Sie sind auf Seite 1von 13

buildings

Article
‘Materials as a Design Tool’ Design Philosophy
Applied in Three Innovative Research Pavilions
Out of Sustainable Building Materials with
Controlled End-Of-Life Scenarios
Hanaa Dahy 1,2
1 BioMat (Bio-based Materials and Material Cycles in Architecture) Research Department at ITKE
(Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design) in Faculty 01–Architecture and Urban Planning,
University of Stuttgart, Keplerstr. 11, 70174 Stuttgart, Germany; h.dahy@itke.uni-stuttgart.de
2 FEDA: Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, 11517 Cairo, Egypt

Received: 21 February 2019; Accepted: 11 March 2019; Published: 13 March 2019 

Abstract: Choosing building materials is usually the stage that follows design in the architectural
design process, and is rarely used as a main input and driver for the design of the whole building’s
geometries or structures. As an approach to have control over the environmental impact of the
applied building materials and their after-use scenarios, an approach has been initiated by the
author through a series of research studies, architectural built prototypes, and green material
developments. This paper illustrates how sustainable building materials can be a main input in the
design process, and how digital fabrication technologies can enable variable controlling strategies over
the green materials’ properties, enabling adjustable innovative building spaces with new architectural
typologies, aesthetic values, and controlled martial life cycles. Through this, a new type of design
philosophy by means of applying sustainable building materials with closed life cycles is created.
In this paper, three case studies of research pavilions are illustrated. The pavilions were prefabricated
and constructed from newly developed sustainable building materials. The applied materials
varied between structural and non-structural building materials, where each had a controlled
end-of-life scenario. The application of the bio-based building materials was set as an initial
design phase, and the architects here participated within two disciplines: once as designers, and
additionally as green building material developers. In all three case studies, Design for Deconstruction
(DfD) strategies were applied in different manners, encouraging architects to further follow such
suggested approaches.

Keywords: design thinking; sustainable building materials; biomimetic; digital fabrication; closed
life-cycle; end-of-life scenarios; green materials; Design for Deconstruction (DfD); bending-active
structures; segmented shell

1. Introduction
A key feature of architecture is the constant adaptation of external influences such as culture,
climate, and ideologies. Architects have always been eager to develop new concepts, analyze existing
problems, and transform them into preferred situations. Architecture is influenced by the changing
needs of society. In order to adapt to these demands, there is a constant process of rethinking and
improving established typologies. Through innovative new developments, the present spirit of the
time (Zeitgeist) is used and formed to find sustainable solutions for the architectural and structural
problems of our time.

Buildings 2019, 9, 64; doi:10.3390/buildings9030064 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings


Buildings 2019, 9, 64 2 of 13

However, the constant further development of architecture’s form and function is still
continuously achieved by the guidance of a rigid linear design thinking process. This classical
design tool is based on a fundamental idea, whose emphasis follows the order: defining the problem,
brainstorming, problem solving, and finally, testing [1]. It was this specific design tool structure that
made it possible to develop most of the current adapted architectural solutions.
Although many ecological problems could largely be improved by architecture, the approach
of applying specific ecologically friendly materials as a first phase in the design approach is still not
largely applied. Due to the need for rapid reconstruction and the high housing shortage, the post-war
architecture missed a sufficient discussion with important factors such as the ecological influence and
the re-usability after the building elements’ relatively short life cycle, such as for instance building
skins that have an approximate lifespan of around 20 years [2]. The still current guiding principle of
the construction industry is anchored in the ‘take, make, waste’ principle [3]. In Europe, this leads to
up to 50% non-recyclable construction waste [4].
The construction sector account for more than 35% of global final energy use, nearly 40% of
energy-related CO2 emissions [5], and almost 45% of global resources consumption. As the global
population will grow from seven billion to almost nine billion by 2040, the demand for resources will
rise exponentially so that by 2030, the world will need at least 50% more food, 45% more energy, and
30% more water at the same time when environmental boundaries will have new limits to supply,
especially with climate change [6]. Aggregate materials and concrete are currently the predominant
building materials by weight used in Europe, which together with high-emission materials such as
steel and aluminum are responsible for the largest share of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions stemming
from the building sector [7]. This paradigm from cradle to grave is no longer feasible, which is why
the search for sustainable alternatives is of great importance.
The multidisciplinary cooperation among experts from different scientific worlds, including
specifically material engineering, architecture, and structural engineering, as well as possibly biologists,
physicists, and others, facilitates huge benefits in setting new circular architectural design philosophies,
in which each scientific branch creates an input in the design process. Through this collaboration,
another strategy to start the architectural design process may totally differ. In this case, the whole
design can start by selecting a specific alternative material, which can be for instance biomass-based,
to have the ecologic feedback that is needed, and can be further combined with smart design methods
that enable combining the building elements in a way that allows dismantling options for re-use in a
later stage.
In previous research work by Lepelaar et al. [8], the usage of green building materials, especially
biocomposites, was considered in the design phase of a pedestrian bridge that was built in the campus
area of Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e)in Netherlands. The researchers here worked in a
multidisciplinary manner to meet the mechanical requirements as well as the aesthetic ones.
In this paper, the freedom of design was offered when specified green building materials were
set as a start input in the design process. Here, linear design thinking was not applied, and a new
circular design thinking, which started with ‘Materials as a Design Tool’, took place. In this case, the
choice of materials—especially bio-based materials—were the starting point, followed by defining
and customizing the material properties, applying diverse form-finding strategies using parametric
design methods, conducting structural analysis and applying digital fabrication technologies to finally
prefabricate the building elements.
In this case, defining building materials became no longer a subsequent step that follows the
linear design phase; rather it became the circular design’s strong foundation. Accordingly, a new
design philosophy was established and practiced. The usage of materials’ capabilities as a main input
in the design process opened the door to the opportunity to develop more sophisticated solutions to
address diverse architectural challenges.
This design philosophy ‘Materials as a Design Tool’ was combined with concepts that could
enable dismantling options, which is referred to as ‘Design for Deconstruction’ (DfD) [2], to be applied
Buildings 2019, 9, 64 3 of 13

