made to pass over them, while in fire tube
boiler, the hot gases passes through the tubes and feed water surrounds them.
Composite Boiler:
Composite boilers are provided with systems that can be run by two ways, either by conventional
oil firing and burning or by using the heat from the engine's exhaust gas. All the composite
boilers are based on fire tube boiler designs. Even the Cochran boiler can be modified to be used
as a composite boiler. The only modification that is required is to install a separate tube bank
section which takes the engine exhaust gases and exits through its own dedicated exhaust duct. A
composite boiler arrangement permits steam generation either by oil firing when necessary or by
using the engine exhaust gases when the ship is at sea.
The type of boiler shown in the diagram is one of the recent vertical type of boiler, having a fully
spherical furnace. Due to its shape the boiler is also known as spheroid. The main feature of the
boiler is that the furnace of the boiler is surrounded by water and therefore there is no
requirement of refractory material. It is a single pass boiler, which means that the hot gases pass
just through the horizontal tube stack before going to the exhaust. Small bore tubes along with
the retarders are used to ensure better heat transfer, higher efficiency and cleaner tubes due to
turbulent gas flow.
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Material used:
Tube temperatures for the water cooled sections are considered to be saturation temperature plus
15oC. Solid drawn mild steel is generally used.
Tube temperatures for convection superheated sections are considered to be final superheat
temperatures plus 30oC. For Radiant heat a higher temperature is considered.
For Super heater tubes operating above 455oC a Chrome Molybdenum alloyed steel is required 92
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(15) Define (a) Fire tube boiler (b) Water tube boiler (c) Packaged Boiler & briefly
explain the differences and why one type of Boiler is preferred over other.
(a)Fire Tube or Smoke Tube Boiler:
The fire tube or smoke tube boiler is usually chosen for low-pressure steam production on
vessels requiring steam for auxiliary purposes. Operation is simple and feed water of medium
quality may be employed. The name tank boiler is sometimes used for fire tube boilers because
of their large water capacity. The terms smoke tube and donkey boiler are also in use.
These were the most common form of boiler design before the introduction of water tube
designs.
This style of boiler still see active services were low quantities of low quality steam are required,
such as for cargo and fuel tank heating when in port.
This style of boiler is relatively cheap, supplied as a packaged unit and requires less stringent
feed water conditioning and level control.
(b) Water Tube Boiler:

