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25
2
DESIGN
2.A. GENER AL
This chapter includes numerous functional aspects of a building
that are not normally considered as architectural engineering, yet
which still require skillful quantifying in terms of scientific principles
and whose proper size impacts other aspects of design. It proceeds
from the most ‘macro’ aspects of a building’s design such as catchment
potential to such ‘micro’ aspects as required window areas and fire
construction details.
2.B.1. Catchments
Often it is necessary to estimate the number of occupants or
economic entities that will use a building as a basis for design. Oth-
erwise the building may end up being either too large or too small for
its use. Such estimates involve analyzing a proposed building’s catch-
ment or geographic area from which its occupants will be drawn.
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26 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2B1 C≈AUI
C = total catchment or economic potential, ? $/yr
A = number of area units in catchment. Here, area unit is mi2. As
A=circle with radius of 2¡ miles, A=πr2=π (2.25)2=15.9 mi2. A
may also be a highly irregular area determined by halving the
distance to similar facilities in every direction.
U = number of occupancy units in each area unit. From U.S. Cen-
sus data, number of persons per square mile of area=1,650.
I = potential per occupancy unit. From U.S. Dept. of Labor data,
annual food and sundry expenses per person=$1,413/yr.
C ≈ 15.9¿1,650¿1,413 ≈ $37,000,000/yr
2B1 C≈AUI
C = total catchment or economic potential, ? students in district
A = number of area units in catchment. Here, area unit is one resi-
dence. Thus A =400+120=520 residences.
U = number of occupancy units in each area unit. Here, occupancy
unit is one family. Thus U=1 family per lot.
I = potential or input per occupancy unit. Here, I≈0.8 school-age
children per family.
C ≈ 520¿1¿0.8 ≈ 420 students
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DESIGN 27
2B2 M U ≈ P–C U
M = market (feasible floor area) potential of occupancy, ? ft2
U = output per unit area, annual sales per ft2. U=$180/yr.
P = catchment or market potential, $/yr, $37,100,000
C = floor area of competing facilities, if any, 197,000 ft2
M¿180 ≈ (37,100,000–197,000¿180) … M ≈ 9,100 ft2
Note: In the above formula, the term C U denotes the market penetra-
tion rate of other stores in the catchment, individually or collectively.
2B2 M U ≈ P–C U
M = market potential (feasible floor area) of occupancy, ? ft2
U = output per unit area (no. pupils/ft2), 1/65=0.015
P = catchment or market potential, 420 pupils
C = floor area of competing facilities, if any, 0 (none w/in catchment)
M¿0.015 ≈ (420–0¿0.015) ... M ≈ 28,000 ft2
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28 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 29
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30 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 31
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32 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 33
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34 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 35
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36 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
ways to 8-10 in. thick for main access roads. For any paved road, high
bearing strength is provided by strong subsoils, well-packed bases
and subbases, thick toppings, and, with asphalt, the weight of the
roller used to surface the road. As for unpaved areas such as grav-
el, brick, cobblestone, etc., these are appropriate only for roads
whose design speeds are 10 mph or less.
The formula below may be used to find the optimal construction
for an access road given certain vehicle load and speed criteria.
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DESIGN 37
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38 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 39
3
2
4 5
6 7
8 9
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40 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2.E.1. Parking
Vehicular parking may be perpendicular, angled (usually 45-
60˚), or parallel to curbs. The final orientation is an interface be-
tween the street and drivers, passengers, and contents on one side
and approaches to building entrances on the other. In both direc-
tions, all access routes must be designed in terms of adequate widths,
turning radii, vertical transitions, and sight lines. Typical parking
area dimensions are listed below. These include no allowances for
columns in interior parking areas or for front and rear aisles in
garages. Desirable angle-parking widths are 12 ft for delivery trucks,
13 ft for moving vans, and 14 ft for busses. Lengths for large vehicles
vary greatly according to their size, as follows:
Frontal or angle Parallel
VEHICLE pkg. area, ft pkg. area, ft
Standard sedans and station wagons ..... 9¿19 8¿24
Compacts ........................................... 8.5¿17 8¿22
Subcompacts ........................................ 8¿15 8¿20
Vans and pickup trucks ...................... 9.5¿19 8¿24
Accessible design ............................... 13¿20 —
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DESIGN 41
How many acres should a 220-car parking lot have if local streets are
used to enter one half and inner access roads for the other half?