in the form of small and large-scale mock-up structures. The guiding principles were the applied
modular structure systems. In this case, the focus was on the simple and logic design of the individual
components. In order to reach a proper economic impact, the individual building elements should be
always prefabricated in a suitable handy size to ensure quick assembly and disassembly [9,10] that
do not require special training. Computational form-finding and different fabrication methods can
with help achieving structural and material-saving efficiency, which can ensure a positive building
balance, hence helping in the reduction of the total CO2 footprint. Therefore, materials cannot simply
be regarded as constants. Depending on the desired usage, the selected material should be further
developed, customized, and adapted. From the beginning of the design phase, prototyping, mechanical
tests, and numerical simulation methods are capable of showing the materials’ capacities and structural
performances. Material fabrication is also an important factor, because the manufacturing processes,
such as for example extrusion, drilling, or casting also have an influence on both the material behavior
and the geometrical variations.
The author here strives to find effective ecologic solutions in the building industry through starting
with materials as a design tool, where the research and development of sustainable biomaterials is set
as a starting point in the architectural design process. The intention is to produce building elements and
systems that are CO2 -neutral, recyclable, and/or compostable, and could be partially if not completely
produced from biomass resources. This could be only achievable through close cooperation between
architects, engineers, material experts, and others. One of the applied materials in the case studies
was biocomposite fiberboards manufactured from agricultural by-products such as straw, which is the
annual rest-over released after harvesting cereal crops, bound by thermoplastic and thermoset organic
binders. The fiberboard structure was dependent on the different binders and applied fabrication
techniques, which together settled the main architectural design drivers.
In the following part, three case studies are analyzed, which highlight the philosophy of ‘Materials
as a Design Tool’ combined by the ‘Design for Deconstruction’ concept through individual applications.
Each of the three pavilions illustrates the benefits of modular construction with green building
materials, which were used as architectural and structural elements. The research pavilions were
materialized by different green building materials, whether purely structural or not.
Flexible biocomposite fiberboards, [11], elastic wood-based middle-density fiberboard (MDF)
boards, and recycled ‘cartoon’ tubes were chosen as the main materials by the author/architect to be
applied as a start driver in the design process. In each case, the selected materials were customized
to the needed structural capacities. In the design process, the focus was on not only the usage of
bio-based materials, but also above all an in-depth examination of possible end-of-life scenarios,
including re-using the building elements that would increase the validation of the circular bioeconomy,
which is another scope that is needed regionally, especially at the European level [12].
Biocomposites can act as partial replacement to wood, as well as a partial replacement to the
classic fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRP), as this group of materials lie basically between those
mentioned materials (wood and FRP). Accordingly, in order to be able to apply these new alternative
sustainable materials, it is always needed to mechanically test them after testing the codes of the
relevant materials, such as FRP and wood/polymer composites (WPC), so as to apply standardization
and verification to settle how reliable the alternative materials are, according to the frame of Eurocodes,
to suit the needed applications in reality. This was especially considered in the first case study, which is
the largest prototype shown in this paper. In previous work by the author, the improvement of the fire
behavior of other developed biocomposites to suit wider applications in architecture was reached [13].
The three analyzed case studies were realized by the Department of Bio-based Materials and
Material Cycles in Architecture (BioMat) at the Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design
(ITKE) at the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning of the University of Stuttgart under the
author’s supervision.
Buildings 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13
Buildings 2019, 9, 64 4 of 13

2. Case Studies
2. Case Studies
2.1. BioMat Pavilion SS 2018
2.1. BioMat Pavilion SS 2018
The BioMat research pavilion 2017/2018 was the result of close cooperation between architects
The BioMat
and external researchinpavilion
specialists, 2017/2018 was
which architectural the result
students of close
worked cooperation
hand in hand withbetween architects
experts from
different fields in a multidisciplinary working environment [14]. The 3.6-m high shell structurefrom
and external specialists, in which architectural students worked hand in hand with experts had
adifferent
span offields
9.5 m, in acovered
multidisciplinary
an area ofworking
55 m2, and environment
was composed[14]. The of 3.6-m high shellfabricated
121 segments structure hadfroma
span of 9.5 2 , and was composed of 121 segments fabricated from around
around 350m, coveredfabricated
digitally an area of 55 andm vacuum-laminated curved segments. It was located at the
350 digitally
campus of thefabricated and vacuum-laminated
University of Stuttgart in thecurved segments.
Stuttgart It was in
city center located at the campus
Germany. of the
The modular
University of Stuttgart
construction was made in theof Stuttgart city center
lightweight, in Germany. The
single-curved modular
elements construction
that together was made of
formed a
lightweight, single-curved elements that together formed a double-curved
double-curved shell. The individual parts consisted of a reinforced flexible biocomposite material. shell. The individual parts
consisted
The of a reinforced
structure flexible by
was supported biocomposite
three crossed material.
wooden The structure
beams. This was supported
design createdby three crossed
a delicate
wooden beams.
aesthetic structure Thisthat
design
wascreated a delicate
possible aestheticand
to dismantle structure that was
reconstruct to possible
create new to dismantle
geometricaland
reconstruct
constellations. to create new geometrical constellations.
The pavilion
The pavilion was was aa double-curved
double-curved segmentedsegmented shellshell of
of single-curved
single-curved wood wood and and biocomposite
biocomposite
elements that were interwoven with each other as a 3D fabric, as shown
elements that were interwoven with each other as a 3D fabric, as shown in Figure 1. The innovative in Figure 1. The innovative
curved biocomposites and laminated plates were developed by the
curved biocomposites and laminated plates were developed by the author. The bio-based boards author. The bio-based boards
that were
that were applied
appliedininthe core
the of the
core biocomposite
of the biocomposite laminated panels
laminated were exceptionally
panels were exceptionally elastic,elastic,
which
allowed the fabrication of extremely double-curved surfaces of the final shell
which allowed the fabrication of extremely double-curved surfaces of the final shell construction. construction. The elastic
biocomposite boards were through computerized numerical control
The elastic biocomposite boards were through computerized numerical control (CNC)-drilled and (CNC)-drilled and cut according
to the
cut set computational
according digital designdigital
to the set computational model,design
and were
model,stiffened
and were through
stiffenedlamination
throughwith veneer
lamination
layers in a vacuum press bag, with no heat or humidity pre-treatment.
with veneer layers in a vacuum press bag, with no heat or humidity pre-treatment. The resulted The resulted engineered
biocomposite
engineered was adaptedwas
biocomposite to higher
adapted stresses and applied
to higher stressesas a structural
and applied as component
a structural in the segmented
component in
shell construction, serving as the main envelope, and holding its weight
the segmented shell construction, serving as the main envelope, and holding its weight and wind and wind loads. The stresses
were transferred
loads. The stressesfrom werethe shell to the
transferred from ground through
the shell to thethe cross-linked
ground through wooden beams. wooden
the cross-linked This 1:1
temporary
beams. Thisconstruction
1:1 temporary hadconstruction
allowed the had testing of the the
allowed whole developed
testing of the building system under
whole developed real
building
conditions for five months between August–December
system under real conditions for five months between August–December 2018. 2018.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.1. (a)
(a)The
The erected
erected BioMat
BioMat pavilion
pavilion at the at the campus
campus of the University
of the University of Stuttgart;of(b)Stuttgart; (b)
Connections
Connections
of the modular of the modular
Design for Design for Deconstruction
Deconstruction (DfD)insystem
(DfD) system in combination
combination with structural
with structural beams.
beams.
© © BioMat/ITKE- University
BioMat/ITKE—University of Stuttgart.
of Stuttgart.

