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2020-01-0788 Published 14 Apr 2020
Optical Characterization of the Combustion
Process inside a Large-Bore Dual-Fuel Two-Stroke
Marine Engine by Using Multiple High-Speed
Cameras
Johan Hult MAN Energy Solutions
Alexios Matamis Lund University
Eric Baudoin and Stefan Mayer MAN Energy Solutions
Mattias Richter Lund University
Citation: Hult, J., Matamis, A., Baudoin, E., Mayer, S. et al., “Optical Characterization of the Combustion Process inside a Large-Bore
Dual-Fuel Two-Stroke Marine Engine by Using Multiple High-Speed Cameras,” SAE Technical Paper 2020-01-0788, 2020,
doi:10.4271/2020-01-0788.
Abstract
D
ual-fuel engines for marine propulsion are gaining
in importance due to operational and environmental
benefits. Here the combustion in a dual-fuel marine
engine operating on diesel and natural gas, is studied using a
multiple high-speed camera arrangement. By recording the
natural flame emission from three different directions the
flame position inside the engine cylinder can be spatially
mapped and tracked in time. Through space carving a rough
estimate of the three-dimensional (3D) flame contour can
be obtained. From this contour, properties like flame length
and height, as well as ignition locations can be extracted. The
multi-camera imaging is applied to a dual-fuel marine two-
stroke engine, with a bore diameter of 0.5 m and a stroke of
2.2 m. Both liquid and gaseous fuels are directly injected at
Introduction
A
round 90 percent of global trade is carried by sea.
Large freight ships employ two-stroke diesel engines
for propulsion, owing to their high efficiency, capa-
bility of direct propeller coupling, and reliability. The cost
of fuel for operation within stricter shipping and environ-
mental regulations in the marine market has led to increased
demand for dual-fuel two-stroke marine engines. These
enable vessels to run on alternative fuels, which offer
enhanced environmental benefits at reduced cost [1]. This is
particularly the case for LNG, ethane, LPG or methanol
carriers, which have a convenient and comparatively cheap
fuel already on board. New and coming emission legislations
have also contributed to the interest in dual-fuel engines, as
an alternative to traditional heavy-fuel or diesel-oil burning
engines. The emission legislation is both designed to protect
coastal areas from SOX and NOX emissions, but also to limit
high pressure, using separate injection systems. Optical access
is obtained using borescope inserts, resulting in a minimum
disturbance to the cylinder geometry. In this type of engine,
with fuel injection from positions at the rim of the cylinder,
the flame morphology becomes asymmetric. The optical
spatial mapping and tracking method is demonstrated to
be well suited for the study of such an asymmetric combustion
system. Spatial mapping and tracking of flame position is
applied to both engine operating modes; normal diesel opera-
tion and dual-fuel operation with diesel pilot ignition of the
gas. Similarities and differences between diesel and gas flame
shape and development can thus be visualised directly. The
effects of changing charge density, gas injection pressure and
injection nozzle geometry on the flame geometry and develop-
ment are also studied.
CO2 emissions through the energy efficiency design index
(EEDI) - which uses fuel carbon content as a calculation tool.
In the last couple of years more than 300 dual-fuel engines
have been ordered and many also become operational. This
includes ships operating on LNG [2, 3, 4], methanol [5],
ethane [6] and LPG [7].
The MAN dual-fuel marine engines use the diesel cycle
combustion process to burn the gas. The fuel gas is injected
at high-pressure close to top dead center (TDC) and ignited
with a liquid pilot injection from the main liquid fuel injection
system [2]. The diesel combustion cycle offers stable combus-
tion and the high engine fuel efficiency, power density, load
acceptance and low emission of unburnt hydrocarbons are
preserved. Furthermore, gas or fuel quality requirements, such
as methane number, are not very stringent [3]. In this paper
the optical study of a LNG fueled MAN ME-GI engine
is reported.
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2 OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS

Most optical imaging techniques routinely applied to  FIGURE 1   Cylinder pressure and heat release rates for
internal combustion engines are two-dimensional in nature. diesel and dual-fuel operating modes.
The flame morphology, however, is often asymmetric and
affected by in-cylinder flows, combustion chamber geometry,
or injection geometry. This is particularly true for asymmetric
combustion systems, such as the diesel diffusion flame in a
large bore marine engine as studied here. Two or three views
are therefore necessary to capture the transient flame shape
and even more views if precise three-dimensional data is
required. Furthermore, the spatial location and extent of the
flame is a useful property for validating CFD models. Previous
optical studies of large marine engines have been limited to
conventional two dimensional studies focused on character-
ising fuel jet structure [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15], ignition
location and dynamics [11, 15, 16, 17, 18], flame structure [11,

12, 19, 6], charge flow [20], component temperatures [21], and
injector flows [22].
Multi-camera imaging of flame emission for spatial local-
isation or 3-dimensional (3D) reconstruction has been
reported in the past, both in open flames [23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28,29] and in engines [30]. Those multi-camera or 3D combus-
tion studies have been performed in open flames or in systems
with good optical access. Here borescope inserts with a
minimal disturbance to the engine geometry are used [19, 31].
As window size is much smaller than engine size it makes the
test cylinder representative for the real engine, without any
limitations or deviations from real boundary conditions posed
by relatively large glass components normally encountered in
optical engines [32].
The application of the multi-camera imaging method
presented here to diesel operation on the two-stroke engine
was recently presented [31]. Here the same technique is applied
for studying dual-fuel operation modes, with diesel and
natural gas as fuels. Spatial mapping and tracking of flame
position is demonstrated both during operation on diesel only,
and on gas with diesel pilot ignition. The usefulness of the
method as an engineering tool is also illustrated by studying
the effects of changing charge density, gas injection pressure
and injection nozzle geometry.
Methods
© SAE International.
fuel injection and exhaust valve systems are electronically
controlled and hydraulically actuated.
The liquid fuel was marine gas oil, which has similar
properties to diesel. Injection pressures from 800 to 900 bar
were used. LNG was used as the gaseous fuel. It was first pres-
surised up to 300 bar and then vaporised [2]. The CH4 content
of the LNG was around 97%.
For the optical tests presented here the test cylinder was
operated with only one injector for each fuel type in order to
allow an unobstructed optical view of the flame. In Fig. 1 the
cylinder pressure and heat release rates corresponding to the
different operating modes are plotted. The diesel case corre-
sponds to only liquid fuel injection. In the dual-fuel case gas
is the main fuel, with a small diesel injection used as pilot for
ignition. The operation corresponds to around 75% load.
Optical Set-Up
The diesel and gas flames were viewed using three high-speed
cameras, see Fig. 2. The use of multiple cameras makes spatial
flame localisation inside the cylinder possible [31]. As high-
speed cameras are used, dynamics and variations within

 FIGURE 2   Arrangement for tri-camera flame imaging in a

Engine marine dual-fuel engine.
The dual-fuel engine studied was the MAN 4T50ME-X test
engine. It is a production sized turbocharged low-speed two-
stroke Diesel engine. It has four cylinders with a bore of 0.5 m
and a stroke of 2.2 m. At full load it produces 7 MW of power
at 123 rpm. The engine is of the uniflow scavenged type, with
air intake ports at the bottom of the cylinder and a centrally
located exhaust valve at the top. The in-cylinder flow is defined
by a strong swirling motion introduced with the scavenging
air. In standard configuration each cylinder is equipped with
two liquid fuel injectors and two gaseous fuel injectors. The
© SAE International.

liquid injectors can be used both as pilots for igniting the gas,
and for full operation on diesel. The injectors are placed
around the rim of the cylinder and injecting tangentially along
the swirl direction. Each injector has four nozzle holes. The
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OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS 3

 FIGURE 3   The three high-speed cameras mounted on the centre. The average projection error for the fit in the camera
cylinder top. calibration was 0.27 pixels, which corresponds to an uncer-
tainty of around 0.4 mm in a triangulation of a point in the
region around the fuel injectors.
For visualisation of the flame location a space carving
method was used [34,31]. The process is illustrated in Fig 4
for a diesel flame case. First flame emission images from the
three cameras are segmented into burnt and unburnt regions,
using an adaptive intensity threshold method (Fig. 4 a).The
method relies on first identifying the valley in the intensity
histogram, which separates the background pixels from the
luminous flame pixels, for each individual image. At each
recording time the average threshold value, over the multiple
cycles recorded for an experimental condition, is then calcu-
lated. A polynomial fit to those average threshold values, as
a function of recording time, is then performed. For each
© SAE International.