2.E.2. Sidewalks
Sidewalks are commonly made of reinforced concrete, asphalt,
and brick or stone pavers. One’s total depth of wearing course, bed-
ding or binder course, and subbase is usually 10-12 in., and its sur-
face should pitch at least 1/8 in/ft toward the street if one is along-
side. Minimum widths are 3 ft for private walks, 4 ft for park walks, 5
ft for suburban walks, and 8 ft for city walks. Each should have a 1.5
ft wide viewing corridor when next to buildings and a 2 ft wide area
for utility poles and other urban furniture when alongside streets.
Typical curb heights are 5-8 in. Nice sidewalk designs include broad
curves and varying widths as well as park benches, kiosks, large en-
trance aprons to adjacent buildings, rows of trees with grated bases,
and as much adjacent lawn and flowerbed area as possible.
2E2 W ≈ 3+F+V+0.0025 P
W = optimal width of sidewalk, ? ft
F = width of street furniture on pavement, if any, ft. Allow 2 ft.
V = viewing corridor for storewindows, etc, if any, ft. Allow 1.5 ft.
P = projected pedestrian flow, 1,200 people/hr.
W ≈ 3+2+1.5+0.0025¿1,200 ≈ 9.5 ft
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42 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2.E.3. Signage
Signage is bulletin-like information appearing along a vehicu-
lar or pedestrian pathway; this includes everything from highway bill-
boards to floor indicator buttons inside an elevator. When one ap-
proaches such a display, his or her eyes subtend a narrow vertical
angle whose sides align with the tops and bottoms of the sign’s let-
tering. For a person with 20/40 vision to read such lettering, this an-
gle should not be less than 0.167˚, including oblique approaches, and
the approaching speed and reaction time of any motorist should be
considered. Figure-ground contrast is important, and upper-and-low-
er case lettering is easier to read than upper case only.
2E31 H ≥ 0.035 D
H = height of readable letters, upper/lower case, ? in.
D = distance between viewer and sign, ft. D=46 ft.
H ≥ 0.035¿46 ≥ 1.61 in.
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DESIGN 43
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44 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 45
2E43 L å = 100 H
L = length (horizontal projection) between start and end of slope, ft.
Average horiz. interval of topographic contours=28 ft
å = slope of terrain, ? % grade
H = height (vertical projection) between start and end of slope, ft
Elevation interval of contours=5 ft
28¿å = 100¿5 … å = 17.9%
From Table 2-3, allow. slope for driveway = 1-12%
17.9 not ≤ 12 ã NG
Note: The driveway may be given a gentler slope by orienting it di-
agonally across the topographic contours.
REQUIRED DIMENSIONS
DIMENSION Requirement
Max. slope, walks .................................... 1:12; Fixed assembly seating 1:5
Max. length, if slope is 1:12 to 1:16 ........... 30'; If slope is 1:16-1:20 .... 40'
Min. clear width: to 10 occupants ........... 2'-6"; To 50 occupants ...... 3'-0"
50 occupants or more .................................................................. 3'-8"
Landings ... req. at top & bottom if slope≥1:16; Landing widths .. 5'-0" min.
Length, top & bottom landings .... 6'-0" min.; Interm. landing .. 5'-0" min.
Vertical distance between any 2 landings ............................... 5'-0" max.
Door swings cannot reduce any minimum dimension by more than 3™"
Handrails, projection from walls ...... 3™" min.; Space btwn. walls 1™" min.
Thickness ................................... 1¡ to 2; Height ........ 2'-10" to 3'-2"
Handrails required on both sides if ramp slope≥1:16 & length≥6'-0"
Surface ............................ must be rough or nonslip material (friction≥0.6)
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46 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2.E.5. Stairs
A staircase must satisfy the muscles more than the eye. The
primary ‘motion mandate’ for one’s design is its ratio of riser to tread
—or as the noted art theorist Rudolf Arnheim put it, “the ratio of la-
borious lifting versus victorious advancing.” 2-1 Indeed, usually the
more laborious the lifting, the higher a staircase’s risers; while the
more victorious the advancing, the longer its treads.
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DESIGN 47
With spiral or winding stairs, the higher the risers, the fewer the
steps and the tighter the spiral revolves; but tight spirals are usual-
ly dangerous to descend.