2.1.1. Materials
2.1.1. Materials Applied
Applied
In order
In order to
to create
create aa sustainable
sustainable bio-based
bio-based system, newly developed
system, newly developed bio-composite
bio-composite panels
panels were
were
tested and adjusted to enable structural capabilities that suited their application in the
tested and adjusted to enable structural capabilities that suited their application in the form of form of
segmented shell
segmented shell construction.
construction. These
Thesebiocomposite
biocompositepanels
panelswere
weredeveloped
developedbybythe author
the authorin in
thethe
form
formof
natural fibers bonded by thermoplastic elastic matrices. The second type of biocomposites
of natural fibers bonded by thermoplastic elastic matrices. The second type of biocomposites applied
here were
applied wood-based
here biocomposite
were wood-based panels that
biocomposite werethat
panels alsowere
vacuum-laminated by veneerby
also vacuum-laminated layers on
veneer
Buildings 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13

layers on
Buildings
Buildings both
2019,
2019, 9, 64
9, sides,
x FOR Figure
PEER REVIEW 2. The special feature of these materials was their flexibility 5and 13
of 13
of
elasticity. The elastic fiberboards were bendable in any desired single or double-curved shapes, and
layers
the finalon bothwas
shape sides, Figureand
adjusted 2. The special using
customized featurethree-dimensional
of these materials (3D)was their layers,
veneer flexibility and
[15,16].
both sides, Figure
elasticity.material
The elastic2. The special
fiberboardsfeature of these materials was their flexibility and elasticity. The elastic
Multiple alterations werewere bendable
developed in any
in the form desired single or
of sandwich double-curved
panels. Different shapes,
testing and
for
fiberboards
the final werewas
shape bendable
adjustedin any
and desired single
customized or double-curved
using shapes,
three-dimensional (3D)and the final
veneer shape
layers, was
[15,16].
the reinforcements’ adjustments took place in order to reach the optimum materials’ behavior and
adjusted
Multiple and customized using three-dimensionalin the(3D) veneer layers,panels.
[15,16].Different
Multipletesting
material
the settledmaterial alterations
target properties andwere developedVeneer
performance. form of sandwich
appliance had caused a large improvement for
to
alterations
the were
reinforcements’ developed in
adjustmentsthe form
took of sandwich
place in orderpanels.
to reachDifferent
the testing
optimum for the
materials’ reinforcements’
behavior and
the developed biocomposites’ structural behavior, due to the optimized fiber reinforcement
adjustments
the settled targettookproperties
place in order to reach the Veneer
and performance. optimum materials’
appliance hadbehavior
caused aandlargethe settled target
improvement to
arrangement.
properties and performance. Veneer appliance had caused a large improvement
the developed biocomposites’ structural behavior, due to the optimized fiber reinforcement to the developed
biocomposites’
arrangement. structural behavior, due to the optimized fiber reinforcement arrangement.

Figure 2. Double-sided veneering of flexible biocomposite defines a stable curved shape. ©


BioMat/ITKE – University of Stuttgart.
Figure
Figure 2. Double-sidedveneering
2. Double-sided veneeringof offlexible
flexiblebiocomposite
biocomposite defines
defines a stable
a stable curved
curved shape.
shape. ©
© BioMat/ITKE—University
BioMat/ITKE – University of Stuttgart.
The internal structure ofofthe
Stuttgart.
biocomposite fiberboards made of natural fibers and elastomers
affected
Thethe flexibility,
internal elasticity,
structure of theand structural behavior,
biocomposite depending
fiberboards on the size
made of natural of and
fibers the fibers and
elastomers
the The internal
mixing ratio structure
with binders of[17].
the biocomposite fiberboards made of natural fibers and elastomers
affected the flexibility, elasticity, and structural behavior, depending on the size of the fibers and the
affected the flexibility, elasticity, and structural behavior, depending on the size of the fibers and
mixing ratio with binders [17].
the mixing
2.1.2. ratio with
Form-Finding, binders [17].
Elements, and Connections
2.1.2.The
Form-Finding,
parametric Elements,
form-finding and Connections
process enabled the possibility to find the final applicable
2.1.2. Form-Finding, Elements, and Connections
architectural solution, form-finding
The parametric in which manufacturing
process enabled constraints, aesthetics,toand
the possibility findstructural
the finalcapabilities
applicable
were The
architectural parametric
strongly form-finding
interconnected.
solution, in which The process enabled
prefabricated
manufacturing the possibility
components
constraints, wereto assembled
aesthetics, findstructural
and the final
in four applicable
large
capabilities
architectural
triangular solution,
segments on in
sitewhich
that manufacturing
were then lifted toconstraints,
the correct aesthetics,
position in
were strongly interconnected. The prefabricated components were assembled in four large triangular and
space.structural
Four main capabilities
types of
were
modular strongly
segmentsconnection interconnected.
details
on site that were were The
designed
then lifted prefabricated
to theand applied
correct components
throughout
position were
the Four
in space. assembled
wholemain
shelltypes in four
construction, large
of modularas
triangular
shown in segments
Figure 3. on
Types site
A, that
B, were
and C then
were lifted
the to
main the correct
types of position
joints in
between
connection details were designed and applied throughout the whole shell construction, as shown in space.
the Four main
segmented types of
panels
modular
and
Figure connection
each3.other, A, B,details
Typeswhile type
and D C were
was designed
werethethemain and
mainconnection
types applied type
of joints throughout
that was the
between the segmented
whole shell
responsible construction,
for panels
transferring as
the
and each
shown
loads in
other, from Figure 3. Types
the segments
while type A,
D was the main B, and C were
to theconnection the
cross-connected main types
type thatarched of joints
wooden for
was responsible between
beams, the segmented
and thus
transferring panels
onto from
the loads the
and each
foundations. other,
The while type
overall D was
geometry the
of main
the connection
shell resembled type
a that
3D was
fabric responsible
in which
the segments to the cross-connected arched wooden beams, and thus onto the foundations. The overall the for transferring
curved the
elements
loads
were
geometry from
connectedthe segments
by resembled
of the shell to
common aknots the cross-connected
in all
3D fabric directions
in which arched wooden
in space.
the curved elements beams,
Thiswere and
approach
connected thus onto
allowed
by common the
the
foundations.
biocomposite The overall
sandwich
knots in all directions geometry
in panel
space. elementsof the
This approach shell resembled
to be allowed
dismantled a 3D fabric
later at the end
the biocomposite in which the curved
of the panel
sandwich exhibition elements
to be
elements to
were
re-used connected
in other by
designed common knots
constellations. in all directions in space.
be dismantled later at the end of the exhibition to be re-used in other designed constellations.This approach allowed the
biocomposite sandwich panel elements to be dismantled later at the end of the exhibition to be
re-used in other designed constellations.