recording time the value from this fit is used as the threshold
value for each individual image in a series. For most times
the luminous non-premixed flames are quite distinct, with
good separation against the dark background, and the
segmentation method is robust and agrees well with
visual perception.
individual engine cycles can be captured. Camera 1 provided
The cylinder is then filled with voxels representing poten-
a front view of the flame, camera 2 a side view and camera 3
tial flame locations. For each camera one then carves away all
a view slightly from behind.
the voxels falling outside the observed flame contour, which
Optical access was achieved using borescopes, inserted
are projected into the cylinder as the red, blue and green cones,
into optical inserts with a sapphire window at the tip, which
Fig. 4 b). The voxels where the cones cross correspond to a
extends into the combustion chamber. The inserts were
possible flame location, as indicated by the red contour in
mounted in ports otherwise used for fuel injectors at the top
Fig. 4 c).
of the cylinder cover [19], see Fig. 3. The inserts were tilted 15°
from the vertical and the borescope direction of view was 70°,
resulting in a side view into the combustion chamber. The  FIGURE 4   Illustration of the space carving concept for
diameter of the sapphire window limits the effective viewing
flame visualisation. Borescope tips shown in green and fuel
angle to around 55°. A mirror and camera objective lens were
injectors in yellow, thin blue and red lines indicate nozzle hole
used for optical coupling between borescope and camera. This
directions. a) Flame emission images from the three cameras,
detection system captures light in the visible spectral region,
with the flame contour outlined. b) Carving cones from the
where the flame emission is dominated by soot luminosity,
for both diesel and natural-gas flames. The use of borescopes three cameras. c) overlapping regions corresponding to
with front lenses of a diameter of only a few mm, leads to very flame location.
large focal depths. This ensures that the entire flame is in focus
(focal depth extends from around 25 mm to beyond the engine
cylinder wall. The cameras uses were two Photron SA-Z
(cameras 1&2) and one was a Photron SA-X2 (camera 3). All
cameras were operated at a constant frame rate of 10000
frames per second and with exposure times from 6.25 μs to
25 μs.

Data Processing
The camera views and the effective camera positions were
determined using a calibration method relying on imaging a
checker-board target positioned at various locations inside
the combustion chamber [33]. The calibration method also
accounts for imaging system distortions (for example the
radial barrel distortions of the borescopes). The overlapping
region of camera views, where flames can be spatially located
© SAE International.

based on all three cameras, is located around and in front of

the fuel injectors - which is the space where the flame will
propagate for the first few crank-angles. This coverage is about
7% of the total combustion chamber volume at top dead
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4 OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS

 FIGURE 5   Left: single-shot space carved flame. Right: PDF surfaces corresponding to 25% (red), 50% (blue) and 75% (green)

The space carved volume slightly overestimates the flame
volume, however, as it corresponds to the convex hull of the
flame. The back of the flame, towards the cylinder wall, is also
overestimated - as there is limited camera coverage there.
However, certain features are reasonably well captured by the
carving, such as the location and time of the first ignition
point. The flame tip position is also captured, from which the
furthest distance from the fuel injector to the front of the
flame can be calculated, as an estimate of flame length. The
height of the flame can also be estimated, as both the highest
and lowest points on the flame are captured well by the
carving. Finally, the distance from flame to exhaust valve and
piston can also be reasonably estimated.
The number of cycles captured by the high-speed cameras
varied from 11 to 22 for the cases analysed here. In the left
part of Fig. 5 an example of a single-shot space carved flame
is shown. To the right the corresponding PDFs calculated from
22 cycles are shown. The three semi-transparent contours
correspond to 25% (red), 50% (blue) and 75% (green) proba-
bilities of locating the flame within the contours. The relatively
small difference between the spatial extent of the 25% and
75% shells demonstrates that cycle-to-cycle variations in flame
position and shape are quite small, once the flame has devel-
oped. Direct inspection of the individual high-speed movies
confirms the relatively small cycle-to-cycle variations in flame
location. For the remainder of the paper it is the 50% PDF
contours that will be  displayed, in order to visualise the
© SAE International.
dif ference bet ween engine operating conditions
or configurations.
Results
Fuel Mode Variations
Two examples of high-speed movies recorded by the three
cameras are shown in Fig. 6. An example of conventional
diesel operation is shown on the left, and of dual-fuel opera-
tion to the right. The spacing between frames is 100 μs, which
corresponds to 0.067 crank angle degrees (CAD) at 112 rpm,
but only every 13th frame is shown here. The cylinder condi-
tions at start of fuel injection corresponds to 75% load, with
a cylinder pressure of around 125 bar at top dead centre
(TDC). The first light is visible around 10 frames (-0.8 CAD
ATDC) before the first frame shown in Fig. 6 and the flame
leaves the field of view of camera 3 around 12 frames (2.5 CAD
ATDC) after the last frame shown here. The flame luminosity
visible in Fig. 6 is dominated by soot incandescence for both
fuels. For the dual-fuel case one can observe that the flame
emission from the natural-gas flame (the right part of the joint
flame in the views from cameras 1 and 2) is similar in magni-
tude to that of the diesel pilot flame (left parts of the same
flame). In previous studies in the MAN ME-GI dual-fuel