The construction of water a tube boiler, which use small-diameter tubes and have a small steam
drum, enables the generation or production of steam at high temperatures and pressures. The
weight of the boiler is much less than an equivalent fire tube boiler and the steam raising process
is much quicker. Design arrangements are flexible, efficiency is high and the feed water has a
good natural circulation. These are some of the many reasons why the water tube boiler has
replaced the fire tube boiler as the major steam producer. Early water tube boilers used a single
drum. Headers were connected to the drum by short, bent pipes with straight tubes between the
headers. The hot gases from the furnace passed over the tubes, often in a single pass,
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Package Boilers:
Most fire tube boilers are now supplied as a completely packaged unit. This will include the oil
burner, fuel pump, forced-draught fan, feed pumps and automatic controls for the system. The
boiler will be fitted with all the appropriate boiler mountings. A single-furnace three-pass design
is shown in Figure. The first pass is through the partly corrugated furnace and into the cylindrical
wetback combustion chamber. The second pass is back over the furnace through small-bore
smoke tubes and then the flow divides at the front central smoke box. The third pass is through
outer smoke tubes to the gas exit at the back of the boiler. There is no combustion chamber
refractory lining other than a lining to the combustion chamber access door and the primary and
secondary quart.
Fully automatic controls are provided and located in a control panel at the side of the boiler.
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(16) Explain why the Shells of Cylindrical forms are preffered and why End plates of
spherical types are to be preffered over flat end plates.
Stress concentration on the sharp edges is more so spherical types is preffered over flat end
plates.
(17) What are different types of stays used in boiler and why.
Purpose of using the stays:
A boiler stay is an internal strengthener inside a steam boiler. Their function is to support the
flat walls of a boiler against the internal steam pressure. In many cases the boiler can be given a
domed shape that is self-supporting: stays are required where this is not possible. There are
several forms of stay, according to the forces they must resist.
Stays are most common inside fire-tube boilers: large tanks of water, perforated by heating flues.
The alternative water-tube boilers have far less need of stays, as they use the geometry and
inherent strength of multiple small diameter tubes to resist their forces.
Although the design of stays to resist the simple pressure is relatively straightforward, careful
design is required if they are to serve well and safely in use. Many boiler explosions have been
caused by an initial failure in a boiler's stays.
Type of stays used:
Longitudinal stays: These are long rods, from one end (or side) of a boiler to the other. Most
boilers are a development of a horizontal flat-ended cylindrical pressure vessel. The flat ends of
this require support, to prevent them being forced outwards. This is done by providing
longitudinal rod stays along the length of the boiler. These are usually retained by large external
nuts (as illustrated).
Rear face of a Scotch marine boiler, showing the heads of six large stays running the length of
the boiler shell, and smaller rod stays beneath, supporting the combustion chambers.
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Gusset Stays: These are simple plate girders reinforcing the corner joints of a boiler shell. The
natural shape for a pressure vessel is approximately spherical (e.g. a rubber balloon), as this
minimizes the tensile force relative to the internal pressure. Where a rigid boiler shell is non-
spherical, e.g. a flat end plate on a cylindrical shell, these forces will tend to flatten out the sharp
corner and force the boiler into a shape closer to this ideal sphere. Gusset stays resist this
flattening force.
Rod Stays: The locomotive boiler's firebox has flat walls that require extensive staying. These
are typically short cylindrical metal rods, spaced on a square grid at 4inch spacing. As the sides
of the firebox are closely spaced between inner and outer walls, it is convenient to use a great
many simple, short rod stays.
Rod stays may be attached by riveting, threading into a tapped hole in the boiler shell, or by nuts
onto a threaded stay. Threaded stays are usually peened over as well, to prevent unscrewing in
service. The threading of these stays also gave rise to their US name of "stay bolts"
Sling Stays: Sling Stays. Also shows some horizontal longitudinal stays
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18) Explain the advantages of using corrugated furnances.
In corrugated furance the surface area is more thus the heat absorbtion is more. The