Figure 3. Isometric view of the four main details composed of single curved panels of the
modular system. In combination, the single parts create re-usable structural compositions.
© BioMat/ITKE—University of Stuttgart.
Buildings 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

Figure 3. Isometric view of the four main details composed of single curved panels of the modular
system. In combination, the single parts create re-usable structural compositions. © BioMat/ITKE-
Buildings 2019, 9, 64of Stuttgart.
University 6 of 13

2.2. Biomimetic Research Pavilion SS 2018


2.2. Biomimetic Research Pavilion SS 2018
The Biomimetic Research Pavilion 2018 was the application of a special interlocking system
Thefrom
derived Biomimetic Research
a biological Pavilion
role model 2018 and
function was thethetranslation
applicationofof a special
those interlocking
principles system
into the context
derived from a biological role model function and the translation of those principles
of lightweight and material-saving architecture. The research pavilion interlocking system was into the context of
lightweight
inspired by and material-saving
Diatoms. Diatoms architecture.
are a type of Thealgae
research
thatpavilion
usually interlocking
live in water.system
Somewastypes
inspired
are
by Diatoms. Diatoms are a type of algae that usually live in water. Some types
unicellular, and others are able to form colonies in the shape of filament ribbons. The aspect that are unicellular, and
others arethe
sparked able to form
idea colonies
of taking in biological-inspired
this the shape of filament ribbons.
concept wasThethat
aspect that sparked
organisms lock the idea of
vertically,
taking this
where theirbiological-inspired
spines act as flaps concept was that organisms
preventing horizontallock vertically, where
displacement. theirby
Driven spines
the act as flaps
biological
preventing horizontal displacement. Driven by the biological inspiration, the
inspiration, the students created a unique design, starting from both the biological role modelstudents created a unique
and
design, starting from both the biological role model and the choice of the biomaterial.
the choice of the biomaterial. The system of vertical stacking and interlocking uniform components The system
of vertical
was stacking
translated into aand
new interlocking
architectureuniform
typology, components
and by its was translated
modular intothe
building, a new architecture
consumption of
typology, and by its modular building, the consumption of materials was
materials was reduced. In the pavilion, elastic deformation of the longitudinal designed panelsreduced. In the pavilion,
was
elastic deformation
activated. of theactive
In this sense, longitudinal
bendingdesigned panels
was applied was activated.
through bending In this
and sense, active
interlocking thebending
panels
was applied through bending and interlocking the panels together and locking
together and locking the endings in curved footages, reaching a final double-curved shell system, the endings in curvedas
footages,
shown in reaching
Figure 4. a final double-curved shell system, as shown in Figure 4.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a)
Figure 4. (a) The
The erected Biomimetic Pavilion
erected Biomimetic Pavilion at
at the
the campus
campus of the University
of the University of
of Stuttgart;
Stuttgart; (b) Single
(b) Single
pieces with tooth-shaped edges
edges creating
creating a stable interlocking
interlocking system.
system. ©© A.
A. Coban
Coban and
and V.
V. Ivanova;
Ivanova;
BioMat/ITKE-University
BioMat/ITKE—University of of
Stuttgart
Stuttgart

2.2.1. Material
2.2.1. Material Properties
Properties and
and Customization
Customization
In order
In order to
to create
create the
the double-curved
double-curved shell
shell structure
structure of
of the
the pavilion,
pavilion, 6.5-mm
6.5-mm birch
birch wood-based
wood-based
middle-density fiberboard
middle-density fiberboard (MDF)
(MDF) plates
plates were
were chosen
chosen toto be
be bent
bent and
and applied
applied asas the
the main
main structural
structural
material. The MDF was chosen, because it offered sufficient flexibility and elasticity to achieve the
material. The MDF was chosen, because it offered sufficient flexibility and elasticity to achieve the
needed curvature.
needed curvature.Since
Sinceit is
it based on wood,
is based the structure
on wood, enjoyedenjoyed
the structure a high ecological value, especially
a high ecological value,
when the reusability
especially when the of the elements
reusability waselements
of the enhancedwas andenhanced
applied through the special
and applied developed
through ‘dry
the special
joint’ bio-inspired interlocking system. The elements were fixed in position inside
developed ‘dry joint’ bio-inspired interlocking system. The elements were fixed in position inside non-anchored
curved foundations
non-anchored curvedwith no screws
foundations to no
with avoid irreversible
screws to avoid shape deformation,
irreversible allowing atallowing
shape deformation, the end
through
at the endan through
active-bending appliance to appliance
an active-bending reach up totoa reach
double-curved interlocked shell
up to a double-curved construction.
interlocked shell
construction.
2.2.2. Form-Finding Process
2.2.2.The
Form-Finding
biomimeticProcess
inspiration was based on diatoms, which are the micro-algae creatures that are
spread in the oceans and enjoy an interesting interlocking structure, as shown in Figure 5. Looking
The biomimetic inspiration was based on diatoms, which are the micro-algae creatures that are
spread inat
in depth thethe detailing
oceans of the an
and enjoy naturally existing
interesting interlocking
interlocking structure,
structure, the architecture
as shown in Figure 5. students
Looking
here
in haveatapplied
depth several of
the detailing abstraction stages
the naturally to allow
existing upscaling from
interlocking the microbiological
structure, level
the architecture to the
students
here have applied several abstraction stages to allow upscaling from the microbiological level toonly
macroscale architectural realm. The application of this stacking and interlocking system was the
possible by means of applying semi-elastic material plates that were bent and interlocked, which
shows how customized materials and biomimetic inspiration were both combined and applied. In this
project, bending-active structural conception [18] was applied. Bending-active-based construction is
Buildings 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13
macroscale architectural realm. The application of this stacking and interlocking system was only
macroscale
possible architectural
by means realm.semi-elastic
of applying The application of this
material stacking
plates and interlocking
that were system was
bent and interlocked, only
which
possible by means of applying semi-elastic material plates that were bent
shows how customized materials and biomimetic inspiration were both combined and applied. Inand interlocked, which
shows
this how9,customized
project,
Buildings 2019, 64bending-active materials and biomimetic
structural conceptioninspiration
[18] waswereapplied.
both combined and applied.
Bending-active-based In
7 of 13
this project, bending-active structural conception [18] was applied. Bending-active-based
construction is usually reachable when the structural deficiency or buckling of semi-elastic material
construction
systems is usually
are used reachable
to enable when of
new types thestructural
structuralsystems
deficiency
andorarchitectural
buckling of semi-elastic material
typologies that are
usually
systems reachable
are used when
to the
enablestructural
new deficiency
types of or buckling
structural of
systems semi-elastic
and material
architectural systems
typologies are
thatused
are
reached depending on the bending behavior and the distributed inner stresses within the structural
to enable depending
reached new types of on structural
the systems
bending and architectural
behavior and the typologies
distributed that
inner are reached
stresses withindepending
the on
structural
elements.
the bending behavior and the distributed inner stresses within the structural elements.
elements.
In Figure 5, the biological role model is illustrated, and the initial abstraction stages of the
In
In Figure
Figure 5,5, the
the biological role model is illustrated, and the initial abstraction stages of the
interlocking system arebiological
shown. role model is illustrated, and the initial abstraction stages of the
interlocking system are
interlocking system are shown. shown.