Step 2. Find the length of the staircase, not including any landings.
L = T (˜–1)
L = horizontal length of staircase or staircase segment, ? in.
T = width of tread, 10 in. 70 must≤T R≤77. T R=7.13 x 10=71.3ã
OK. If not OK, adjust R or T.
˜ = no. of risers. From Step 1, ˜=15 risers.
L = 10 (15–1) = 140 in. ã 11’-8"
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48 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
Step 2. Find the length of the staircase, not including any landings.
L = T (˜–1)
L = horizontal length of staircase or staircase segment, ? in.
T = width of tread, 10 in. 70≤T R≤77. If not, adjust R or T.
˜ = no. of risers. From Step 1, ˜=7 risers.
L = 10 (7–1) = 60 in.ã 5’-0"
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DESIGN 49
Treads: straight run, Code for private occupancies (less than 10) .. 9.00 min.
Code for public occupancies; comfortable for private occupancies 10.0 min.
Winding or spiral, Code or comfortable for all occupancies ..........
6.00 min. at any point, 9.00 min. at 12 in. from narrow end
Risers: straight run, Code for public occupancies ..................... 4.00 to 8.00
Code for private occupancies (less than 10) ........................... 8.00 max.
Comfortable for all occupancies ........................................... 5.75 to 7.50
Difference between largest & smallest rise or run .......................... 3/8 max.
Width, clear: private occupancies (less than 10 occupants) .............. 30 min.
50 or less occupants ................................................................ 36 min.
More than 50 occupants ........................................................... 44 min.
Landings, length ................................ width of stairs or greater to 48 max.
Width .............................................................. no less than stair width
Door swing .................... cannot reduce landing width by less than 0.5 W
Vertical distance between landings .......................................... 144 max.
Handrails: projection from walls .................................................... 3™ max.
Thickness ............................................................................... 1.25 to 2
Space between walls .................................................................... 1.50 min.
Height above nosings .............................................................. 30 to 34
Rails on public stairs to 88 in. wide ................... required on both sides
Rails on wider public stairs ............ intermediate rail every horiz. 88 in.
Trim projections from wall ........................................................... 1.50 max.
Headroom, vertical clear above treads at all points ......................... 80 min.
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50 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2E5a H≈7˜
H = floor-to-floor height of staircase or staircase section, in.
11'-3™"=(11¿12+3)/2=67.5 in.
˜ = optimal number of risers in staircase, ? units
67.5 ≈ 7 ˜ … ˜ ≈ 9.6 ã 9 or 10 risers
2E5c R T ≈ 74
R = optimal height of each riser, in. 711/16 in.=7.69 in.
T = optimal width of each tread, ? in. T may vary by±0.25 in.
7.69¿T ≈ 74 … T = 9.6 in.ã 95/8 in.
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DESIGN 51
2.E.6. Escalators
An escalator is a wide revolving chain, with each step a link, that
is fitted into an inclined truss that bridges the upper and lower levels.
One can deliver many riders quickly without their having to wait. Es-
calators require ¤ the floorspace of elevators to deliver the same pas-
senger loads, need no pits or penthouses, and can traverse tall floor-
to-floor heights; but above two levels riders prefer elevators. Ceiling-
to-floor dimensions are typically 4'-0", excluding finish, due to the ma-
chinery under the combplates at each end of the moving stairs. Esca-
lators should be located in direct lines of circulation and offer riders
dominant views of destinations, be installed in pairs (crisscross
arrangements are best), and avoid forced walkarounds at landings (al-
though some stores prefer walkarounds because they make customers
walk through merchandise). Risers are 8 in. and step slopes are 30˚.
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52 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2.E.7. Elevators
An elevator is basically a box on a cable that rises and falls in a
hollow shaft. One is required in any building more than three stories tall
or with more than 3,000 ft2 of area on each floor. Each has an outer
shaft door and an inner cab door, and each door may be single slide (SS,
right or left), double slide (DS, right or left), or center-opening (CO, 1 or
2 pair). Wider openings permit simultaneous loading and unloading. The
box, or cab, is a fire-resistant cage whose interiors may be finished with
almost any material, including ceiling coves for illumination. Each cab
should have clearly visible floor signage, easily usable controls, and ex-
haust fans. Shafts should be isolated from sleeping, office, and other
quiet areas; landings should have barrier-free access and clearly visi-
ble signage on each floor; and the lobby should include a control panel,
building directory, and pay phone. All elevator components require ac-
cess for inspection and maintenance.
