2.

Directional (Yaw) Stability Analysis

2.1. Yaw Stability Overview

Aircraft directional stability and control are related mostly to vertical tail design, with slightly
lesser contributions from the fuselage and wings. The safety, performance, and flight
qualities of an aircraft also depend on the correct empennage sizing. Specifically, the vertical
tail is responsible for the aircraft yaw stability and control. If these characteristics are not well
balanced, the entire aircraft design may fail.
Stability and control are often evaluated, especially in the preliminary design phase, with
semi-empirical methods, which are based on the results of experimental investigations
performed in the past decades, and are occasionally merged with data provided by theoretical
assumptions.
Recent investigations made by several research papers (some of which are included in the
references mentioned) have shown the limitations of these methods, proving the existence
of aerodynamic interference effects in sideslip conditions which are not adequately
considered in classical formulations. To obtain more accurate results than those presented in
this report, these considerations must be made.
When it comes to fighter aircraft, the high sweep-back of their wings results in excess
directional stability. This is because the sweep is affected by the sideslip angle; one side has
increased sweep and the other side decreases. For the figure presented below, the starboard
side has increased sweep (less drag) and the port side has decreased sweep (more drag), thus
resulting in an moment that opposes the yawing moment shown.
A greater sweep thus means a greater restoring moment and greater yaw stability. This is
considered undesirable and is countered with a negative dihedral (or anhedral) configuration.
For the MiG-21, the value is an anhedral of 2°. A flight vehicle is considered to be
directionally (statically) stable if the slope of the yawing moment coefficient is positive (as
indicated in the graph below).
The yaw moment curve in the graph shown below also shows instability beyond a certain
sideslip angle. A MiG-21 is observed to exhibit this change beyond β = 15°, which is a
typical number for modern fighters.
 2.2. Constant Values

1. Sfs = 14.4 m2 (obtained from blueprint)

2. Lf = 12.177 m (from MiG-21 specifications)
3. h = 1.5 m (from MiG-21 specifications)
4. h1 = 1.4 m (from blueprint)
5. h2 = 1.6 m (from blueprint)
6. Vmax SL = 333 ms-1 (from MiG-21 specifications)
7. M∞maxSL = 0.968 (from standard sea level atmosphere values)
8. Re = 285.7 *(106) (from standard sea level atmosphere values)
9. x cg = 30% ̅c (from MiG-21 specifications)
10. x m = 6.34 m (from MiG-21 specifications)
c
11. L β vt
= 0.1111 deg-1 (from CL vs α graph in airfoil database)
= 6.3633 rad-1
12. Λvt = 60° (from MiG-21 specifications)
13. Svt = 2.6 m2 (from MiG-21 specifications)
14. bvt = 1.85 m (from MiG-21 specifications)
15. ARvt = 1.3163
16. Lvt = 4.35 m (from MiG-21 specifications)

 Sfs, Lf, x m, h, h1, h2 = defined in figure 2.29

 Λvt = vertical tail sweep
 bvt = vertical tail span (root to tip)
 Svt = vertical tail area
 ARvt = (bvt)2/ Svt = vertical tail aspect ratio
 Lvt = vertical tail moment arm
 cLβ vt = vertical tail airfoil lift curve slope
 Sfs calculated by pixelization (for ease of pixel count using the computer) of the fuselage
from the blueprint:
 2.3. Wing-Fuselage Contribution

The empirical expression to calculate wing-fuselage contribution is as below.

Sfs .l f
C n =−k n . k Rl . (deg-1)
βwf
S .b
Where, kn = wing-fuselage interference factor (dependent on fuselage geometry)
k Rl = empirical correction factor (function of fuselage Reynolds number)
Sfs = projected fuselage side area
lf = fuselage length
S = wing area
b = wing span
The empirical constants are
calculated from graphs as
detailed below.

Using dimensions from the

list of constants, the
following values are
calculated.
 = = 0.5207

xm 6.34
lf 12.177
 lf2
 =
S fs
12.1772 =
14.4
10.2972
 =

h1 1.4
√ √
h2 1.6

= 0.9354
h 1.5
 w f = 1.1 = 1.20773

The respective points on the graph are connected by the red line.
From the graph k n is obtained as 0.00115

V .l f
Rl =
f
v
333∗12.177
¿
1.4207∗105
¿ 285,704,202

¿ 285.7∗106
The intersection with the graph line is indicated by the red line.
Corresponding kRl value = 2.15

Substituting the constants and dimensional values in the equation:

Sfs .l f
C n =−k n . k Rl .
βwf
S .b
0.00115∗2.15∗14.4∗12.177
¿−
23∗7.154

¿−0.00264 deg−1

¿−0.15097 rad−1 is the wing-fuselage contribution to lateral stability.

The effect is destabilizing.
 2.4. Vertical Tail Contribution

The tail contribution to directional stability is given by the following equation -

dσ
C n =V v . C L . η v .(1+ )
βv αv
dβ
dσ
The combined side wash and tail efficiency term η v .(1+ ) is usually determined in wind
dβ
tunnel tests. Here, it is instead substituted with the simple algebraic equation as given below.
C n =V vt . C L . ¿
βvt α vt

Where,
l vt . S vt 4.35∗2.6
 V vt = = =0.26581 is the vertical tail volume.
b . S 7.514∗23

c L . cos Λ vt
 CL = αvt

αvt
√ 1−¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

The lift slope of a symmetric 6% thickness airfoil (c ¿ ¿ Lα ) ¿ is substituted in the above

vt

Kuchemann finite swept wing equation for lift, with correction for compressibility
effects.

6.3633∗cos 60°
¿
√1−¿¿ ¿ ¿

0.81857
¿
√1−0.23426+0.59196+0.7693
3.18165
¿
1.93459
¿ 1.6446 is the vertical tail lift slope.

 z w =0 is the vertical distance from the wing root quarter chord point to the fuselage
centreline.
The value is taken to be zero because the MiG-21 has a mid-mounted wing configuration
with 0° incidence symmetrical root airfoil; i.e., the root chord and the fuselage centreline
are in the same z-plane.

 Λ c/ 4 w =57 ° since the MiG-21 has a uniformly swept delta wing.

Substituting the above values and constants from the list in 2.1. in the equation:
C n =V vt . C L . ¿
βvt α vt

¿ 0.26581∗1.6446∗¿

¿ 0.43715∗[ 0.724+0.23061+0.01998 ]
¿ 0.43715∗0.97459
¿+0.42604 rad−1
¿+0.00744 deg−1 is the vertical tail contribution to lateral stability.

The effect is stabilizing.

2.5. Aircraft Lateral Stability

C n =C n +C n
β β wf β vt

¿−0.150974 +0.42604

¿+0.27507 rad−1

¿+0.00481 deg−1
The overall effect is stabilizing.