(a) (b) (c)


(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5. (a) Paralia sulcata diatom imaged using the University of Tasmania scanning electron
Figure 5.5. (a)
microscope
Figure (a) Paralia
(cc)Paralia
creativesulcata diatom
commons;
sulcata diatom imaged
(b)imaged using the
Simplification
using thebiological
of University
University ofmodel
role
of Tasmania scanning
of stacking
Tasmania scanning electron
system; (c)
electron
microscope
Biological (cc) creative
stacking commons;
system (b)
translated Simplification
into of biological
architectonic role
approach model
of of stacking
modular
microscope (cc) creative commons; (b) Simplification of biological role model of stacking system; system;
Design (c)
for
Biological
Dismantling. stacking system
b,c: © A.system
(c) Biological stacking translated
Cobantranslated
and V. Ivanova;into architectonic approach
BioMat/ITKE-University
into architectonic of modular
of Stuttgart.
approach of modular Design
Design for Dismantling.for
Dismantling.
(b,c): © A. Cobanb,c:and
© A.V.Coban andBioMat/ITKE—University
Ivanova; V. Ivanova; BioMat/ITKE-University
of Stuttgart.of Stuttgart.
2.2.3. Stacking—A Design for Dismantling
2.2.3.
2.2.3.Stacking—A
Stacking—ADesignDesignfor forDismantling
Dismantling
The goal of this pavilion was to achieve a well-developed structural system that could be
The
quicklyThegoal
goalofof
mounted, this
thispavilion
pavilion
dismantled,waswastoand
achieve
to achievea well-developed
a well-developed
reconstructed structural
in different systemsystem
structural
scales that could
and thatbecould
locations. quickly
Thebe
mounted, dismantled,
stacking/interlocking and
quickly mounted, dismantled, reconstructed
system of the in different
andbiological
reconstructed scales
role model and locations.
in different The
resulted scales stacking/interlocking
in the and locations.
design of various The
system of the biological
stacking/interlocking role
system model
of resulted
the in the
biological design
role of
modelvarious homogeneous
resulted
homogeneous building elements with tooth-shaped edges. In this way, an interlocking stable in the building
design ofelements
various
with
systemtooth-shaped
homogeneous
was achieved edges.
building Insimply
this way,
byelements an interlocking
with
pushing tooth-shaped stable
the individual edges.system
parts was achieved
In together,
this an by
way,which simply pushing
interlocking
allowed stable
off-site
the individual
system was parts
achievedtogether,
by which
simply allowed
pushing off-site
the digital
individual fabrication
parts using
together,
digital fabrication using computerized numerical control (CNC)-assisted prefabrication, followed computerized
which allowednumerical
off-site
control
digital
by (CNC)-assisted
fabrication
a quick usingprefabrication,
on-site assembly computerized
process. Thefollowed
numerical by acontrol
assembly quick on-site inassembly
(CNC)-assisted
took place process. The
prefabrication,
two phases, where atassembly
followed
first the
took place
by a quick
pieces in two phases, where
on-site assembly
were horizontally at first
process.
assembled the pieces
Theground
on the were
assembly horizontally
in atook assembled
place inastwo
flat format, shown on
phases, the ground
where
in Figure in athen
6a,atand
first flat
the
format,
pieces as shown
were in Figure
horizontally 6a, and
assembled thenon bent
the and held
ground inina shape
flat after
format, connecting
as
bent and held in shape after connecting the panels’ endings to the curved-shaped foundation, asshown the
in panels’
Figure endings
6a, and to
then
the curved-shaped
bent and held
shown in Figure 6b.in foundation,
shape after as shown
connecting in Figure
the 6b.
panels’ endings to the curved-shaped foundation, as
shown in Figure 6b.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a)
(a) Simple
Simple horizontal
horizontal stacking
stacking by
by pushing
pushing modules
modules into
into each
each other;
other; (b)
(b) Erecting
Erecting the
Figure 6. (a)pavilion
pre-mounted
pre-mounted Simpleby
pavilion horizontal
bymanual
manual stacking
bending,
bending, by
andand pushing
latter
latter modules
fixation
fixation into
withwith
the theeach
curved other;
curved (b) Erecting
foundations.
foundations. the
© A.
© A. Coban
pre-mounted
Coban
and pavilion
and V. Ivanova;
V. Ivanova; by manual bending, of and
BioMat/ITKE-University
BioMat/ITKE—University oflatter fixation with the curved foundations. © A.
Stuttgart.
Stuttgart.
Coban and V. Ivanova; BioMat/ITKE-University of Stuttgart.
2.3. Eco-Pavilion SS 2011
This research pavilion was built in cooperation with 15 companies and academic institutes, as
well as 25 architecture students who participated in the (Do It Yourself) educational course under the
author’s supervision. The pavilion, which had the dimensions of 4-m length, 1-m width, and 2-m
Buildings 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

2.3. Eco-Pavilion SS 2011


This research pavilion was built in cooperation with 15 companies and academic institutes, as
well as 2019,
Buildings 25 architecture
9, 64 students who participated in the (Do It Yourself) educational course under 8 of 13
the author’s supervision. The pavilion, which had the dimensions of 4-m length, 1-m width, and
2-m height, was first exhibited in the foyer of the main building of the Faculty of Architecture and
height,Planning
Urban was first of
exhibited in the foyer
the University of the main
of Stuttgart, afterbuilding
which itofwas themoved
Facultyand of Architecture and Urban
exhibited separately in
Planning of the University of Stuttgart,
different locations and exhibitions. after which it was moved and exhibited separately in different
locations
The and exhibitions.
project combined the use of green building materials, which were used not only as
The project
structural elements,combined the use
but also of greenand
as exterior building materials,
interior which
cladding, were used
flooring, andnot only assystems.
decking structural It
elements, but also as exterior and interior cladding, flooring, and decking systems.
illustrated an architectural research approach in which alternative sustainable building solutions It illustrated an
architectural
with research approach
high ecological in which
footprints werealternative
applied and sustainable building
exhibited solutionsaudiences,
to various with high ecological
whether
academics, students, or users, as shown in Figure 7. This approach highlighted the use oforstructural
footprints were applied and exhibited to various audiences, whether academics, students, users, as
shown in Figure
solutions, which7.ensured
This approach
complete highlighted
dismantling the use
andofdeconstruction
structural solutions, which
for later ensured complete
reassembly and the
possible change of utilization, using special developed dry structural joints utilization,
dismantling and deconstruction for later reassembly and the possible change of and a modular using
special developed dry structural joints and a modular construction system. The
construction system. The idea of the Japanese architect Shigeru Ban to use recycled cartoon tubes as idea of the Japanese
architect Shigeru
structural elements Ban
in to use recycled
architecture hascartoon tubes as structural
been transferred elements in2011,
to the Eco-Pavilion architecture
in whichhas been
cartoon
transferred to the Eco-Pavilion 2011, in which cartoon tubes were
tubes were applied as the main structural element of the pavilion in cooperation with a applied as the main structural
element of the pavilion
Stuttgart-located in cooperation
architectural with a ‘Architektur
office named Stuttgart-located architectural
Grosse’. The cartoonoffice named
tubes have‘Architektur
been here
Grosse’. The cartoon tubes have been here applied as the structural background
applied as the structural background to which multiple newly developed green building materials, to which multiple
newly developed green building materials, which were designed and fabricated
which were designed and fabricated during the educational course, were fixed. As a result, a during the educational
course, werewas
framework fixed. As a result,
established a framework
that did not only was established
represent greenthat did not materials
building only represent green building
as recycled cartoon
materials as recycled cartoon to be applied as structural elements, but also
to be applied as structural elements, but also provided the opportunity for other recycle-based provided the opportunityand
for other recycle-based
biocomposite-based and biocomposite-based
materials materials
to be applied as cladding to be applied as cladding systems.
systems.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Interior cladding applications
applications and
and hanging
hanging partitions
partitions of
of the
the Eco-Pavilion
Eco-Pavilion (left
(left to
to right):
right):
Vacuum thermoformed
Vacuum thermoformedbiocomposite
biocomposite prototypes,
prototypes, hanging
hanging partition
partition wall recycled
wall from from recycled plastic
plastic bottles;
bottles;
(b) (b) Exterior
Exterior claddingcladding application
application with free-form
with free-form facade
facade panels.
panels. © BioMat/ITKE-University of
© BioMat/ITKE—University
Stuttgart. Photos: Miklautsch.