 FIGURE 6   Flame evolution in single cycles captured using the three high-speed cameras. Left: Diesel operation, right: dual-fuel
operation. Every 13th frame from the full sequence is shown here, corresponding to 1.3 ms or 0.87 CAD.
© SAE International.
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OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS 5

engine the same strong soot dominated flame luminosity from
the directly-injected natural-gas flame has been observed [35].
From spectral analysis of the flame emission it appears that
soot luminescence clearly dominates over any chemilumines-
cence within the visible spectral region, also for the natural-
gas flame burning in a diesel process.
The corresponding space carved flame development for
the two operating modes is illustrated in Fig. 7, with the diesel
flame shown in red in the top row and the dual-fuel flame
shown in blue in the bottom row. The diesel flame appears a
bit rounder in shape than the gas flame, which appears a bit
flatter. One can also see that the diesel pilot flame and the gas
flame quickly form a merged flame in the dual-fuel case. An
obvious limitation is the difficulty to differentiate diesel and
natural gas flames once they have merged, as the visual lumi-
nosity is similar.
In Fig. 8 the front view of the same two operating cases
is shown. From this view one can even more clearly see that
the gas flame is a bit flatter than the diesel flame, and follows
the nozzle hole directions more closely in the initial stages of
flame development. An obvious difference between the two
operating modes in the initial flame development stage is the
larger flame volume of the dual-fuel case. Furthermore, the
gas flame in the dual-duel case clearly propagates closer to
the piston.
Several flame characteristics can be deduced from the
space carved contours. In Fig. 9 a) the evolution of the flame
length is plotted for the diesel flame and for the gas flame,
corresponding to the two operating cases illustrated in Fig. 6-8.
Flame length was calculated as the furthest distance from any
point on the individual carved contours to the fuel injector
nozzle. For the dual-fuel case the furthest distance within a
cone around the nozzle hole directions of the gas injector was

 FIGURE 7   Overview of flame propagation in the two different operating modes: diesel (top row), gas with diesel pilot (bottom
row). Every 13th frame from the full sequence is shown here, corresponding to 1.3 ms or 0.87 CAD. The contours correspond to
50% PDF
© SAE International.

 FIGURE 8   Diesel (red) and dual-fuel (blue) flames viewed from the front. The frames correspond to those in Fig. 7.
© SAE International.

