Finite Elements Method in Structures

Structural Engineering Program

School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Bahir Dar university (BiT)

Formulation of the Finite Elements

6/2/2020 Bahir Dar Univesity 1

 The Principle of Virtual Displacements
• The principle of virtual displacements is a convenient alternative to the direct stiffness
matrix for the formulation of the element stiffness matrices and for load vectors
associated with initial strains, body forces, and surface forces.
• Other variational, energy-based method can also be used, and will be discussed later.
• Virtual displacements (indicated with a δu) is imaginary and very small change in the
configuration of s system relative to the equilibrium configuration with applied loads,
and that is admissible.
• Admissible displacements do not violate compatibility nor displacement boundary
conditions. Virtual displacements do not modify the actual applied loads or stresses.

 δε T
σ dV   δu T
FdV   ΦdS
δu T

Where the virtual strains (δε) are associated to the virtual displacements (δu)

Finite Element Method in Structures 2

 The Principle of Virtual Displacements
 δε T
σ dV   δu T
FdV   ΦdS
δu T

• The formulation of the principle of virtual displacements can be directly obtained by

integration of the equilibrium equations multiplied by the vector of virtual
displacements.

• In general, the displacements u of a finite element are the reference field  to be

interpolated. In this case, the matrix e contains the nodal displacements. We have thus:

strains are calculated from the displacements, using the matrix operator : ε  []u
strains can also be obtained as:

 u  N d or  u T   d T N T  ε  B d or ε T  d T B T

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 The principle of virtual displacements
From the stress strain relationship including both initial strain and initial stress in to the
equation

The virtual displacement

equation becomes

Notice that vectors d and d do not appear within integrals because they are independent of the
coordinates. This expression can be also written in compact form as:

k   B CBdV
T
kd  re where:
V

and: re   N T FdV   N T ΦdS  B T Cε I dV   B T σ I dV

V S V
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 The Principle of Virtual Displacements
The expression for re defines consistent nodal loads, i.e. determined by the same shape
functions used to determined the element stiffness matrix.

re   NT FdV   NT ΦdS   BT Cε I dV   BT σ I dV
Body Force Traction Initial Strain Initial Stress

where: K  k ( Assembly of element matrices)

KD  R
and: D, R are the assembled nodal displacement
and force vectors

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 Application to Finite Elements
• Truss Element (Two-force element)
• Let us consider the element in figure.Let x1=0 and x2=L.
• Let us use a linear interpolation function for the axial displacement.
x1  x x2  x  xk  x  xn  x  x2  x L x x1  x x
Nk  ; n2 N1   N2  
x1  xk  x2  xk  xk  xk  xn  xk  x2  x1 L x1  x2 L

Lx d  L x x   1 1
N
x B  []N  
 L L  dx  L L   L
 L 

Considering E and A constant

The element stiffness matrix
obtained is the same obtained in
Matrix Analysis using the direct
stiffness method
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 Application to finite elements
As for the consistent nodal load vector, we have that
the body forces F are zero, and the surface forces dS
correspond to P.
If a stress due to uniform temperature increase were
present, it would correspond to ETdx.

re   NT FdV   NT ΦdS   BT Cε I dV   BT σ I dV
V S V V

L
 32 P   1
re  N T
P   B ET  Adx   1  ET  
T

 3 P 1
L3
0

The load vectors are consistent with what can be calculated based on elementary
mechanics of materials theory
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 Application to Finite Elements
Beam Element (Euler-Bernoulli)
In this case, the “stress” and the “strain” we are using
in the virtual work expression are the bending
moment M and the curvature .
The nodal displacements of interest are v1, z1, v2, and z2.

The governing equations are as follows: M  EI  ;   d 2v2

dx

For the interpolation, we have to use at least a cubic polynomial (4 DOFs), which
comprise conditions on the displacements and on their derivatives. At least C1 functions
need to be used.
We explicitly calculated the A matrix for this case before.
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Application to finite elements
The shape functions become:

T
N  XT A 1 X  1 x x 2
x 
3

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Application to finite elements
The B matrix becomes:
d2  6 12x 4 6x 6 12x 2 6x 
B  2 N   2  3   2  3   2
dx  L L L L L2
L L L 

With constant E and Iz:

 12 6L 12 6L 
L
EI  6L 4L2 6L 2L2 
k   BT EI zBdx  3z  
0
L  12 6L 12 6L2 
6L 2L2 6L 4L
 

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 Application to Finite Elements
To obtain the nodal loads produced by a uniform load q, the second
integral in the nodal force expression is used, with  = -q and dS = dx

re   NT FdV   NT ΦdS   BT Cε I dV   BT σ I dV
V S V V

The result is:

  qL 2 
  qL2 12 
re   
 qL 2 
 qL2 12 
 

Thermal loads or other imposed strains are treated just as in the previous
case.
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Application to Finite Elements

Linear triangles: these finite elements are

plane triangles, the field quantities of which
vary linearly with the cartesian coordinates
xy.
In our case, a linear displacement field implies a constant strain field, therefore
these elements are also referred to as Constant Strain Triangles (CST).