2.3.1. Material
2.3.1. Material Choices
Choices and
and Structural
Structural Usage
Usage
The pavilion
The pavilionwas wasconstructed
constructedfrom recycled
from cartoon
recycled pipes pipes
cartoon that were
thatgenerated from the from
were generated recycling
the
recycling of old paper from the solid waste stream, with a lifespan of around five years, toserve
of old paper from the solid waste stream, with a lifespan of around five years, to mainly in
mainly
temporary
serve applications
in temporary and disasterand
applications areas. These areas.
disaster pipes formed
These the supporting
pipes formed themainsupporting
structure, which
main
allowed an additional cladding configuration by other materials. Those
structure, which allowed an additional cladding configuration by other materials. Those additional materials that
additional
cladded the
materials structural
that cladded framework were
the structural various reinforced
framework were various biocomposites that were manufactured
reinforced biocomposites that were
from agrofibers, including cereal straw short fibers, coconut fibers, and others.
manufactured from agrofibers, including cereal straw short fibers, coconut fibers, and others. The hollow section
The
of the cartoon pipes provided an excellent opportunity to design a sustainable
hollow section of the cartoon pipes provided an excellent opportunity to design a sustainable thermal insulation
system. insulation
thermal This was achieved by filling
system. This the hollow
was achieved by pipes
fillingwith
the pre-formulated
hollow pipes with recycled fibrillated
pre-formulated
cellulose. The fibrils were mixed with paper glue and molded within an open mold to suit the
application afterwards of these molded geometries between the pavilion’s cartoon pipes for further
thermal insulation.
Buildings 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13

recycled fibrillated cellulose. The fibrils were mixed with paper glue and molded within an open
mold to suit the application afterwards of these molded geometries between the pavilion’s cartoon
Buildings 2019, 9, 64 9 of 13
pipes for further thermal insulation.

2.3.2.
2.3.2. VisualAppearance
Visual Appearance
Theresearch
The researchpavilion’s
pavilion’sfaçade
façade consisted
consisted of
of aa tile
tile system
system of
of individually
individuallydeveloped
developedcladding
cladding
element prototypes measuring 30 × 30 cm, which were named TRASHELL
element prototypes measuring 30 × 30 cm, which were named TRASHELL [19]. These biocomposites [19]. These
biocomposites
were designed inwere designed
free-form style,inand
free-form
throughstyle,
theirand through
collective their collective
cladding, cladding,
a desired a desired
3D physical 3D
curvature
physical curvature was reached. Non-structural individually developed green building materials,
was reached. Non-structural individually developed green building materials, as well re-used plastic
as well re-used plastic bottles that were transformed into threads and combined in the form of
bottles that were transformed into threads and combined in the form of panels, provided an ornamental
panels, provided an ornamental cladding system in the form of an interior hanging partition. For
cladding system in the form of an interior hanging partition. For the flooring system, recycled paper
the flooring system, recycled paper and a small fraction of around 20% glass as well as cement were
and a small fraction of around 20% glass as well as cement were applied as aggregates and for binding,
applied as aggregates and for binding, respectively, to form new recycled flooring panels.
respectively, to form new recycled flooring panels.
2.3.3. Design for Dismantling
2.3.3. Design for Dismantling
In order to simplify assembly and disassembly, a connection system was applied that was
In order to simplify assembly and disassembly, a connection system was applied that was designed
designed from the architecture office ‘Grosse Architektur’, which connected the individual cartoon
from the architecture office ‘Grosse Architektur’, which connected the individual cartoon tubes with
tubes with digitally prefabricated wooden profiles, as shown in Figure 8. The profiles were placed
digitally prefabricated wooden profiles, as shown in Figure 8. The profiles were placed into pre-drilled
into pre-drilled openings at planned locations of the tubes and then fit at the same size, facilitating
openings at planned locations of the tubes and then fit at the same size, facilitating connection and
connection and enabling deconstruction in a later stage and re-installation with the same or with
enabling
differentdeconstruction in a later stage
designs. This temporary fixedand re-installation
connection withconnection
was a dry the same or with different
method, designs.
which did not
This temporary fixed connection
require adhesives to fit. was a dry connection method, which did not require adhesives to fit.

(a) (b) (c)


Figure8.8. (a)
Figure (a) Fixation
Fixationofofcartoon
cartoontubes and
tubes drilling
and holes
drilling for further
holes assembling;
for further (b) Pre-drilled
assembling; holes
(b) Pre-drilled
in desired
holes in desired location for for
location assembling with
assembling dry-connection
with dry-connection bolts;
bolts;(c)(c)Interlocking
Interlockingdry-connection
dry-connection
woodenbolts
wooden boltsensuring
ensuringassembling
assembling and
and dismantling
dismantlingofofthe
thepavilions’
pavilions’ structure. (Photos:
structure. H. Dahy)
(Photos: ©
H. Dahy)
BioMat/ITKE-University of Stuttgart
© BioMat/ITKE—University of Stuttgart