Good performance includes minimum waiting time, rapid loading
and unloading, brief travel time, comfortable acceleration and decel-
eration, and automatic leveling at landings. Modern designs include
exposed cabs with glass walls for observing surrounding areas while
the cab is moving, inclined shafts (the one in the Gateway Arch in St.
Louis varies from near-vertical at the bottom to near-horizontal at
the top), and Ferris wheel-type parking garages.
There are two kinds of elevators: traction and hydraulic. Each,
as well as service elevators and dumbwaiters, is described below.
Traction
A traction elevator hangs from cables that pass over a motor-
driven cylindrical sheave with the cab suspended on one side and a
large counterweight on the other, then when the cab goes up the
counterweight goes down. The sheave and its motor are located in a
well-ventilated penthouse with an overhead trolley beam directly
above the shaft. Penthouse floor area≈2¿shaft area. A machine
room is located either next to the penthouse or on any floor next to
the shaft. The shafts, penthouse, pit, and landings are all major spa-
tial components in the building and usually comprise more than 10
percent of its cost.
Ω Versatile: can be used in buildings of any height. Long life, low
maintenance. Require relatively little power to operate.
¸ Higher initial cost than hydraulic elevators. Traction elevators
require more interior space, larger structural systems, and tall
penthouses which may be unsightly.
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DESIGN 53
Service Elevators
Also known as freight elevators, each cab is typically built of
heavy gauge steel with a multilayered wood floor, padded walls, and
guarded ceiling light fixtures. Design is based on size of load, method
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54 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
Dumbwaiters
In these small elevators the cab is often compartmented by
shelves, doors are usually vertical biparting (half goes up, half goes
down), loading levels may be at floor or counter height, and control is
usually by call-and-send intercom between two floors.
1. Specifications are for standard cabs. Custom cabs may have any dimensions,
but they are more expensive.
2. Maximum rise for gearless elevators is unlimited.
3. Deeper if cab travel exceeds 400 ft/min.
4. This does not include the depth of boring for the plunger.
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DESIGN 55
2E7a1 Lobby: L Œ = 5 c A ˜
2 Upper floor landings: L Œ = 5 c A
L = min. lobby or landing area, ? ft2
Œ = occupancy load of floorspace served, ft2/occ. From Table 2-6,
Œ for apartment=250 ft2/occ.
c = elevator capacity factor. From Table 2-5, c for apt.=0.15.
A = net area of each floor, 8,400 ft2
˜ = no. floors served by elevator from its main floor lobby, 12 floors
Lobby: L¿250 = 5¿8400¿0.15¿12 … L ≥ 302 ft2
Upper floors: L¿250 = 5¿8,400¿0.15 … L ≥ 25.2 ft2
Step 2. Find the cab’s width and depth. Solve as below, or select from a cat-
alog an elevator whose cab area exceeds C above.
d ≈ 0.84 C 0.5 w ≈ 1.18 C 0.5
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56 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
What is the optimal size of the elevator shaft in the above problem?
2E7cw ws ≈ wc+24
d ds ≈ dc+33
ws = inside width of elevator shaft, ? in.
wc = width of cab, in. 6.1 ft=73.2 in.
ds = inside depth of elevator shaft, ? in.
dc = depth of cab, in. 4.4 ft=52.8 in. Cab should have about 7
in. space in front and 26 in. in back.
ws ≈ 73.2+24 ≈ 97 in.
ds ≈ 528+33 ≈ 86 in.
Shaft area ≈ 97¿86/144 ≈ 58 ft2
2.E.7.d. Velocity
During peak hours an elevator typically has a net velocity of
about ¡ its optimal velocity due to the numerous stops it makes.
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DESIGN 57
2.F. OCCUPANCIES
Each architectural space has an optimal floor area depending on
how many people use it and what they are doing. Examples are two
sleeping in a bedroom, 12 seats in a residential dining room, and 400 in
a public auditorium. Such optimal areas are known as occupancy loads.
The values listed in Table 2-6 may vary somewhat according to the ac-
tivity of the occupants and function of the building.