corrugations increase the surface area and allow a degree of flexibility to allow for expansion
and contraction. The staying effect is reduced somewhat by the use of corrugated furnaces.
These are internal circumferential corrugations to the furnace tubes. Their primary aim is to
strengthen the tubes against hoop stresses, but they also allow the tubes to expand lengthways
with heating. This ability to expand somewhat reduces their effectiveness as stays.
(19) Describe how tubes are expanded in a tube plate and explain differences in
following
(a) Plain tube ( b) Stay tube (c) Single flow tubes (d) Swirly flow tubes (e) Thimble tubes
The hot gases leaving the combustion chamber pass through smoke tubes fitted between the
back,or combustion chamber, tube plate , and the front tube plate ,on the way to the uptakes .
Two types of tubes are used (i) plain tube and (ii)stay tube. The smoke tubes may be plain or
threaded to act as stays. There is one stay tube for every three plain tubes approx.
The plain or common tubes are expended into the tube plates at both ends. Tubes have a
diameter of about 65mm with a thickness of 5mm.
The front end of the tube is often swelled out to allow for easer tube removal, if this
should prove necessary, as even slight deposits of scale forming on the water side of the tube
would make the withdrawal of parallel tubes through the holes in the front tube plate difficult.
Another provision, sometimes made, is to allow about 12mm of tube to project from the front
tube plate so that if the tube burns away and becomes thin at the back end it can be driven in and
re expanded. However for this to be successful the outside of the tube must be clean and in good
condition as corrosion, or scale getting between the faces to be expended, prevents the formation
of sound, tight seal between tube and plate.
The back end of the tube is bell mouthed after expansion or, as an alternative, it may be spot
welded
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(20) List all the Boiler Mountings
(a) On shell (b) Internal & Describe briefly their purposes.
Boiler Mountings:-
Certain fittings are necessary on a boiler to ensure its safe operation. They are usually referred to
as boiler mountings. The mountings usually found on a boiler are:
Safety Valves: These are mounted in pairs to protect the boiler against overpressure. Once the
valve lifting pressure is set in the presence of a Surveyor it is locked and should not be changed.
The valve is arranged to open automatically at the pre-set blow-off pressure
(10 % in excess of WP ).
Main Steam Stop Valve: This valve is fitted in the main steam supply line and is usually of the
non-return type.
Auxiliary Steam Stop Valve: This is a smaller valve fitted in the auxiliary steam supply line,
and is usually of the non-return type.
Feed Check Control valve: A pair of valves mounted Boiler water inlet line: one is the main
valve, the other the auxiliary or standby. They are non-return valves and must give an indication
of their open and closed position.
Water Level Gauge: Water level gauges or 'gauge glasses' are fitted in pairs, at opposite ends of
the boiler. The construction of the level gauge depends upon the boiler pressure.
Pressure Gauge Connection: Where necessary on the boiler drum, super heater, etc., pressure
gauges are fitted to provide pressure readings.
Air Release Cock: These are fitted in the headers, boiler drum, etc., to release air when filling
the boiler or initially raising steam.
Sampling Connection: A water outlet cock and cooling arrangement is provided for the
sampling and analysis of feed water. A provision may also be made for injecting water treatment
chemicals.
Blow Down Valve: This valve enables water to be blown down or emptied from the boiler. It
may be used when partially or completely emptying the boiler.
Scum Valve: A shallow dish positioned at the normal water level is connected to the scum
valve. This enables the blowing down or removal of scum and impurities from the water surface.
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(21) Explain purpose and working of (a) reducing valves (b) steam traps (c) drains
(a) Reducing Valves:
PURPOSE: If it is necessasry to provide steam or air at a pressure less than that of the boiler or
compressed air reservoir,a reducing valve is fitted.this will maintain the down stream pressure
with in defined limit over a range of flow,despite any changes in supply pressure.
Working: The spring load causes the valve to open,this is balenced by the reduced steam
pressure p2 acting on the area of the top of the valve,A2 as this area is constant,any decrease in
outlet pressure will allow the valve to open and any increase will close it.
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The area of the under side of the valve and that of the piston are equal, A1 , both these area are
exposed to the inlet steam pressure P2 and so the loads on them will be equal and
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opposite,therefore they will balance.