3. 3.
Results
Results

InIn
allall three
three case
case studies
studies carried
carried out out between
between 2011–2018,
2011–2018, the philosophy
the philosophy of ‘Materials
of ‘Materials as a
as a Design
Design
Tool’ was Tool’
applied,waswhere
applied, where
green green materials
building building materials
were given were given atopriority
a priority be set astothe
be main
set asdriver
the
main driver behind the whole design process until the construction phase. The
behind the whole design process until the construction phase. The basic idea, which characterized basic idea, which
thecharacterized the three
three pavilions, was pavilions,
to designwas to design
modular, modular,
reusable reusable
closed closed
material material
systems, systems,
based on abased
strong
on a strong
examination of examination of the building
the building material material
as an initial stage as an design
in the initial stage in The
process. the designs
design process. The
of the research
designs of the research pavilions always focused in detail on their own specific
pavilions always focused in detail on their own specific architectural challenges and illustrated their architectural
challenges and through
implementation illustrated
thetheir implementation
use and through the use
purposeful modification and purposeful
of different modification
green building of
materials,
different green building materials, such as wooden-based fiberboards,
such as wooden-based fiberboards, recycled cartoon pipes, or biocomposites. recycled cartoon pipes, or
biocomposites.
The most recently constructed BioMat Research Pavilion 2018, which was exhibited on the campus
The most recently constructed BioMat Research Pavilion 2018, which was exhibited on the
of the University of Stuttgart, focused on finding innovative solutions for modifying a flexible, elastic
campus of the University of Stuttgart, focused on finding innovative solutions for modifying a
biocomposite material in a way that allowed it to perform structural functions, as well as create a
flexible, elastic biocomposite material in a way that allowed it to perform structural functions, as
unique aesthetic configuration. The selection and analysis of the materials in the design process
well as create a unique aesthetic configuration. The selection and analysis of the materials in the
determined not only the global geometry of the pavilion, but also the order, size, and shape of the
individual elements of the modular building systems.
The Biomimetic Research Pavilion 2018 depended on the analysis of an interesting
stacking/interlocking feature of a biological role model. With the help of the abstracted designs,
it was possible to develop an assembly/dismantling method to allow full control over the end-of-life
Buildings 2019, 9, 64 10 of 13

scenarios. The elastic yet self-supporting material properties were also settled in the initial design
phase, and for this, wood-based MDF panels were the settled applied materials for this project.
Through in-depth analysis, the biological-inspired structures were actively bent and locked in the
desired positions to transform the settled integrated concepts into an architectural realm. By this
bio-inspired interlocking tooth-like design of individual building elements, a quick dismantling and
reassembling was guaranteed. Accordingly, the shell-shaped structure offered the possibility of
performing a wide variety of tasks, and could be mounted in different locations.
The third research pavilion, the Eco-Pavilion 2011, was primarily an illustration of the DfD
approach combining different green building materials and establishing sustainable building systems.
Unlike the other two pavilions, the fundamental idea of the structural framework and the material
composition was not re-developed. Here, recycled cartoon pipes were modified by carving slots
for the wooden joints, which acted as ‘dry’ structural connections. This recycled and recyclable
structure was applied as a background to other biocomposite products, recycled cladding products,
and flooring products.
The three research pavilions represent not only the use of green building materials in architectural
applications, but also the results of multidisciplinary work. In these projects, architects were not only
pure designers, since the close cooperation with external experts naturally expanded the field of the
architects’ work. The knowledge gained from material researchers led to functional adaptations of
the building materials. The circular design exchange with civil engineers, fabrication technicians, and
other external specialists regularly showed the capabilities of introducing the material in the design
process, allowing an expression of a new philosophy in design-thinking, based on setting ‘Materials
as a Design Tool’. This led to a high level of design creativity and solutions in modular building
systems. By constantly adapting to functional demands, the individual components developed their
own aesthetics.
In the following, Table 1, an analytical comparison of the three case studies is illustrated.

Table 1. Analytical comparison between the three case studies, regarding design, applied materials,
DfD, and design freedom. CNC: computerized numerical control.

Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Case Study 3


Comparison Criteria
BioMat Pavilion Biomimetic Pavilion Eco-Pavilion
Customizing flexible The interlocking system was
High ecological footprint by
biocomposite panels into elements inspired by a biological role
combining green building
with structural capabilities, model. Semi-flexible sustainable
Design Strategy materials with innovative dry
creating new architectural and materials were applied to reach
connection system. Modular
aesthetic expressions for future through active-bending new shell
system applications.
sustainable architecture. design formations.
Recycled cartoon tubes; wood;
Elastic wood-based fiberboards;
Sustainable Building cellulose fibers; various
elastic biocomposite fiberboards; Elastic wood-based fiberboards
Materials Applied biocomposites; recycled
3D Veneer
plastics and paper
Drilling for the dry joints’
slots, robotic drilling for
Digital Fabrication CNC-assisted prefabrication, molds’ fabrication of façade
CNC-assisted prefabrication
Applied vacuum-assisted lamination cladding system, laser cutting
in post-processing of interior
cladding system
Design for
Yes Yes Yes
Deconstruction (DfD)
Elements are interlocked vertically,
Single-curved elements combined
bending in one direction, and then
in space in six directions, creating Pre-drilled grid of ‘dry joints’
locked in a curved non-anchored
Design Freedom a double-curved segmented shell allow the horizontal or vertical
foundation, leading to a
construction with new innovative arrangement of tubes.
double-curved shell
spaces and aesthetic expressions.
system formation.
Buildings 2019, 9, 64 11 of 13

4. Conclusions
The innovative application of newly developed green building materials and their digital
fabrication possibilities were the main drivers in the design thinking process, introducing new
perspectives of design and establishing new design philosophies. The strong involvement of the
choice and characteristics of the materials from the beginning of the design process establishes new
ways to develop ideas, which helps solve architectural problems in a much more sustainable way.
Through in-depth knowledge of the properties of these building materials and the ability of
further customizing them to reach up to advanced properties and controllable end-of-life scenarios,
more sustainable building concepts were developed. The possibility of the individual composition of
these green building materials ensured a controlled and directed closed life cycle, which was defined
by recyclability, compostability, re-usability, and a holistic improvement of the ecological footprint.
Since the newly developed biocomposite fiberboards were, unlike wood, not bound to a
predefined fiber configuration, the same base material enjoyed the ability to function as an insulating,
structural, or purely aesthetic building component, according to changes in its internal recipe and by
combining it externally with reinforcing elements. That happened especially in the first case study.
In order to ensure further future sustainable solutions within architectural designs and guarantee
their implementations, it is important to develop and apply modular building systems that can be
assembled and dismantled to allow proper material savings. This will allow the possibility of applying
the same building system in different applications. The use of biocomposites and biomaterials with
their ability to be adapted and customized to various structural capabilities is a suitable solution for a
wide range of new developed architectural applications, which is hereby in many ways proved.
The limitations of this suggested design philosophy’s usage of setting ‘Materials as a Design
Tool’ depend on the depth of the architects’ interdisciplinary work and the level of their interest
in technicalities and other related disciplines to architecture, such as material developments and
fabrication techniques. That is why the development of an architectural design process that manifests
itself through the choice of materials, structure, aesthetics, and above all, sustainability, was only
made possible by a stronger linking of different fields of studies, such as the areas of natural
sciences, construction, material scientists, and fabrication experts, and their exchange of experiences.
The multidisciplinary exchange allowed the development of more sustainable and intelligent solutions
for architectural challenges, since not only a linear exchange of knowledge took place through
materials research, but communication between the architects and experts of diverse disciplines
was also established.
Adopting ‘Materials as a Design Tool’ as a design philosophy is hereby initiated from the author,
and highlighted through different developments in the form of pavilions and prototypes to spread the
word in the architecture community, so as to help initiate this field of design-thinking and philosophy
toward more sustainability in the near future of architecture.