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58 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 59
Food service: luncheonettes: eating & inner circulation ... 12 ................ 1.3
Serving, vending, disposal ........................................ 6 ................ 1.3
Kitchen, food storage, administration ........................ 7 ................ 1.3
Restaurants: seating and inner circulation .................... 14 ................ 1.5
Serving, vending, disposal ........................................ 6 ................ 1.5
Kitchen, food storage, administration ........................ 9 ................ 1.5
Hotels and motels: private areas ... 120, 1.4; Lobby ........ 10 ................ 1.4
Hospitals, per bed unit: infirmary areas ....................... 125 ................ 1.6
Psychiatric ... 165, 1.6; Administration .................... 20 ................ 1.5
Diagnostic and treatment ....................................... 50 ................ 1.5
Services (food, maintenance, staff) .......................... 45 ................ 1.3
Institutions (children’s homes, sanitariums, nursing homes):
Administration, lounge areas, services .................... 60 ................ 1.5
Sleeping areas: infants .. 40 & 1.6; Children .. 70 & 1.5: Adults ... 100 & 1.4
Industrial, work station and storage: shops ................. 200 ................ 1.4
Laboratories ......................................................... 140 ................ 1.5
Libraries: open reading rooms, per user ....................... 35 ................ 1.5
University graduate reading rooms, per user ........... 60 ................ 1.4
Stack space, per bound volume ............................ 0.08 ................ 1.3
Service space ...................................................... 25% of reader space
Museums: exhibit areas, per max. visitors ...................... 15 ................ 1.2
Reception (lobby, museum shop, waiting) ................ 20% of exhibit area
Administration areas, per staff member ................. 150 ................ 1.3
Exhibit preparation ... 20% of exhibit area; Exhibit area .... varies widely
Offices: private, management ...................................... 150 ................ 1.3
Semiprivate & open, nonmanagement ..................... 120 ................ 1.3
Service (lounge, coffee) ............................................ 3 ................ 1.5
Rest rooms: men or women ............................ 100 ft2+1.2 ft2 per occupant
Retail: ground floor .. 30 & 1.4; Upper floors .. 50 & 1.2; Basement .. 20 & 1.3
Schools: day-care nurseries: seating & play areas ......... 40 ................ 2.0
Kindergarten, seating & play areas, shops, vocational .... 50 ................ 1.8
Reading rooms ... 40, 1.6; Lecture halls ................... 12 ................ 1.6
Small classrooms, seminar rooms ............................ 20 ................ 1.6
Large classrooms ... 15, 1.6; Instructional labs ......... 70 ................ 1.6
Shops and vocational rooms ................................... 50 ................ 1.6
Dorms, sleeping and lounge areas .......................... 100 ................ 1.6
Service areas: loading and breakdown area, per bay .... 400 ................ 1.4
Security office, per employee .................................. 80 ................ 1.4
Security entrance: door, landing, steps .................. 100 ................ 1.0
Trash holding room, per building occupant ............. 0.3 ................ 1.5
Stairs ................................. 50 ft2+1 ft2 per occupant per floor, but varies
Storage, personal ................................................. 40 ft2, but varies widely
General ....................... 20 ft2+0.1 ft2 per occupant per floor, but varies
Transportation: auto parking, per car .......................... 180 ................ 1.7
Passenger loading platforms ........... 1.5¿full vehicle unloading capacity
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60 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
Example 1. If a cider factory has a net floor area of 8,200 ft2 and
a gross area of 11,700 ft2, what is the building’s grossing factor?
2F3 A = Œ F v
A = optimal floor area of occupancy, ? ft2
= grossing factor of occupancy. From Table 2-6, for food ser-
vice: luncheonettes=1.3.
Œ = occupancy load. 170 people/2 sittings=85 people
F = floor area/occupant, ft2. From Table 2-4, Food service: lun-
cheonettes=12+6+7=23 ft2 floor area/occupant.
v = vertical circulation factor. If area has only one floor, v≈0.9;
if two or three floors, v≈1.0; if building has elevators, v≈1.1
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DESIGN 61
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62 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
1 .5 ¿X AREA
Two-story areas (1)
1 .0 ¿X AREA
Livable spaces (2)
Circulation areas
Storage, utility, &
mechanical areas
Chimneys below roofs
Dormers (3)
Bay windows (4)
0.67 ¿X AREA
Unfinished rooms
Garages
Roofed balconies (5)
Screened porches (6)
Mech. penthouses (7)
Recessed porches (8)
Colonnades
0.5 ¿X AREA
Covered recesses (9)
Covered entries (10)
Carports
Courtyards, atriums
Covered walks
N UMBERS IN DRAW IN G REFER TO
Pergolas EQUIVALEN T FL OOR AREAS
LIST ED TO T HE LEFT AN D BEL OW
0.5 ¿X AREA
Open shafts (11), terraces, decks (19), uncovered entries, unfinished
basements, attics with access, outdoor pools, pipe
tunnels, utility pits.