(b) Steam Traps: Steam trap is a special type of valve which prevents the passage of steam but
allows condensate through .It works automatically and is used in steam heating lines to drain
condensate wiyhout passing any steam.the benefit gained with the steam trap is that steam is
contained in the heating line untill it condenses,thus giving up all of its latent heat.
There are three main types :
1) Mechanical
2) Thermostatic
3) Thermodynamic
Mechanical Steam Traps: mechanical traps have been installed with ball floats or open floats
for control of a needle valve to release condensate.
Thermostatic Trap: Thermostatic traps uses the expansion of an oil filled element,bimetallic
strip,or flexible bellows to actuate the valve.
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Oil filled Thermostatic Trap :
As the condensate temperature rises in the oil filled element type ,element A expands to close the
valve D . An adjustment screw E permits the valve to be set up for condensate release at a
specific temperature .clearly in an application where the pressure varies,where could be a broad
bend of operation in which the trap would be either waterlogged or passing steam.
Bi Metallic Strip Type ::With a bi metallic strip type,deflection of the bimetallic strip when the
temperature increases,closes the valve.the device will work over a range of pressures without the
need for readjustment and will operate satisfactorly under super heated condition. It is not
perticularly prone to damage by water hammer or vibration.
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Bellow Type Steam Trap: In the flexible bellows type the bellows is filled with a mixture
which boils at lower temperature than does the steam.the trap self compensates for operating
pressures. It will be dameged if water hammer occurs and will brust if subjected to superheated
steam.
Thermodynamic Type :This type of trap uses the pressure energy of the steam to close the
valve which consist of a simple metal disc.The sequence of operation is shown in fig. In fig A
disc A is raised from seat rings C by incoming pressure allowing discharge of air and condensate
through oulet B.As the condensate approaches steam temperature it flashes to steam at the trap
orifice.This means that the rate of fluid flow radially outward under the disc is greatly
increased.There is thus an increase in dynamic pressure and a reduction in static pressure.This
disc is therefore drawn towards the seat.Due to this alone the disc will never seat.However,steam
can flow round the edge of the disc resulting in pressure built up in the control chamber D as
shown in fig B.When the steam pressure in chamber D acting over the full area of the disc C
exceeds the incoming condensate/steam pressure acting on the much smaller inlet area,the disc
snaps shut over the orifice.This snap action is important.It removes any possibility of wire-
drawing the seat,while the seating itself is tight,ensuring no leakage.As shown in fig D.the
incoming pressure will eventually exceed in the control chamber pressure and the disc will be
raised,starting the cycle all over again.
The rate of operating will depend upon the steam pressure and on ambient air temperature.In
practice,the trap will usually open after 15-25 sec,the length of time open depending on the
amount of condensate to be discharged.If no condensate have been found,then the trap snaps shut
immediately.From the foregoing it will be seen that the trap is never closed for more than 15-25
secs,so condensate is removed vertually as soon as it is formed .
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(c) Drains:
Drains are provided in pipelines and usually have small cocks to open or close them. It is
essential that certain pipelines are drained regularly, particularly in steam systems. When steam
is admitted to a pipeline containing a reasonable surface of water it will condense and a partial
vacuum occur: the water will then be drawn along the pipe until it meets a bend or a closed
valve. The impact of the moving water in the pipe work will create large forces known as 'water
hammer', which can result in damage to pipe work and fittings.
(22) Explain
(a) How lengths of steam pipe are joined ?
(b) How the pipes are supported ?
(c) How expansion is allowed for ?
(a) Machinery space pipe work is made up of assorted straight lengths and bends joined by
flanges with an appropriate gasket or joint between or very small-bore piping may use
compression couplings.
(b) The pipes are supported and held in by hangers or pipe clips in such a way as to minimize
vibration. Steam pipes or pipes in systems with considerable temperature variation may be
supported on spring hangers which permit a degree of movement. An alternative to spring
hangers is the use of expansion loops of piping or an expansion joint.
(c)Provision must be made in pipe systems to accommodate change in length due to change in
temperature, and so prevent undue stress or distortion as pipe expands or contracts
One type of expansion joint has an anchored sleeve with stuffing box and gland in which
103
extension of joining pipe can slide freely within imposed limits