 FIGURE 9   Comparison of a) flame length, b) flame tip speed and c) lift-off length development between diesel and gas flames.
© SAE International.
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6 OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS
identified. The error bars correspond to cycle-to-cycle varia-
tions. The same flame characteristics could also be calculated
directly from CFD simulation results, and could thus be used
for numerical model validation. The flame length can
be followed until it leaves the view of the cameras, at around
200 mm flame length. The flame length development is quite
similar for the two flames. This is not unexpected, as the gas
injection system has been tuned to achieve a similar combus-
tion rate in dual-fuel mode as in conventional diesel mode.
From the time-resolved flame length data the flame tip speed
was calculated, see Fig. 9 b). For the diesel flame it initially
increases to around 100 m/s, after which it drops and stabilises
around 40 m/s. Gas flame velocity is more stable, with a value
of around 50-60 m/s. The observed velocities appear to be a
combination of jet propagation and flame propagation along
the fuel jets, as it is well above the velocity of the swirling
in-cylinder flow (which is around 10-15 m/s [20]).
Another property which can be extracted is the lift-off
distance, which is plotted in Fig. 9 c). The difference between
the flames is here much larger, with the diesel flame stabilising
close to the fuel injector (4-8 mm). The gas flame first moves
away from the injector, and then stabilises at a distance of
around 30 mm (at least during the initial part of the injection
studied here). The lift-off presented here represents the
smallest distance from the injector to where soot starts to
form. For a large nozzle hole diesel injector the behaviour is
quite different to that of a modern car or truck sized injector.
For a marine diesel injector the liquid penetration is greater
than the lift-off and fuel is injected into a burning flame
envelope surrounding the fuel jet [11]. For this type of injector
 FIGURE 10   Comparison between diesel injection at two different charge densities (red: 47 kg/m3, blue: 37 kg/m3). Every 9th
frame from the full sequence is shown here, corresponding to 0.9 ms or 0.6 CAD for the high density case and 0.42 CAD for the
low density case.
 FIGURE 11   Comparison of a) flame length and b) lift-off length development between high and low charge densities, when
operating on diesel.
the difference between flame regions marked by OH chemi-
luminescence and soot luminescence has been observed to
be very small [36]. The deviation in these measurements to
lift-off as conventionally determined from OH* chemilumi-
nescence is thus not expected to be  large for this type of
engine. For the natural gas the velocity close to the nozzle is
expected to be higher than for the liquid phase, as well as being
colder - which could explain the longer lift-off length.
Charge Density
The multiple camera approach can also be used to directly
visualise the effect of parameter variations. The first variation
presented here is charge density (representing a difference in
load) for operation on diesel. In Fig. 10 the higher density case
(identical to that in Fig. 6-9) is shown in red, whereas the lower
density case is shown in blue. At TDC the charge densities of
the two cases are around 47 kg/m3 and 37 kg/m3, respectively.
For the lower charge density case the engine is operated at
78 rpm instead of 112 rpm. In the first frame of Fig. 10 in the
high density case the diesel jets have ignited both on the top
and bottom. In the lower density case only the top diesel jet
has ignited and the ignition is at a slightly larger distance from
the injector. The lower charge density case flame is then seen
to grow and propagate a bit faster.
The faster flame spread is also evident from the plot of
flame lengths in Fig. 11 a). Note that the flame length is plotted
as a function of time after start of injection (SOI), to allow a
direct comparison despite differences in rpm between the two
cases. At lower charge density the fuel jet is expected to
© SAE International.
© SAE International.
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OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS 7

propagate faster [11] as it has a higher exit velocity and encoun-
ters a less dense medium, thus leading to faster apparent flame
development. In Fig. 11 b) the lift-off distance is plotted. The
lift-off is seen to be around 5 mm longer for the lower charge
density case, which could be a combined effect of higher diesel
jet velocity and colder charge air temperatures (about 30
degrees colder).
Fuel Injector Design
Another type of variation that was studied is that of nozzle hole
directions. In Fig. 12 the flames from two 4-hole diesel injectors
with different nozzle hole directions are plotted. The red flame
is identical to that in Fig. 7 and Fig. 10. The blue flame, however,
was the result of a diesel injector with all nozzle holes pointing
8° further down into the cylinder. One can clearly see that the
flame then propagates further down into the combustion
chamber. This brings it closer to the piston surface. In this
injector configuration 10 °C higher piston temperatures were
measured, further supporting the visible change in flame
geometry. For a marine two-stroke engine small adjustments
to nozzle hole directions are part of the engine tuning for a
new engine model, in order to find a good compromise between
performance and component heat-loads.
The second variation studied was that of nozzle hole
diameters. In Fig. 13 the red flame is identical to the low
density case in Fig. 10, whereas the blue flame is the result of
injection from a fuel injector with a nozzle hole diameter of
1.3 mm (instead of 1.05 mm). The nozzle hole directions for
the two injectors were identical. The change due to the 50%
increase in nozzle hole areas is not very drastic. The large holes
give a slightly faster propagation, see Fig. 14 a), as expected as
jet penetration approximately scales with the square root of
nozzle hole diameter. The larger holes also result in a slightly
higher flame, in the direction perpendicular to the nozzle hole
directions, see Fig. 14b).