0.25 ¿X AREA
Chimneys above roof (12), cornices (13), parapets (14), belvederes, pi-
lasters (15), exterior recesses (16), roof overhangs (17), small outdoor
steps (18), gardens, crawlspaces, foundations (20)
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64 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2G11 Ag ≥ 0.10 Af
Ag = minimum area of unobstructed glazing, excluding frame, ? ft2
Af = floor area served by glazing, ft2. 21¿15=315 ft2.
Ag ≥ 0.10¿315 ≥ 31.5 ft2
2G12 Ag ≥ 0.05 Af
Ag = minimum area of openable glass, including frame, ? ft2
Af = floor area served by openable glass, ft2. 14.0¿38.7=542 ft2.
Ag ≥ 0.05¿542 ≥ 27.1 ft2
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2G2 Av ≥ 0.0067 Af
Av = minimum open area of vents, excluding obstructions, ? ft2
Af = floor area of attic, ft2. 44¿28=1,230 ft2.
Av ≥ 0.006¿1,230 ≥ 8.21 ft2
2G3 Av ≥ 0.02 P
Av = minimum open area of vents, excluding obstructions, ? ft2
P = perimeter length of foundation wall, ft. 2 (44+28)=144 ft.
Av ≥ 0.02¿144 ≥ 2.88 ft2
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66 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2.H. C OL OR C O M P OS IT I ON
Johannes Itten, the noted professor of color theory at the Bau-
haus in the 1920s, stated that there are at least six basic contrasts
by which any two colors when seen together can evoke a harmonious
effect. These contrasts are:
Hue: one color vs. another.
Value: dark v. light.
Intensity: bright v. dull.
Complementary: red v. green, yellow v. violet, orange v. blue
Cold-warm: fiery red-orange-yellow v. glacial blue-green.
Extensional: small areas v. large. 2-2
Add to these contrasts several other chromatically related cri-
teria such as clarity vs. obscurity, smooth vs. rough, and glossy vs.
dull, and it is easy to see why the colors of a constructed environ-
ment can —aside from all other aspects of design— render a space
as delightful or unbearable. Thus every designer should know his or
her ‘chromatic grammar’ when it comes to composing in color, rather
than leaving such matters to chance or whim.
To cite Johannes Itten again… “A meat market may be decorat-
ed in light green and blue-green tones, so that the various meats will
appear fresher and redder … For a christening one would never
choose dark blue or dark green, but deliberately prefer light delicate
colors … It would be wrong to plant blue larkspur against a brown
wooden fence, or yellow flowers against a white stone wall, because
these backgrounds would detract from the color effect … Salesrooms
where the colors of goods are to be appreciated should always be
done in neutral grays.” 2-3 A few more guidelines:
Ø Cool pale colors tend to promote relaxation and shorten the
passing of time; thus they are good for areas of repetitive
work. Warm bright colors tend to promote activity and height-
en one’s awareness of time; thus they are better for entertain-
ment and romantic settings. Cool colors tend to make warm
conditions more tolerable, while warm colors do the same for
cold conditions.
Ø Advancing colors (red-yellow) usually make objects look larger;
receding colors (green-violet) usually make things look smaller.
Ø Red is the color of activity, orange of conviviality, yellow of
cerebration, green of nature, blue of repose, violet of regality.
The example below outlines a method of selecting a color
scheme for an interior space based on Itten’s color theory.
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68 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2.J.1. T he Square
The square module is typically a checkerboard grid whose lines
are equally spaced, such as 16 in. apart with every third line being a
dominant 4'-0" construction module. From this may evolve minor mod-
ules of 2'-0" (lumber lengths), 8" (concrete blocks), or 4" (bricks) which
further organize design and simplify construction. Rectangular, rhom-
boidal, and even parallelogramic modules may also be employed.