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Simpler schemes allow for change of length with a right angle bend arrangement or a loop .
For high pressure and temperature stainless stee bellows expansion joints are commonly used
since they will absorbe some movement or vibration in several planes, eliminate maintenance,
reduce friction and heat loss.
104
Page

(23) Describe correct procedure for raising pressure in a Steam Boiler and coupling them
to steam system.
 The forced draught fan should be started and air passed through the furnace for
several minutes to 'purge' it of any exhaust gas or oil vapours.
 The air slides (checks) at every register, except the lighting up' burner, should then be
closed.
 The operating burner can now be lit and adjusted to provide a low firing rate with good
combustion.
 The fuel oil pressure and forced draught pressure should be matched to ensure good
combustion with a full steady flame.
 The super heater header vents may be closed once steam issues from them. When a drum
pressure of about 210kPa (2.1 bar) has been reached the drum air vent may be closed.
 The boiler must be brought slowly up to working pressure in order to ensure gradual
expansion and to avoid overheating the super heater elements and damaging any refractory
material.
 Boiler manufacturers usually provide a steam raising diagram in the form of a graph of
drum pressure against hours after flashing up.
 The main and auxiliary steam lines should now be warmed through and then the drains
closed. In addition the water level gauges should be blown through and checked for correct
reading.
 When the steam pressure is about 300 kPa (3 bar) below the normal operating value the
safety valves should be lifted and released using the easing gear.
 Once at operating pressure the boiler may be put on load and the super heater circulating
valves closed.
 All other vents, drains and bypasses should then be closed.
 The water level in the boiler should be carefully checked and the automatic water
regulating arrangements observed for correct operation.
(24) Describe how to check correctly water level in Steaming Boilers and the dangers of
low level and high level and corrective actions required in either case.
Water Level Gauges:
The water level gauge provides a visible indication of the water level in the boiler in the region
of the correct working level.
If the water level were too high then water might pass out of the boiler and do serious damage to
any equipment designed to accept steam. This process is called as priming of the boiler.
If the water level were too low then the heat transfer surfaces might become exposed to
excessive temperatures and fail.
Constant attention to the boiler water level is therefore essential. Due to the motion of the ship it
is necessary to have a water level gauge at each end of the boiler to correctly observe the level.
Depending upon the boiler operating pressure, one of two basically different types of water level
gauge will be fitted. For boiler pressures up to a maximum of 17 bar a round glass tube type of
105
water level gauge is used. The glass tube is connected to the boiler shell by cocks and pipes, as
shown in Figure below. Packing rings are positioned at the tube ends to give a tight seal and
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prevent leaks. A guard is usually placed around the tube to protect it from accidental damage and
to avoid injury to any personnel in the vicinity if the tube shatters. The water level gauge is
usually connected directly to the boiler. Isolating cocks are fitted in the steam and water
passages, and a drain cock is also present. A ball valve is fitted below the tube to shut off the
water should the tube break and water attempt to rush out.
For boiler pressures above 17 bar a plate-glass-type water level gauge is used.
(25) Explain how Feed Water Treatment is carried out ad Why is it necessary?
Boiler feed water and condensate systems are regularly tested for impurities, which must be
eradicated before damage to the boiler internals is done. These impurities which include gasses
and undissolved solids along with water properties such as hardness , alkalinity and chloride
content to deposit scale and cause corrosion of water tubes and internal fittings.
Negative results of the tests can be rectified by the addition of chemicals to the feed water
system and diluting the impurities or by blowing down the boiler and adding make up feed.
Tests Carried out on a Boiler Feed Water System
Sample of (50 ml) taken from the Boiler feed water system through the sampling cock mounted
on the Boiler water drum is cooled usually to 25οC and chemically tested for the following
properties and impurities:
 Dissolved Gases - Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia.

 Acidity or Alkalinity - Carbonates, Bicarbonates & Hydroxides content.
 Hardness - Calcium & Magnesium salts content
106
 Un Dissolved Solids - Impurities (sludge) built up in the boiler water over time
 Chlorine content - Originates from seawater ingress to feed water system.
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Tests carried out for Boiler Water Impurities
 Dissolved Gases – O2 and CO2
 Alkalinity
 Hardness (Phosphates, Sulfates & Carbonates)
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
 Chlorine Content
STEAM TO
OTHER
SYSTEMS
FEED
INLET
PUMP
OUTLET
SUPERHEATED
STEAM
OUTLET
107
Page

Recommended ranges
pH : 9.6 to 10.3
PO4 : 4 to 20ppm
NO3 : 0.01 to 0.03ppm
TDS : < 150ppm
Condensate pH : 8.6 to 9.0
Cl : 20ppm
O2 :10ppb
Si : 10ppb
Reason for Boiler Water Treatment:

 Avoid scale and corrosion by eliminating
 Dissolved gases
 Hardness salt
 Various pollutants (oil, mud, acid etc)
 Ensure an efficient Heat transfer surface
 Boiler tubes must be kept clean for safe and reliable operation
CORROSION IN TUBES
SCALE FORMATION IN TUBES

108
Page

ON BOARD GRAPHIC LOG FOR BOILER WATER TEST PROGRAMME
109
Page

ON BOARD GRAPHIC LOG FOR ENGINE COOLING WATER TEST PROGRAMME
(26) Describe a Composite Steam Generating Plant as fitted on board the Ship including
the Design.
The Composite Marine Steam Boiler is a combination of an oil-fired steam boiler and an exhaust
gas economizer. When the diesel engine is at full load the fuel oil burner only starts if the steam
demand exceeds the steam production achieved from the diesel engines exhaust gases.
Most common composite boilers have separated sections for the diesel engines exhaust gases and
the flue gases from the fuel oil burners.
Refer to illustration for details on construction design, operation, safety features & maintenance.
110
Page

COMPOSITE BOILER SECTIONAL VIEW

Starting, stopping and modulating the burner & air fuel regulator control the steam pressure in
the composite boiler as per demand and a pressure governed control valve dumps excess steam
into a dump (atmospheric) condenser.
111
Page

(27) Describe Circuit of Generated Steam.
(28) Describe preparations to be made for putting the steam plant in operation.
1) Fill up water up till ¼ of the gauge glass

2) Ensure vent is open
3) Main Steam Stop valve closed
4) Fire the burner intermittently to ensure gradual heating up of boiler and feed water
5) Once the mud hole doors are warm the frequency of firing can be gradually increased
6) When steam starts emerging from vent and all air is positively vented out, close the vent.
112
7) Now gradually increase the pressure up to the working pressure.

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(29) Describe checks to be made during firing up of Boilers.
Firstly, the forced draft fans should be started to purge the system to remove any trapped
exhaust gases or oil vapors.
 All the air slides at different registers should be checked and closed, except the "lightning
up" burner.
 The operating burner should then be lit for low firing rate and efficient combustion
 The fuel oil flow should be matched with the speed of the fan to ensure a complete
combustion with steady flame.
 Fuel temperature and pressure should be checked
 Color of smoke should be checked
 Once the boiler starts and steam starts coming out of the super heater vents, the super
heater header vents should be closed.
 As soon as the pressure reaches 210 kpa, the air drum vents should be closed.
 The working pressure should be brought up gradually to avoid overheating and damage to
refractory material.
 After the main and auxiliary lines are warmed through, the drains should be closed.
 All the water level gauges should also be blown through and checked to ensure correct
reading.
 The safety valves should be lifted and released when the pressure is 3 bar below the
normal operating value.
 Once the operating pressure is reached, the boiler should be put on load and the super
heater circulatory valves should be closed.
 All the vents, drains and by passes should also be closed.
 The water level in the boiler should be properly checked and the cascade system should be
monitored for correct operation.
 Check for visible leaks
 Check steam pressure
(30) Describe Automatic Control for Starting Up and Shutting Down of an Oil Fired
Boiler.
Automatic firing
 Set the mode of the boiler to "Low firing" or "High pressure" mode. Low or high
pressure led will be lit
 Check that the force draught fan switch is in "auto mode".