Note: we will refer to a system of coordinates with the origin at node 1 of the
element. This simplifies the expressions without loss of generality.

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Application to Finite Elements

The field quantity  can be

interpolated in terms of the
generalized DOFs as follows:
 a1 
  1 x y a2 
 a3 

As we have seen, it is possible to express the field of interest in

terms of field values at the nodes. Remembering that x1=y2=y1=0:
1  1 0 0   a1  Note: this matrix is
   1 x   already in its triangular
 2  2 0   a2  form. Solution in terms
3  1 x3 y3   a3  of the ai is immediate.

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Application to Finite Elements

Solving the systems for ai:

2  1 ; x3  x2  x3
a1  1 ; a2  a3  1  2  1 3
x2 x2 y3 x2 y3 y3
The interpolated field then becomes:
A 1
 
 
 1 0 0
 
  1 
0  2 
1 1
  Nd  1 x y  
 x2 x2   
 x  x    3
 3 2 x 3 1
 x2 y3 x2 y3 y3 

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Application to Finite Elements

The gradients of the field are:

 
 1
,x   x   
      N 2 
 , y     
 y   3 
For the element we are considering:
 1
B
0 
1
0 1 0  1  x2 x2
B A  
  x3  x2 x3 1
0 0 1
 
 x2 y3 x2 y3 y3 

This case refers to problems described by a scalar field, like heat

conduction. If  is the material conductivity matrix, we have:
k   BT  BtdA
V

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Application to Finite Elements

In the case the problem depends

on a field described by more
components (i.e., displacement)
we have:
 a1   a4 
du dv du dv
u  1 x y  a2  ; v  1 x y  a5  x  ;  y  ;  xy  
dx dy dy dx
 a3   a6 

The strains are:  x  a2 ;  y  a6 ;  xy  a3  a5

It is possible to follow the same procedure we just outlined for the

scalar field element, obtaining the B matrix.

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Application to Finite Elements
The strain-displacement relation
becomes thus:

 1 1   u1 
 x 0 0 0 0  
x2   v1 
 x   2
    x3  x2 x3 1  u 2 
 y  0 0 0  
x2 y3 x2 y3 y3   v2 
  
 xy   x  x 1 x3 1 1  u 
 3 2 0   3
 x2 y3 x2 x2 y3 x2 y3   v3 

The stiffness matrix in this case follows the same pattern as before:
k   BT CBtdA

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Application to Finite Elements

Funny enough, the element we just formulated

does not work very well in some simple problems.
For example, a coarse mesh of CST elements in
bending is excessively stiff. Refining the mesh
alleviates the problem, but slowly. In plane-strain
situations, the mesh can “lock” and become
undeformable.
In FEA, the term locking refers to excessive stiffness in one or more
directions of deformation. Excessive stiffness does not preclude very
small deformation, even though incorrect, so convergence of the
solution is still likely.
Typical example of this is simulation of rubberlike materials, with
Poisson’s ratio close to 0.5. In this case, volumetric strain is associated
with extremely large stiffness.
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Application to Finite Elements

Quadratic triangles: these finite elements are

plane triangles, the field quantities of which vary
parabolically with the cartesian coordinates xy. The
main difference from CST Triangles is the presence
of nodes in the middle of the sides.

The variables that completely define the problem are the u, v displace-
ments of the nodes, for a total of 12 nodal DOFs. In terms of
generalized DOF ai , the displacement field is defined as:

Applying the strain-deformation relationship it is possible to calculate

the values of strain.

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Application to Finite Elements

  u ;   v ;  xy  u  v
x
x y
y y x

 x  a2  2a4 x  a5 y
 y  a9  a11 x  2a12 y
 xy  a3  a8   a5  2a10  x  2a6  a11  y

The strain field is linear in x and y. These elements are referred to as

LST for “Linear Strain Triangles”. It is easy to show that these
elements can reproduce exactly pure bending behavior.

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Application to Finite Elements

Comparisons between use of CST and LST elements show that for
bending problems (which are characterized by linear normal strain and
quadratic shear strain) a coarse mesh of LST yields much better results
than a very fine mesh of CST. Values shown are ratios of the results to
the theoretical solution.
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Application to Finite Elements

Bilinear rectangles: these finite elements are

plane rectangles, the field quantities of which vary
linearly with the cartesian coordinates xy. They are
the quadrilateral equivalent of CST triangles. These
elements are commonly referred to as Q4.

The variables that completely define the problem are the u, v displace-
ments of the nodes, for a total of 8 nodal DOFs. In terms of generalized
DOF ai , the displacement field and the strain field are defined as:
u  a1  a2 x  a3 y  a4 xy
 x  a2  a4 y
v  a  a x  a y  a xy
 y  a7  a8 x
5 6 7 8
 xy  a3  a6   a4 x  a8 y
It is apparent that in this case, the normal strain field is constant in
one direction and linear in the other. The shear strain is linear.