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DESIGN 69
2.J.2. T he Hexagon
When circular bodies of uniform size are close-packed in a plane,
their most efficient arrangement is a hexagonal pattern. An excellent
example of this is the bee’s honeycomb, in which each hex-cell is the
result of equal pressure applied to each face as the bee on each side
strives to make its own little compartment as large as possible, which
allows each cell to hold more honey than any other space while re-
quiring less material to enclose. This of course has significant archi-
tectural implications, an organic fact which was not lost on Frank Lloyd
Wright, as evidenced by his beautiful hexagonal plans for the Hanna
House in California and Palmer House in Michigan. Although
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70 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2.J.3. T he Octagon
When octagonal geometry is used to create architectural pat-
terns and shapes, the results possess the construction simplicity of
the square and the movement fluidity of the curve; thus they are easy
to build and efficient to use. Indeed, in the 1850s in America a popular
residence was the octagon house, whose stock plan was known for its
spacious rooms, economic use of materials, and ample views of the sur-
rounding landscape through its 8 exposures as well as the 8-sided
cupola on top. Its rooms also received more daylight and were easier
to ventilate. And many a Victorian house was adorned by octagonal tur-
rets, octagonal porches, octagonally chamfered posts, and other ‘8-
square’ configurations, all of which were easily generated by the oc-
tagonal scale on a carpenter’s framing square. The author also em-
ployed this geometry in his own residence, in which he built octagonal
doorframes, an octagonal seating area in the living room, and octago-
nally arranged casework in the kitchen as shown below.
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DESIGN 71
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-
Step 1. Find the outer side length from the proper octagonal ratio:
2J38 side ã 1.0 = outer side length ã 134 (1.0) = 55.8 in.
dia. 2.4 134 in. 2.4
Step 2. Find the inner side length from the same ratio as in Step 1:
2J38 side ã 1.0 = outer side length ã 70 (1.0) = 29.2 in.
dia. 2.4 70 in. 2.4
Step 3. Find the seating edge radius from the proper octagonal ratio:
2J3- corner radius ã 1.0 = seat edge radius ã 64 (1.3) = 55.8 in.
dia. 2.4 (134–70) in. 2.4
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72 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 73
1 , 2, 3, 5
4 ....................... 8 ..................... 18
14 ................... 6.5 (6) ................ 13 ..................... 30
24 .................. 10.5 (10) ............... 21 (20) .............. 48
38 ..................... 17 (16) ............... 34 ..................... 78
62 .................. 27.5 (28) ............... 55 (54)
100 .................. 44.5 (44) .............. 89 (88)
72 .................... 144
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74 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
What are optimal dimensions for a residential dining area for six?
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76 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
cate hose bibbs so all areas can be reached with a 50 ft hose, mount
heavy-duty hose hangers beside them, and install stop-and-waste valves
on exterior hose bibbs in regions of subfreezing winter weather.
Standpipes and sprinklers. This includes standpipes, firehose
racks, and sprinkler heads. As these are plumbing systems, their de-
sign is described in Sec. 5.F. Fire Suppression.
Portable extinguishers, CO2, Foams, Halon alternatives. These
gases or liquids tend to smother unusual types of fires. They are also
covered in Sec. 5.F.
Studies indicate that 75% of all building fire deaths are caused
by smoke and gas inhalation. Pushed outward by the expanding heat
of flames, these fumes spread via convective air movement and dif-
ferential atmospheric pressure to horizontal areas well beyond their
source, often faster than a person moving at a brisk walk. In tall
buildings the stack effect greatly increases their deadliness in verti-
cal directions. The production of such gasses also depletes the oxy-
gen supply. Although oxygen usually comprises about 21% of air, its
reduction to 16% diminishes human muscular skill, to 10% leads to
faulty judgment and rapid fatigue, and to 6% results in collapse. It is
of little solace to trapped occupants that oxygen levels lower than 7%
usually do not support combustion. Thus smoke control in buildings
is as important as suppressing fire. Common methods include HVAC
systems with fire-control overrides which in case of fire readjust
dampers and activate exhaust fans that draw accumulating smoke
and gasses out of affected interior areas. But recently, due to a
greater understanding of pyrodynamics and the development of sen-
sor-activated computer controls, two important new smoke control
strategies have evolved, which could be called pressure sandwiching
and roof reservoiring. Each is described below.