 Check that the boiler fuel oil pump is in “auto” and the steam pressure controller is
on “auto”.
 Check that the fuel atomizing medium valve is open.
113
 Check that there are no alarms on the boiler panel, and water level is normal.
 Press button "burner start". The iginitor will come into play and flame eye will
Page
ensure ignition fuel valve is energized only when the ignition spark is detected.
 After starting sequence is completed the boiler will fire and continue to fire with the
flame eye ensuring the main fuel oil solenoid valve is energized (only if the flame
present inside the furnace is sustained and un-interrupted ) till it reaches the cut out
pressure of "low firing" mode or "high pressure” mode.
 Once the boiler reaches cut off pressure, the fuel valve will be de-enegized and the
FD fan will continue to run till the pre set post purging sequence is completed.
Emergency mode firing
Resort to emergency mode start up only when the burner sequence is out of order.
 Switch over from auto to emergency operation

 Set the load controller in manual.
 Close the air damper completely.
 Start the force draught fan.
 Open the damper completely and purge the furnace for at least 60 seconds.
 Close the air damper completely.
 Press the ignition push button (maximum 10 second).
 Press the fuel valve solenoid valve and ensure flame inside the furnace is
continuous and bright in colour.
 Boiler staem pressure can be raised to desired value by keeping the fuel on.
 Note Emergency Operation is not to done on continuous mode as alarms & trips
are bypassed in this mode.
 Normal operation must be put ensured for continuous boiler operation.
Note: If the burner fails to start furnace must be re-purged positively prior to
repeating the ignition sequence again.
114
Page

Mandatory Alarms and Trip functions on Marine Boilers
Function Audible and visual Action
Low water level Alarm
Low Low water level * Alarm Burner stop
High water level Alarm -
High High water level Alarm Feed water pump stop
Low steam pressure Alarm -
High steam pressure Alarm Burner stop
Low feed water pressure Alarm Stand-by pump start
Low fuel oil pressure Alarm Stand-by pump start
Low fuel oil temperature Alarm Burner stop
High fuel oil temperature Alarm Burner stop
Low combustion air pressure Alarm Burner stop
Low atomizing steam pressure Alarm Burner stop
Flame failure ** Alarm Burner stop
Burner not in firing position Alarm Burner stop

115
Page

(31) Describe Safety Devices of Plant, Mandatory Safety Requirements.
Mandatory Safety Requirements

 At least two safety valves have to be fitted to the boiler. They may be both mounted on a
common manifold with a single connection to the boiler.
 The safety valve size must not be less than 38mm in diameter and the area of the valve
can be calculated from the following formula.
C x A x P = 9.81 x H x E
Where,
H= Total heating surface in m3
E = Evaporative rate in Kg steam per m2 of heating surface per hour
P = Working pressure of safety valves in MN/m2 absolute
A = Aggregate area through the seating of the valves in mm2
C = the discharge coefficient whose value depends upon the type of valve.
C=4.8 for ordinary spring loaded valves

C=7.2 for high lift spring loaded valves
C= 9.6 for improved high lift spring loaded valves
C= 19.2 for full lift safety valves
C= 30 for full bore relay operated safety valves
 Pressure setting of Safety Valves to ensure lift at 10% above working pressure,
 The Boiler should clear the accumulation test,
 Flame failure alarm & trip should be provided.
 Low water level alarm & trip should be provided.
Boiler Safety Valve
A boiler safety valve is a spring loaded valve, which is always fitted in pairs on a common
valve chest. The valve is so set that it releases all the steam generated by the boiler if the boiler
pressure increases 10% above the pre-set level (WP). The main advantage of a boiler safety
valve is that it is the utmost form of reliable safety measure that a boiler can have, and which
also shows positive action at any inclination. The safety valves are directly mounted on the
boiler body, generally at the steam space.
Construction and Working
The spring loaded valve used as the safety valve, is a conventional type of valve with a helical
spring, which is used to pre-set a pressure of the valve using a compression nut. All the safety
valves, once set for a specific pressure limit, are locked and cannot be changed at a later stage.
116
The functioning of the valve is also similar to the conventional type of spring loaded valve, with
the valve getting raised when the pressure of the steam rises above the pre-set mark. The spring
gets compressed and the steam escapes through a waste pipe connected to the funnel, which
Page
opens safely out to the atmosphere.