 FIGURE 12   Comparison between two diesel fuel injectors with different nozzle hole directions (red: reference, blue: lowered
by 8°). Every 10th frame from the full sequence is shown here, corresponding to 1.0 ms or 0.67 CAD.
© SAE International.

 FIGURE 13   Comparison between two diesel fuel injectors with different nozzle hole diameters (red: 1.05 mm, blue: 1.3 mm).
Every 12th frame from the full sequence is shown here, corresponding to 1.2 ms or 0.56 CAD.
© SAE International.

 FIGURE 14   Comparison of a) flame length and b) flame height development between two different nozzle hole diameters when
operating on diesel.
© SAE International.
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8 OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS
 FIGURE 15   Comparison of gas injection pressures in dual-fuel mode (green: 300 bar, red: 250 bar, blue: 200 bar). The spacing
is 6 frames, corresponding to 0.6 ms or 0.4 CAD.
 FIGURE 16   Comparison of a) flame length and b) lift-off development between three different gas injection pressures when
operating on gas.
Gas Pressure
The final parameter studied is gas-injection pressure, when
operating in dual-fuel mode. In Fig. 15 the flames corre-
sponding to gas injection pressures of 200 bar (blue), 250 bar
(red) and 300 bar (green) are visualised. The diesel pilot
employed here is a smaller injection, compared to the main
diesel injection in the previous figures. The diesel pilot flame
can be seen in the back of the view. The gas flames are seen
in the front of the view. One can clearly see that a higher
gas-injection pressure leads to a faster flame propagation, as
the green (300 bar) flame stretches further along the nozzle
hole directions than the blue (200 bar). It is also clearly seen
in the plot of flame propagation in Fig. 16a). This is expected
as the increased pressure leads to an increased nozzle exit
velocity, resulting in a faster jet propagation and thus more
rapid spread of the flame in the downstream direction. There
seems to be no visible effect on flame extent in the other
direction (perpendicular to propagation direction). The
higher gas injection pressure also leads to a slight increase
in lift-off. It is a bit difficult to see from the space carved
contours, but is clear from the plot of lift-off in Fig. 16 b). This
© SAE International.
© SAE International.
longer lift-off at higher injection pressure would be expected
as the f lame has to stabilise against a higher incoming
gas velocity.
Summary/Conclusions
Large marine two-stroke engines do not have a single
symmetric fuel injector located at the centre of the cylinder,
but instead multiple asymmetric injectors along the periphery.
The resulting flames are thus also asymmetric. Here, multiple
high-speed cameras have been applied to allow the spatial
location and shape of flames to be  studied. For dual-fuel
engines, as the one studied here, flame geometry is even more
complicated as there are both flames, from the directly
injected liquid pilot and from the directly injected gaseous
fuels. For a production type engine, the multiple-camera
approach allows parameter changes to be studied directly,
both in terms of spatial and temporal changes. Here the effects
of changing injection pressure, nozzle hole size and direction,
as well as charge density were studied.
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OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS
Data on spatial flame location and development inside
the cylinder is valuable for validation of CFD models. It could
also be valuable for experimental studies of heat-loads, as
flame distances to cover, liner or piston surfaces could
be determined.
Here only three cameras were used, which limits accuracy
and also optical coverage to only parts of the flame. With
additional cameras, higher accuracy in the spatial reconstruc-
tion of flames could be achieved. Further camera views would
also allow the back-side of the flame to be studied, allowing
flame width for example to be estimated. Nevertheless, even
with only three camera views, properties like flame length,
flame height, flame tip speed, flame lift-off and ignition sites
could be extracted. One way of achieving additional views on
an engine of this type could be to use an engine cover with a
larger number of direct optical ports [10], instead of borescope
access as employed here. Additional camera views, as well as
more wide-angle detection, would also allow the flame to
be followed over a longer time than here. With a larger number
of views one could afford the flame to partly leave the field of
view for some individual views, while still ensuring informa-
tion enough for efficient space carving.
References
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Contact Information
Senior Research Engineer, Dr. Johan Hult
MAN Energy Solutions
Research&Development
Teglholmsgade 41
2450 Copenhagen SV, Denmark
johan.hult@man-es.com
Acknowledgments
This project has received funding from the European Union’s
Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant
agreement no. 634135 HERCULES-2