Pressure sandwiching. This strategy involves installing a net-
work of well-placed smoke sensors and damper controls throughout a
building’s HVAC ducting, then wiring them to computerized host con-
trols that (1) shut down the supply air to any zone where fire is de-
tected, (2) turn on the zone’s exhaust fan to create a negative air pres-
sure there, (3) supply all adjacent zones with maximum incoming air,
and (4) close the exhaust fans from adjacent zones to create a posi-
tive air pressure in these areas. Then a “pressure sandwich” is creat-
ed that tends to confine the smoke to its zone of origin where its ex-
haust fan may more easily remove it from the building. These systems
can be programmed to create the proper pressure relationships in
any combination of zones, and are therefore useful in multi-story
buildings and floor areas with many compartmentalized zones.
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78 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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80 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
2K1 D ≥ 0.5 L
D = minimum distance between centers of exit doors, ? ft
L = maximum diagonal length of floor plan, ft. (L2+W2)0.5=
(802+1122)0.5=138 ft.
D ≥ 0.5¿138 ≥ 69 ft
2.L. ACCESSIBILIT Y
Certainly modern spaces should accommodate the visually im-
paired and people confined to wheelchairs. But they should also be
comfortable to a child, a pregnant woman pushing a stroller, a custo-
dian managing a service cart, or a retiree carrying a bulky suitcase on
wheels. Thus accessible design, rather than being ‘design for the
handicapped,’ represents more of a shift from a collective design men-
tality to one that considers the unique nature of every individual. All
such ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1988) accommodations
should be subtle and unobtrusive, and they should be an objective
from the earliest stages of design. Although the guidelines below are
intended for the disabled, they are advisable for any occupancy.
Typical wheelchair dimensions. Total length=42", width=25",
seat ht.=19", armrest ht.=29", pusher handle ht.=36", turning ra-
dius=30", eye level of seated user=3-6" to 4-3", minimum clear knee
ht.= 2'-3". Use more detailed data when available.
Building access. ADA parking spaces (13'-0" wide including a 5'-
0" access aisle) should be located near each entrance. Locate bol-
lards between pedestrian and vehicular areas, avoid curbs, and in-
stall grooved pavement or other tactile surfaces to aid the visually
impaired. Min. vertical clearance=9'-6", min. aisle width=5'-0", min.
pitch=1/100 both ways, max. cross-slope=1/50, max. ramp slope=
1/12 (any floor pitch exceeding 1/16 is a ramp). Ideal pitch from
street to entry≈1: 20 upward.
Entries. Electronically activated doors are advisable; as the
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82 STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING
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DESIGN 83
flush controls at 3'-8". Vanities should be 2'-0" deep, 2'-10" high with
2'-3" clear underneath, and any exposed under-sink plumbing should
be padded/insulated. Min. mirror heights=3'-4" at lower edges and
6'-2" at upper edges. Min. clear between residential lavatory/toilets
and tub/showers=2'-6". A 1'-5" wide seat at the shallow end of the tub
allows easy wheelchair transfer into the tub and provides a shelf for
toiletries and towels. Install high and low soap dishes large enough to
hold shampoo, and provide a handheld shower spray. Grab bars should
be 1¡ to 1™" dia. and 1™" clear from walls. Roll-in showers require wa-
terproofing under the whole bathroom floor and at least 1" up the wall.
Advisable stall shower area=3'-0"¿5'-0". Residences should have one
bath designed to ADA specifications.
Signage. This should be visual and cognitive: large sizes, pro-
truding or indented shapes, different figure/ground textures. Opti-
mal ht. of center of sign=5'-0" for pedestrians.
Counters, vanities, work surfaces. Advisable dimensions are
2'-7" ht., 8'-0" length, 2'-0" depth, and 2'-3" clear height below. High
counters should have 3'-0" wide cutouts at lower levels.
Lodging facilities. A number of guest rooms must be equipped
for the functionally impaired as listed in Table 2-8. This includes ac-
cessible sleeping and dressing areas, roll-in showers, and features
for occupants with impaired hearing. Closets should have double or
bifold doors (not doors with tracks) as well as high/low shelves and
hanger rods.
Storage areas. These should be located within easy reach of
wheelchaired occupants, be flexible and well-illuminated, and prefer-
ably not have cabinet doors with wide swings.
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