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Application to Finite Elements

It is possible to utilize Lagrange’s interpolation

formula in order to obtain the shape functions in
terms of the nodal DOFs. As we recall:
 x1  x  x2  x  xk  x   xn  x 
Nk 
 x1  xk x2  xk  xk  xk   xn  xk 
We can interpolate linearly first in the x ax ax
u12  u1  u2
direction along the top and bottom 2a 2a
sides where y=±b , x1=-a and x2=a. ax ax
u43  u4  u3
2a 2a
Next, we can interpolate linearly in the y by b y
direction between u12 and u43. u u12  u43
2b 2b

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Application to Finite Elements

Combination of the three equations produces an

expression in the form
u   N i ui

Where the shape functions N are:

a  x b  y  a  x b  y 
N1  N2 
4ab 4ab
a  x b  y  a  x b  y 
N3  N4 
4ab 4ab
Note1: the shape functions have unit value at the corresponding node
and zero value anywhere else.
Note2: the element is also referred to as bilinear, in that the shape
functions are products of linear function of xy
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Application to Finite Elements

Once the shape functions are known, it is possible

to express the displacement field function of the
nodal DOFs:
 u1 
 
v
u   N 0 N2 0 N 0 N4 0  1  
 u 2 
 v    0 N1
3
0 N2 0 N3 0 N4   
    
The strain field is obtained as:  v4 
  Bu  []Nu
where:

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Application to Finite Elements

Finally, once B is known, the stiffness matrix for

the Q4 element can be calculated as:
b a

k   B T
C Btdxdy
88 b a 83 33 38

Where t is the element thickness. The integrands are simple 2nd

degree polynomials, presenting no difficulties at all.

Note: this element suffers from similar limitations to those discussed

for the CST element. In particular, it cannot exhibit pure bending
behavior. Any bending deformation is associated, in fact, with the
appearance of a “parasitic” shear strain, which renders the element
stiffer. This is also referred to as shear locking behavior.

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Application to Finite Elements

Quadratic rectangles: these finite elements are

plane rectangles, the field quantities of which vary
parabolically with the cartesian coordinates xy.
They are the quadrilateral equivalent of LST
triangles. These elements are commonly referred
to as Q8.
The variables that completely define the problem are the u, v displace-
ments of the nodes, for a total of 16 nodal DOFs. In terms of
generalized DOF ai , the displacement field is defined as:
u  a 2a x  a y  a x 2  a xy  a y 2  a x 2 y  a
xy 12 3 4 5 6 7 8
v  a9  a10 x  a11 y  a12 x  a13 xy  a14 y  a15 x y  a16 xy 2
2 2 2

Applying the usual strain-displacement relationship we can obtain the

strain field.

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Application to Finite Elements

The strain field is obtained by means of the usual

relationships:

  u ;   v ;  xy  u  v
x
x y
y y x

  a  2a x  a y  2a xy  a y 2
x 2 4 5 7 8

 y  a11  a13 x  2a14 y  a15 x  2a16 xy

2

 xy  a3  a10   a5  2a12  x  2a6  a13  y  a7 x  2 a8  a15  xy  a16 y 2

2

It is apparent that the normal strain fields that can be described are
varying in a quadratic fashion across the strain direction, and linearly in
the direction of strain.
The shear strain is represented by a complete quadratic polynomial.

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Application to Finite Elements

The Q8 elements are also called serendipity. It

turns out that sometimes intuition yields good
results.
From Q8 elements, it is reasonable to build a Q9
element, by adding one node at the origin of the
local axes. This node is internal to the element,
and therefore not connected to any other
element. Displacement and strain fields are:
u  a1  a2 x  a3 y  a4 x 2  a5 xy  a6 y 2  a7 x 2 y  a8 xy 2  a17 x 2 y 2
v  a9  a10 x  a11 y  a12 x 2  a13 xy  a14 y 2  a15 x 2 y  a16 xy 2  a18 x 2 y 2

 x  a2  2a4 x  a5 y  2a7 xy  a8 y 2  2a17 xy 2

 y  a11  a13 x  2a14 y  a15 x 2  2a16 xy  2a18 x 2 y
 xy  a3  a10   a5  2a12  x  2a6  a13  y  a7 x 2  2 a8  a15  xy  a16 y 2  2a17 x 2 y  2a18 xy 2
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Application to Finite Elements

The interest of a Q9 element is that it is a

Lagrange element, i.e. its shape functions can be
obtained by using Lagrange interpolation.
Element Q9 is biquadratic, i.e. its shape functions
are product of parabolic functions in x and y.

The procedure for obtaining the shape functions is analogous to the

one followed for Q4 elements. Once B is obtained, the stiffness
matrices are:
b a b a
k 
1616
 B T
C B tdxdy
b a 163 33 316
k   B T
C B tdxdy
1818 b a 183 33 318

for the Q8 element for the Q9 element

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Property of stiffness matrix
• Nonnegative - it is physically unreasonable that a single load in a
given direction would produce a displacement component in the
opposite direction.
• Symmetry
• Sparsity
• Singularity (no support or inadequate support )

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