Drawback in Operation
The process of opening of the safety valve is often faced with a drawback. When the valve is
opened by the initial compression of the spring it stays in the same position only for few seconds.
The force of the steam opens the valve further by compressing the spring. Hence more than
necessary pressure and steam is relieved from the system. To counteract this phenomenon, a lip
arrangement is provided on the valve lid, which provides a greater area for the steam to act on it.
The force generated pushes the valve in the downward position and thus balances the upward
force of the escaping steam.
Modified High Lift Safety Valve
The valve is provided with a manually operated lever which can be used to open the valve at
times of emergency. Many modifications have been made till now to achieve a higher life as
quick as possible. Most of this modifications are seen around the lower spring carrier, which
comprises of a piston shaped arrangement for the steam to act on it underside. Rubber rings are
117
provided around the cylinder to act as a sealing agent and a containing cylinder. The guide plate
is provided with steam ports for the escape of the spring. The steam released due to the opening
of the main valve acts on the underside of the piston to give it a higher lift. Once the excess
Page

pressure is relieved, the spring force closes the valve quickly. The arrangement is so made that a
bit of air is trapped in between the valve seat and the valve in order to create a cushion of steam.
A drain pipe, which opens outside, is also provided to release any condensed steam generated in
the valve, in order to prevent any sluggishness in opening or closing of the valve due to
accumulation of the condensate.
(31) Describe the testing of boiler

Testing of boilers:
 Setting of safety valve
 Hydraulic pressure test of boilers
 Checking all safety cut outs
 Internal inspection of furnace ,steam and water drum
 Inspection and assessing internal condition of all boiler mountings
Refer Maintenance & Repairs – C9 118
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C6 – MAIN & AUXILIARY MACHINES

Function: Marine Engineering Practice at Operational Level

Operate Main and Auxiliary Machinery and Associated Control Systems.

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

(1) Theoretical knowledge of Construction and Operation of Main Machinery.

Different parts of Two Stroke Diesel Engine are:-

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Working principle of Two Stroke Engine:

a) Crosshead Type Diesel Engines:

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

(b) Trunk Type Diesel Engines:

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

c) Slow Speed Diesel Engines:

d) Medium Speed Diesel Engines:

e) High Speed Diesel Engines:

(3) Define Scavenging process.

Also differentiate between (a) Loop Scavenging (b) Uniflow Scavenging

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Types of scavenging are:-

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Instrument for obtaining Indicator Cards

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

Faults as shown on the indicator cards.

Faulty Instrument Diagrams:

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

5) The Indicator Valve Leaks: Gives an untrue atmospheric line.

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

 Fuel injection too late.

 Wrong VIT index.

 Blow past in the piston rings.

 Low scavenge pressure.

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

METHOD OF MAIN ENGINE POWER CALCULATION

Calculate Mean Indicated Pressure ( pi ) bar

pi (bar) = A L = Length of the indicator diagram in mm

L x Cs Cs = Spring Constant in mm / bar

Calculate Mean effective Pressure ( pe ) bar

pe ( bar ) = pi – k1 pi = mean indicated pressure in bar

k1 = mean friction loss in bar.( approx 1 bar )

Calculate Indicated Engine Power ( Pi )

Pi = k2 x n x pi k2 = Cylinder constant = 0.78 x D2 x S

pi = Mean indicated pressure in bar

Calculate effective engine power ( Pe )

Pe = k2 x n x pe k2 = Cylinder constant = 0.78 x D2 x S

pe = Mean effective pressure in bar

SHP : Shaft Horse Power will be 1 % less than BHP

Note : To calculate IHP in KW then k2 = Cylinder constant = 0.57 x D2 x S

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

For fast calculation : ( Only approximate )

ENGINE DISTANCE = REVOLUTIONS x PROP CONSTANT

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

6) Describe the Fuel Injector and its Operation.

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

(7) State typical definitions for :-

(8) Indicate the heat balance diagrams of the diesel engines.

GME AND BS TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL

(9) Sketch the section through:

a) Piston showing Cooling Arrangement

b) Water Cooled Piston