Funding: The first case study, BioMat pavilion 2018 was funded by Agency for Renewable Resources (German:
Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e.V. or FNR) under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL) in the
framework of the Research Project (BioProfile) funding number FKZ: 22021516. The same case study was also
partly funded from the Baden-Württemberg Stiftung and the University of Stuttgart.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank all of the participants in the development and erection of the
BioMat pavilion 2018, including around 40 architecture students over two semesters (WS 17/18 and SS 18) who
attended the educational academic course (Flexible Forms Pavilion) and in cooperation with BioMat employees
Jan Petrs, Michaela Mey and Piotr Baszynski under the author’s supervision. The author would also like to thank
the BioProfile project partners including: Fraunhofer-Institut für Holzforschung (Fraunhofer WKI), Mathias Stange
ETS, Naftex GmbH and Profine GmbH. BioMat pavilion consultants included: Technical University Eindhoven in
the Netherlands (TU/e)-Department of Built Environment-Patrick Teuffel, Arjan Habraken and Derk Bos as well
as Urlike Kuhlmann and Janusch Töpler from the Institute of Construction and Structural Design (KE, Faculty
02: Civil and Environmental Engineering) and Volker Schwieger as well as Gabriel Kerekes from the Institute of
Engineering Geodesy (IIGS, Faculty 06: Aerospace Engineering and Geodesy), University of Stuttgart. In addition,
the author thanks the students: Arzun Coban and Viktorya Ivanova for designing and fabricating case study 2:
The biomimetic pavilion under the author supervision. Also, the author thanks the 25 architectural students who
participated in the educational course (Do It Yourself) in the academic semester SS11, which was also at the faculty
Buildings 2019, 9, 64 12 of 13

of Architecture and Urban Planning of the University of Stuttgart, and participated in designing and fabricating
the third case study, the Eco-Pavilion, including the students: Susanne Hügel, Lousia Scherer, and Kerstin Meyer,
who designed and fabricated the TRAshell product under the author’s supervision. The author also thanks all of
the partners, companies, and institutes who supported the erection of the third case study, including: Werner
Grosse from the Architektur Grosse architecture office in Stuttgart, who designed the structural components of
the ‘Eco-Pavilion’ as well as the companies Kartonagen Müller GmbH and Hoffmann GmbH, for their partial
support with the structural cartoon pipes materials and the wooden profiles, respectively.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References
1. Plattner, H.; Meinel, C.; Leifer, L.J. Design Thinking. Understand—Improve—Apply; Plattner, H., Meinel, C.,
Leifer, L., Eds.; Springer: Heidelberg, Germany; London, UK, 2011.
2. Crowther, P. Design for Disassembly—Themes and Principles; The Royal Australian Institute of Architects,
2005. Available online: https://eprints.qut.edu.au/2888/1/Crowther-RAIA-2005.PDF (accessed on
13 March 2019).
3. Scheelhaase, T. Zukunft: Klimaschutz Kompostierung; Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency, EPEA
Internationale Umweltforschung GmbH: Hamburg, Germany, 2009.
4. Eurostat Statistics. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/images/a/a0/
Waste_generation_by_economic_activities_and_households%2C_2014-1.png (accessed on 19 February 2019).
5. United Nations Environment Programme. Global Status Report 2017. Available online: https:
//www.worldgbc.org/sites/default/files/UNEP%20188_GABC_en%20%28web%29.pdf (accessed on
19 February 2019).
6. United Nations. Resilient People, Resilient Planet. A Future Worth Choosing, the Report of the United Nations
Secretary-General’s High Level Panel on Global Sustainability; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2012.
7. Herczeg, M.; McKinnon, D.; Milios, L.; Bakas, I.; Klaassens, E.; Svatikova, K.; Widerberg, O. Resource Efficiency
in the Building Sector. Final Report; Ecorys, DG Environment: Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2014.
8. Lepelaar, M.; Hoogendoorn, A.; Blok, R.; Teuffel, P. Bio-based composite pedestrian bridge. In Proceedings of
the IASS Annual Symposium 2016 “Spatial Structures in the 21st Century”, Tokyo, Japan, 26–30 September;
pp. 1–10.
9. Kibert, C.J. Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and Delivery, 4th ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.:
Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2016.
10. Guy, B.; Ciarimboli, N. DfD. Design for Disassembly in the Built Environment. A Guide to Closed-Loop Design and
Building; Hendrickson, K., Ed.; Hamer Center for Community Design, The Pennsylvania State University:
Old Main, PA, USA, 2008.
11. Dahy, H.; Knippers, J. Flexible High-Density Fiberboard and Method for Manufacturing the Same. European
Patent EP3166765A1, 13 January 2016. Based on Same Patent, Also Applied as WO2016005026A1;
CN106604806A; US20170144327, EP2965882 A1.
12. Ellen Mac Arthur Foundation. Growth within. A Circular Economy Vision for a Competitive
Europe; McKinsey Center for Business and Environment, Ellen MacArthur Foundation Publishing:
Cowes. Available online: https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/
EllenMacArthurFoundation_Growth-Within_July15.pdf (accessed on 19 February 2019).
13. Dahy, H. FLEXIBLE FORMS: Experimentieren von Biobasierten Materialien für eine Zukünftige Nachhaltige
Leichtbau-Architektur. Available online: https://www.architekturblatt.de/flexible-forms-experimentieren-
von-biobasierten-materialien-fuer-eine-zukuenftige-nachhaltige-leichtbau-architektur/ (accessed on
19 February 2019).
14. Dahy, H. Efficient Fabrication of Sustainable Building Products from Annually Generated Non-Wood Cellulosic Fibres
and Bioplastics with Improved Flammability Resistance. Waste Biomass Valorization; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg,
Germany, 2017; pp. 1–9. [CrossRef]
15. Dahy, H. Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites (NFRP) Fabricated from Lignocellulosic Fibres for
Future Sustainable Architectural Applications, Case Studies: Segmented-Shell Construction. Acoust. Panels
Furnit. Sens. 2019, 19, 738. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Dahy, H. Biocomposite materials based on annual natural fibres and biopolymers—Design, fabrication and
customized applications in architecture. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 147, 212–220. [CrossRef]
Buildings 2019, 9, 64 13 of 13

17. Dahy, H. Agro-Fibres Biocomposites’ Applications and Design Potentials in Contemporary Architecture: Case Study:
Rice Straw Biocomposites; University of Stuttgart: Stuttgart, Germany, 2015.
18. Lienhard, J. Bending-Active Structures: Form-Finding Strategies Using Elastic Deformation in Static and Kinetic
Systems and the Structural Potentials Therein; University of Stuttgart: Stuttgart, Germany, 2014.
19. TRAshell Building Element. Available online: https://www.raumprobe.de/material/universitaet-stuttgart-
itke-institut-fuer-tragkonstruktionen-und-konstruktives-entwerfen/trashell/datenblatt/ (accessed on
19 February 2019).

© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen