2018 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO.

3, JULY 2011

Condition Assessment of Belted PILC

Cables After 7 to 68 Years of Service
Vitaliy Yaroslavskiy, Member, IEEE, Carlos Katz, Fellow, IEEE, and Matthew Olearczyk, Member, IEEE

Abstract—This paper summarizes the results of laboratory eval- TABLE I

uation of eight service aged paper-insulated lead-covered belted ca- CABLES EVALUATED
bles, produced by different manufacturers in the period between
1937 and 1998. Cable performance was evaluated from different
perspectives, including partial discharge pattern, ionization factor
at room temperature, dissipation factor at elevated temperatures,
up to 90 C, dielectric strength of the cable insulation, analysis of
the laminated insulation structure, moisture content, etc. Overall
results indicate that unless cable insulation is affected by moisture
intrusion, most of the cable characteristics still meet the require-
ments for new cables. The only exception is dissipation factor at el-
evated temperature, which suggests that cable ampacity is reduced
by cable aging.
Index Terms—Ampacity, dielectric losses, dielectric strength,
field aged, ionization factor, partial discharge (PD), paper-insu-
lated lead-covered PILC cables.

I. INTRODUCTION
P APER-INSULATED lead-covered (PILC) cables
have long been a backbone component of urban
medium-voltage (MV) distribution systems. Several leading
North American utilities, in collaboration with the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI), recently removed a number
of PILC cable lengths from their systems. Cables that had
been in service for 7 to 68 years were subjected to a series of
laboratory tests to evaluate their conditions and analyze the
aggregate of the overall results. The testing was conducted at
Cable Technology Laboratories (CTL), New Brunswick, NJ.
Guidance and direction were provided by Consolidated Edison
Company of New York and Pacific Gas and Electric Company
of California.
In total, eight cables were evaluated. They had been removed
from a 4 kV distribution system due to replacement of the cable
system. Individual reports, issued on each cable, are available at
the Electric Power Research Institiute. This paper does not list
all test results; it rather concentrates on typical performance and
the most significant findings.
The main objectives of the project were:
• to collect data on performance of service-aged cables;
• to assess the condition of particular cables;
Manuscript received December 14, 2010; revised January 28, 2011; accepted
February 21, 2011. Date of publication April 19, 2011; date of current version
June 24, 2011. This work was supported by the Electric Power Research Insti-
tute. Paper no. TPWRD-00960-2010.
V. Yaroslavskiy and C. Katz are with Cable Technology Laboratories, New
Brunswick, NJ 08903 USA
M. Olearczyk is with Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA 94304
USA
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2124475
0885-8977/$26.00 © 2011 IEEE
• to analyze cable characteristics in relation to their use in
cable diagnostic testing;
• to elaborate test approaches for use in assessing similar
cables.
II. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES
A brief description of the cables evaluated is provided in
Table I. Manufacturers and vintages are based on imprints found
on marker tapes.
The cables have construction design variables, including the
number and size of conductors, insulation thickness, possible
differences in oil and papers used, and thickness of the lead
sheath. All test cables were of the belted design. The oldest
cables were unjacketed; more recent cables, starting in 1957,
had a jacket covering the lead sheath. Individual cable sample
cross-sections are shown in Fig. 1.
Each sample was submitted to CTL in one continuous length.
These were straight cable lengths, with no accessories installed.
Due to the fact that the condition of cables may vary along
their length, tests were performed on three sections of the same
cable, each approximately 15 m long. The three sections were
taken from the ends and the middle of the available cable lengths
(Table I), so that the distance between the test specimens varied
from 0 to 52 m.
III. TEST PROGRAM
The test approach was based on earlier experience gathered
by CTL personnel in testing paper-insulated cables [1]–[7]. The
following tests were performed on each specimen:
a) inspection for general overall condition and presence of
mechanical damage;
YAROSLAVSKIY et al.: CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF BELTED PILC CABLES AFTER 7 TO 68 YEARS OF SERVICE 2019

Fig. 1. Cross section of cables tested.

b) partial discharge at ambient temperature;

c) power factor versus voltage (ionization factor);
d) dielectric power loss and dissipation factor at ambient Fig. 2. Test setup.
temperature, 70 and 90 ;
e) impulse test at cable conductor emergency temperature;
cylindrical enclosure. The enclosures were adjusted, at their
f) six hours high-voltage withstand test at 8 kV/mm (200
lower end, to the cable diameter with the help of rubber reducers.
V/mil), followed by a similar test for up to 7 h at 16
The length of the cable between terminations was about
kV/mm (400 V/mil), both executed at ambient tempera-
13.5 m. Passing current through the lead sheath provided uni-
ture;
form temperature distribution throughout the cable cross-sec-
g) dissection, paying special attention to the distribution of
tion. A general view of the setup is provided in the upper
butt spaces, registrations, presence of wrinkles, ridges,
picture in Fig. 2.
torn tapes, wax, deficiency of oil, etc. (if present);
To minimize the possibility that oil, being used in the termi-
h) hot-oil tests performed during dissection for the presence
nations, would mix with the cable impregnating oil, the sample
of moisture in the paper insulation;
ends were shaped into an open S (lower picture in Fig. 2). In
i) folding endurance of paper tapes on cable adjacent to the
this arrangement, the termination oil could not enter the main
breakdowns to establish if insulating tapes had thermally
part of the cable. On the other hand, elevated sections of the test
degraded.
specimen, undergoing evaluation at high temperatures, had oil
Tests b)–d) were performed between each individual phase and
moved to lower locations, so that a local deficit of oil developed.
the other two (or three) phases connected to the lead sheath, as
Therefore, times to breakdown obtained within the project were
well as between all three (four) phases connected together and
somewhat conservative (rather than being too optimistic).
the lead sheath. Test e) was performed between each individual
phase and the other phases connected to the lead sheath. Test f) V. TEST RESULTS
was performed with all phases connected together, against the
lead sheath. To ease comparison of overall performance of the cables
Test procedures were based on AEIC CS1-1968 [8]. Although tested, most of the results are summarized in the last table
the cables were manufactured at different times, the 1968 issue (Table V).
was used for testing all samples, to provide a common base for A. Visual Examination
their comparison. In addition, to account for different insula-
tion thicknesses, the cables were tested in accordance with their Cables were thoroughly examined during their removal from
voltage ratings, as shown in Table I, this in spite of the fact that the reels as well as during preparation of the end terminations
they all were used in a 4 kV distribution system. and during dissection of laboratory and field breakdowns. Three
of the cables (no. 1, which was the oldest one and did not have a
jacket, nos. 5 and 7) were in good shape, with no peculiarities to
IV. TEST SETUP
be mentioned. Cable 4 had an opening, at approximately 15.5 m
The specimens were set up for electrical evaluations by re- from one of the section ends, all the way through one of the
moving the lead sheath from the cable ends. On each end, the conductors, probably made to ground the cable during removal.
oil-impregnated paper belt was removed and tapered, while the The affected section, about 20 m long, was discarded; the test
individual phases were separated and terminated in an oil-filled sections did not appear to be affected by this opening.
2020
Fig. 3. Lead corrosion. (a) Cable 6; calcium carbonate on the surface of lead
under polyethylene jacket. (b) Cable 3; advanced corrosion of lead sheath under
bulged and ruptured jacket. (c) Cable 2; erosion in the lead sheath caused by
corrosion.
Since one of the main factors limiting PILC cable life is lead
corrosion, special attention was paid to the condition of the lead
sheaths. Fig. 3 provides examples of different degrees of corro-
sion, from mild (cable 6, relatively young in the population ex-
amined, with a polyethylene jacket) to well pronounced (cable
3, of 1957 vintage, having rubber jacket and covered overall
with insulating tapes). The inside of the sheath of these cables
was clean and shiny.
The worst condition was that of cable 2, the only sample that
incorporated a field failure. Fig. 3(c) shows severely corroded
(pitted) spots in the lead sheath, found in cable sections adjacent
to either side of the failure.
Corrosion of metals can be divided into two major types:
uniform and localized. Uniform corrosion involves oxidation
of metal in the presence of a small amount of water (for ex-
ample, moist air). In this case, corrosion products cover the
metal with a uniform layer of usually hydrogenated metal oxide,
which protects the metal underneath from further corrosion. The
other type is characterized by discreet pitting. It occurs when the
metal is immersed in water and corrosion never stops. All cases
shown in Fig. 3 represent the second type, at different stages of
development.
Other findings were related to discolored paper insulating
tapes at the ends of sample Nos. 3 and 4. Interestingly, in sample
3, the belt and outermost tapes in the phase insulation were dis-
colored, while in sample 4, the innermost tapes were affected
the most, and the discoloration diminished towards the outside.
Despite this difference, the origin of the discoloration appears to
be the same: tar-like compounds used to fill joint casings. These
compounds permeate over time into the paper insulation, either
through the conductor interstices (staining the inner tapes), or
under the lead sheath (causing discoloration of the outer tapes).
In neither case did this phenomenon affect the performance of
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO. 3, JULY 2011
the cable system. However, this finding was of interest to justify
that the cable sections had been removed from locations adja-
cent to joints and, therefore, to visualize as to from where mois-
ture also could have entered the cables (both samples 3 and 4
were affected by moisture intrusion).
B. Partial Discharge
Tests were started by gradually increasing voltage, until PD
inception took place, holding at this voltage for about 30 s, fol-
lowed by a gradual decrease in voltage, until PD extinction. The
entire voltage exposure cycle did not exceed 3 minutes. The test
sensitivity was better than 5 pC for single phase testing, and be-
tween 8 and 10 pC for all phases connected together.
PILC cables are characterized by unstable parameters of
PD, changing significantly over time. Therefore, the tests were
repeated several times (at least 3) on each individual cable
phase and with the three (or four) phases connected together.
A few minutes were allowed between successive applications
of voltage for dissipation of space charges accumulated in the
cable insulation during the preceding test.
All PILC cables tested had a complicated performance: PD
started at low intensities (10–20 pC), converting abruptly to
strong discharges (hundreds to thousands pico coulombs) with
a further voltage rise. It appears that small voids in butt spaces
of the cable insulation evolve into large empty spaces (possibly
due to displacement of oil by elevated gas pressure developed
by initial discharges) conducive to a significant increase in the
discharge intensity.
PD between a few hundred and maybe even a few thousand
pico coulombs, applied during a limited test duration, is of no
consequence to the PILC insulation. This type of insulation can
support PD for a long time. In other words, PD testing at the
beginning of a test sequence is not expected to affect subsequent
results.
With the exception of the two oldest cables (nos. 1 and 2),
all other cables had an extinction voltage above the operating
stress of the system from which they had been removed (2.3
kV phase-to-ground), so that they essentially had operated in a
PD-free environment (Table V). Test results for the worst per-
former (in relation to PD activity) are shown in Table II. In
each case the lowest reading for several voltage applications
is reported.
A substantial difference between individual sections of the
same cable needs to be noted. In addition, despite the fact that
individual phases of belted cables are in intimate contact to each
other, their characteristics differed significantly.
C. Power Factor versus Voltage (Ionization Factor)
The tests were performed in accordance with Section 10.1.3
of the AEIC CS1-68 at average voltage stresses ranging from 20
to 100 V/mil (0.8 to 4.0 kV/mm). Power factor was measured
between each individual phase and the other phases connected
to the lead sheath, as well as between all phases connected to-
gether and the lead sheath. Ionization factor was calculated as
a difference between the maximum and minimum values of the
power factor in the indicated voltage range.
Table III summarizes the maximum power factors, measured
at room temperature and nominal operating voltage stress of
YAROSLAVSKIY et al.: CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF BELTED PILC CABLES AFTER 7 TO 68 YEARS OF SERVICE
TABLE II
PD CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGES CABLE 2
TABLE III
POWER FACTOR AT ROOM TEMPERATURE AND OPERATING VOLTAGE AND
IONIZATION FACTOR AT STRESSES UP TO 4 kV/mm
1.6 kV/mm on different phases and sections of the same cable, as
well as the maximum differences between sections and phases
within the same cable (the difference between phases might be
helpful in distinguishing bad performers during on-site diag-
nostic testing). Fig. 4 provides a visual presentation of the data
for cable 4 that had the highest ionization factor.
Widespread results should be noted, with some cables well
within industry specification requirements for new cables, the
others exhibiting relatively poor condition. It is interesting to
note that the power factor values were not as indicative of a poor
cable condition, as was the level of ionization factor.
Significant variation in the performance of different sections
of the same cable needs to be noted. As with other properties
tested, this indicates a pronounced non-consistency of the cable
performance along the feeder length. It is commonly recog-
nized that PILC cables, as manufactured, are pretty uniform, so
that the non-uniformity apparently has developed during cable
service. It is also of interest that the difference between cable
phases was not that pronounced; however, it was still notice-
able, and in most cases (where moisture was not involved) there
was a good correlation between PD parameters and ionization
factors of individual cable sections and phases.
Further, it needs to be noted that, in relation to old cables, the
term “ionization factor” does not necessarily mean that there is a
2021
Fig. 4. Power factor at room temperature (upper picture) and ionization factor
(lower picture) in cable 4 (worst performer of all cables).
lack of oil, which could create a void that is subject to discharge
activity in the insulation structure. It could mean, for example,
that the high values of this characteristic could be due to high
levels of moisture and/or the formation of wax.
D. Capacitance and Power Factor versus Temperature
Tests were performed at the cable rated voltage (as listed in
Table I) and at three temperatures: ambient, 70 and 90 C. The
cable was evenly heated through its length and cross-section by
circulating current through the lead sheath. Each section was
held at constant temperature for at least one hour after the re-
quired temperature was achieved at the cable outside.
Variation of cable capacitance versus temperature was very
minimal (even in bad performing cables) and not worth discus-
sion. In contrast, dielectric loss at high temperatures provided
significant information on the cable condition. A summary of
the results is provided in Table V. The table incorporates the
maximum value of power factor measured at each temperature
on all cable sections and phases (including the configuration
with all phases connected in parallel). An example of tempera-
ture dependence of power factor (for the worst performing cable
3) is shown in Fig. 5. Extreme data for each section of this cable
are provided (the worst and best performing phases of each sec-
tions of this cable).
As with previously described characteristics, there was also
a great variation of dielectric loss at high temperatures between
2022
Fig. 5. Temperature dependence of the power factor in sections of cable 3.
TABLE IV
LOSS OF AMPACITY DUE TO ELEVATED DISSIPATION FACTOR
different sections of the same cable. Subsequent evaluations re-
vealed that in two of the cables (nos. 3 and 4), there had been
moisture ingress in the end sections, which was one of the rea-
sons for inconsistency of cable performance. In particular, cable
3 (Fig. 5) had section 3 affected by moisture, while the other two
sections tested appeared to be in a significantly healthier condi-
tion. Still, these two last sections had pretty high power factor
at elevated temperature.
Excessive power losses at high temperature were present in
the majority of aged cables, except for the two youngest mem-
bers. It appears, therefore, that there is a common mechanism
of PILC cable aging, not related to moisture ingress from the
outside. One important consequence of this phenomenon is that
it takes away part of the cable ampacity. Table IV provides an
estimate of the loss of ampacity for all cables tested. To avoid
confusion, due to mixing of two different degradation mecha-
nisms (aging and moisture ingress), the moisture affecting sec-
tions of cables 3 and 4 is excluded.
Excessive losses per cable phase are calculated considering
the difference between the actual dissipation factor and its limit
according to industry specifications (1.6%). The loss of am-
pacity is the current that would dissipate the same power in the
conductor at 85 C. Finally, to estimate the loss of ampacity as a
fraction of the cable rating, published ampacity values for PILC
cables were used [9] (with nine 3-conductor belted cables in a
duct bank, at 100% load factor and soil thermal conductivity
RHO 90).
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO. 3, JULY 2011
The ampacity losses do not appear to be extremely high, but
are significant (up to 17%). It is of interest that no direct rela-
tion between cable age and loss of ampacity could be found;
Pearson’s correlation coefficient [10], calculated for the first 6
cables, came out as 0.1. It also needs to be considered that
calculations were made with relatively recent requirements of
AEIC CS1-68 (to have comparable data for all cables tested),
which were not necessarily valid for the older cables (see the
Discussion). Still, the loss of ampacity may reach critical levels,
if moisture intruded the cable: it exceeded 40% in Section III of
cable 3 (the worst performer, see Fig. 5).
E. Hot Impulse Withstand Tests
These tests were performed separately on each individual
phase, on cables heated to 110 C, by circulating current through
the lead sheath. The standard lightning impulse waveshape
(1.2/50 s) was applied. Industry specifications for PILC cables
do not consider testing with high voltage impulses. Therefore,
the basic impulse insulation level for extruded cables (
60 kV for 6 kV cables and 90 kV for 7 kV cables, see Table I)
was selected as the test voltage. A sequence of 10 positive and
10 negative impulses was applied to each individual phase.
With the exception of one section of cable 4 (which failed
at the last impulse in the test sequence), all other cable sec-
tions withstood this test. In other words, impulse stresses (al-
though applied at high temperature) were not harmful to the
PILC cables.
F. High Voltage Withstand Tests
High voltage withstand tests were performed at room temper-
ature. All cable phases were tested simultaneously, connected in
parallel. A voltage stress of 8 kV/mm was applied for 6 h. If ca-
bles supported this stress, the next step was to apply 16 kV/mm,
for up to a maximum of 7 h.
It needs to be noted that this is a severe test for aged cables.
Industry specifications do not require new cables to withstand
the second step of the aforementioned sequence, and the test is
typically performed to estimate cable longevity (using the well-
known power law [8]). The opportunity was used to evaluate the
effect of elevated voltage stresses on cable performance, using
one of the first cables tested. The results are shown in Figs. 6
and 7.
Both physical measurements and structural analysis indicated
severe degradation of the cable insulation during the 6-h ap-
plication of the stress, which exceeded the nominal operating
stress by about 5 times. Considering that the 7 kV rated cable
was used in a 4 kV distribution system, this ratio increases to
approximately 8.7. For comparison, the IEEE recommendation
for onsite VLF testing of aged PILC cables is not to exceed 2.4
times operating voltage [11]. Moreover, even after such abuse,
the cable power factor took off at about 2.5 kV/mm, while its op-
erating stress in the 4 kV system was only 0.9 kV/mm. In other
words, even under a heavily compromised condition, the cable
can provide further reliable service.
There was a significant variation of the ac withstand test re-
sults between adjacent sections of the same cable, especially
with moisture in the end sections. Table V summarizes the worst
results (the shortest withstand time) for each cable.
YAROSLAVSKIY et al.: CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF BELTED PILC CABLES AFTER 7 TO 68 YEARS OF SERVICE
TABLE V
COMPARISON OF THE PERFORMANCE OF CABLES TESTED
Fig. 6. Voltage dependence of the power factor in the second section of cable
no. 2. Solid lines – initial testing, dashed lines – after a 6-h withstand test.
Fig. 7. Burnt spots on paper tapes in cable 2 after a 6-h withstand test.
Time to failure was used to estimate the cable remaining life,
with the help of the well-known power law and an exponent
equal to 7, as specified for belted cables in [8]. The estimations
were made for the 4 kV cable system, from which the cables
had been removed, and, in all cases. they significantly exceeded
2023
60 years (cable longevity typically assumed in the industry).
It needs to be noted, however, that advanced corrosion, unless
it results in the development of holes through the lead, is not
reflected in the test results.
G. Structural Analysis
Upon completion of the aforementioned test sequence on
each cable, 2–3 ft sections, containing all laboratory failures,
as well as the field failure in cable 2, were dissected and
thoroughly examined. Notes were made on the condition of
cable components (starting from the jacket and up to the phase
conductors), the structure of the laminated insulation (butt
spaces, overlaps and registrations, wrinkles, creases, etc.), the
presence of moisture (with the help of hot oil tests), the amount
of oil retained (dry spots, empty butt spaces, etc.), and the
presence of wax, burnt spots, etc. Table V summarizes the main
findings on all cables.
H. Folding Endurance
To establish if the cable insulation had been degraded during
its life due to excursions to high temperature, folding endurance
tests were performed on selected tapes. In most cases, only one
cable section was tested; however, sometimes where there was
a pronounced difference in performance of the cable sections,
specimens of all three sections were evaluated.
In none of the cables, degradation of paper due to overheating
was noted. Variation of the results was natural and did not raise
concerns. Also, the number of folds, withstood by all insulating
tapes, was sufficiently high, indicating that the paper had not
become brittle.
VI. DISCUSSION
This project provided a rare opportunity to examine and com-
pare significant characteristics of aged PILC cables after 7 to al-
most 70 years in service. Table V provides an overall summary
of the results.
The results indicate that most of the cables retained relatively
good characteristics and, therefore, should be able to provide
2024
further reliable service over a long time. In particular, the oldest
cable tested was manufactured in 1937. The pertinent specifica-
tion AEIC CS1-34 had dissipation factor requirements for ca-
bles rated only 7.5 kV and above, which were 1.5% at room
temperature and up to 60 C, 2.1% at 70 C, and 4.5% at 90 C
(versus 1.6% at 90 C per AEIC CS1-68). Thus, the cable met
requirements for new cables of higher voltage rating of the in-
dustry specification, to which it had been manufactured.
As is well known, and as reflected in Table V, the main neg-
ative factor for PILC cables is moisture. There are four major
ways for moisture to enter the cable: 1) via open ends during
handling and installation; 2) via holes in the lead sheath devel-
oped by corrosion or inflicted mechanically; 3) through cracks
in the sheath, developed due to thermo-mechanical movement
at locations with concentrated mechanical stress; and 4) through
compromised seals of modern heat or cold shrink joints and ter-
minations. It appears that two modes of moisture entry could
be distinguished: from the cable ends (samples 3, 4, and 5) and
through corrosion in the lead (sample 2).
The failure mechanism of paper-insulated cables affected by
moisture is thermal runaway, due to increased dielectric losses.
The same amount of moisture can cause failures at high temper-
ature (high loads, high ambient temperature during summers),
or it can remain unnoticed at low temperatures. Additionally, the
situation can be masked by uneven moisture distribution in the
insulation wall: if only the outer tapes are wet, even with high
local concentrations, no failures will take place.
A recent study of critical moisture content (the maximum
amount of moisture that cables can withstand during summer
heat waves) demonstrated that 3 to 5% moisture (depending on
the cable design) is tolerable [12]. Moreover, upon entry of the
moisture, it takes time to distribute across and along the affected
cable. If immediate failure does not take place, and the entry of
moisture is stopped (as, for example, during installation of ac-
cessories, or when cable sections affected by moisture during
failures are not totally eliminated during repair), there is a great
chance that moisture will re-distribute inside the cable, the max-
imum local moisture content will be reduced, and the cable will
be able to provide further service until the first significant tem-
perature rise, and if it survives the heat wave–for almost unlim-
ited time. This apparently was the case with cables 3 through 5.
In contrast, if a significant amount of moisture enters the
cable, for instance, through a corroded or mechanically inflicted
hole, and causes breakdown in a short timeframe, moisture
does not have time to distribute, so that removal of a short cable
length, affected by moisture, totally eliminates the problem.
This was apparently the case with cable 2.
As mentioned, the other factor influencing PILC cable per-
formance is the amount of impregnating oil. If there is a deficit
of the fluid, gaseous inclusions (voids) form, which give rise to
discharges. Once started, these discharges can convert oil into
so-called wax, thus, on one hand, worsening oil deficit, and on
the other hand—increasing dielectric losses of the insulation
(wax is a highly lossy substance). It needs to be noted that paper
insulation is somewhat tolerant to discharges and can operate
for long times under relatively high PD intensities. Still, after
certain time, carbonization of the insulation can take place (as,
for example, in Fig. 7); also, thermal runaway becomes possible
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO. 3, JULY 2011
due to high losses, similar to the situation with moisture-affected
insulation.
One aspect of interest is the application of the acquired infor-
mation to onsite diagnostic testing of PILC cables. The main
diagnostic technique presently employed is the measurement
of cable dissipation factor (DF) versus voltage at very low fre-
quency (VLF, typically 0.1 Hz). It needs to be considered that
due to low frequency polarization in the insulation, values of
dissipation factor measured at VLF are typically several times
higher than those measured at power frequency. Nonetheless, it
might be of interest to look at the data obtained at 60 Hz from
the perspective of onsite testing.
It is clear that high temperature tests cannot be performed in
the field. Therefore, the most sensitive characteristic indicating
the presence of wax and/or moisture in the insulation cannot be
employed. What can be employed are: 1) absolute DF values; 2)
variation of DF versus voltage; and 3) difference in DF between
adjacent phases of the same cable or, if available, of adjacent
cables of the same vintage, type, and layout. Thus, the data in
Table III are believed to be of interest from this point of view.
Based on these data, cables 3 and 4 could be depicted by both
DF absolute values (at about the same level) and by the differ-
ence between adjacent phases (0.13% for cable 3 and 0.29% for
cable 4; this difference, again, would be significantly higher at
0.1 Hz). These are affected by moisture and cables in this con-
dition and should be considered for replacement. Cable 4 would
also be the only one revealed by DF non-linearity versus voltage
(at stresses below , as per IEEE recommendation [11]). It
is interesting to note that this last characteristic correlates well
with relatively low PD extinction voltage in this particular cable
(Table V). However, this cable, although having relatively high
losses, the worst difference between the phases, and significant
ionization at relatively low stresses, survived the 6-h withstand
test and, therefore, most likely could continue providing further
trouble-free service.
In other words, diagnostic testing is no doubt of significant
value (The authors of this paper are strong advocates for onsite
diagnostic testing.), but a large number of variables governing
the condition of the PILC cable probably will not allow for de-
signing a set of criteria, which would warrant a 100% differ-
entiation between “bad” and “good” cables. Different test ap-
proaches might need to be exercised, to get a better idea of the
cable condition.
Finally, the authors have not come across prior mention in
the literature of ampacity loss by aged PILC cables. As follows
from Table V, considering that utility feeders are typically low
or moderately loaded, degradation of the cable insulation does
not appear to be critical. On the other hand, ampacity losses are
high enough to be worth considering, especially if emergency
loads can be expected. The nature of this phenomenon was not
evaluated. By analogy with the mechanism of degradation of
paper insulation in transformers, one can assume that it is related
to de-polymerization of paper, associated with the release of
moisture. Another mechanism could be the formation of wax
due to partial discharges. Most likely, a combination of these
two factors dominates the phenomenon.
Based on information acquired, the high dissipation factor
at elevated temperatures does not appear to affect cable perfor-
YAROSLAVSKIY et al.: CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF BELTED PILC CABLES AFTER 7 TO 68 YEARS OF SERVICE
mance at lower temperatures. Therefore, the significance of am-
pacity loss, due to aging of the insulation, should be weighed
against the maximum expected load of a particular feeder.
VII. CONCLUSION
The condition of eight PILC cables, rated 6 to 7 kV, removed
from a 4 kV distribution system after 7 to almost 70 years of ser-
vice, was evaluated by laboratory testing. Cables were mainly
removed due to system replacement; only one of them contained
a field failure. A series of test methods, including measurement
of partial discharge, power factor at different voltage and tem-
perature levels, dielectric strength under impulse and ac stresses,
structural analysis, etc., were employed.
Most of the cable sections tested, including the oldest ones,
appeared to be in good condition, indicating that cables with
similar characteristics can provide further long and reliable ser-
vice. Out of eight cables tested, only one should probably have
been considered for immediate replacement. Even the failed
cable, after removal of a short section containing the failure,
was still in reasonably good condition.
Among mechanisms of cable degradation, noted on older ca-
bles, were lead corrosion (in one case conducive to moisture
penetration and cable failure), elevated moisture content (likely,
due to a number of reasons), local deficit of oil, and the forma-
tion of wax; both moisture and wax are conducive to elevated
dielectric losses in the insulation. Signs of different degradation
mechanisms could sometimes be recognized in the same cable
length.
The results of laboratory tests confirmed the worthiness of
field diagnostic testing. However, a large number of variables,
governing PILC cable condition, may not allow for designing a
set of criteria, which can warrant a clear differentiation between
“bad” and “good” cables. A complex testing approach may need
to be adopted, if a comprehensive assessment of the cable con-
dition is sought.
A loss of ampacity (up to 17%) was noted on aged PILC ca-
bles. This loss was due to elevated dielectric losses in the cable
insulation at the maximum operating and emergency tempera-
tures. Considering typically low or moderate loading of utility
feeders, this factor might not be critical; however, it must be rec-
ognized and considered for cable operation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank several of their associates
who have contributed to the laboratory investigation.
REFERENCES
[1] C. Katz, “Evaluation of old vintage solid-type impregnated-paper-in-
sulated lead covered cables,” presented at the Minutes 90th Meeting
Insulated Conductors Committee, Columbus, OH, Apr. 17–20, 1988.
[2] C. Katz and M. Walker, “Further serviceability of 40 year old PILC
cable,” presented at the Minutes 90th Meeting Insulated Conductors
Committee, Victoria, BC, Canada, Apr. 26–29, 1992.
[3] G. W. Seman, C. Katz, and S. V. Pancholi, “Evaluation of 230 kV
HPFF pipe-type cable with wrinkled and creased insulating tapes,”
IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 25–33, Jan. 1995.
[4] C. Katz, “Condition assessment of PILC cables,” presented at the Min-
utes 90th Meeting Insulated Conductors Committee, Cincinnati, OH,
Apr. 27–30, 2003.
2025
[5] C. Katz, “PILC cable – Related failures analyzed at CTL. 1996–2005,”
presented at the Minutes 90th Meeting Insulated Conductors Com-
mittee, Orlando, FL, May 2007.
[6] “Development of a method to introduce controlled amounts of moisture
into paper-insulated lead-covered cables” EPRI rep. 1014868, 2007.
[7] “Evaluation of line resonance analysis (LIRA) for diagnosing defects
in PILC cables,” EPRI rep. 1019595, 2009.
[8] “Solid type impregnated paper insulated lead-covered cable specifica-
tions” AEIC CS1-68, 1968, 10th ed..
[9] Power cable ampacities IPCEA, 1967, Publ. no. P-48-426.
[10] W. H. Press, S. A. Teukolsky, W. T. Vetterling, and B. P. Flannery, Nu-
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Vitaliy Yaroslavskiy (M’05) was born in Russia on
September 21, 1950. He received the M.S. degree
in thermo-physics from Moscow Power Engineering
University. Moscow, Russia, in 1973.
Until 2000, he was with the Russian Research
Institute for Metrological Services, Moscow, de-
veloping methods and measurement standards for
precise high-voltage measurements. He has been
associated with Cable Technology Laboratories,
New Brunswick, NJ, since 2001 as a Senior Test
Engineer and VP Technology, with expertise in
testing and performance evaluation of medium- and high-voltage cables and
accessories. He is the author of many technical papers.
Carlos Katz (M’70–SM’78–F’87) was born in West
Germany on August 18, 1934. He received an Elec-
trical Engineering degree from Polytechnic Institute
of Quito, Ecuador, in 1961 and the MS degree from
Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, in
1970.
From 1962 to 1971, he was associated with Gen-
eral Cable Corp. Research Center and from 1971 to
1974, he was with the laboratories of Phelps Dodge
Wire & Cable. In 1974, he became Assistant Director
of R&D at General Cable Corp., and later Technical
Director of power and control cables for General Cable International. He has
been Chief Research Engineer with Cable Technology Laboratories since its
founding in 1978. His special field of activity is the investigation of extruded and
laminar dielectric high-voltage power cables, the manufacture and properties of
these cables, and the extension of service life of installed cables. He is the au-
thor of many technical papers and holds 16 U.S. patents related to high-voltage
cables.
Mr. Katz is a voting member of the ICC, and a member of CIGRE and of
JICABLE. He is the recipient of the ICC Dr. George Bahder Memorial Award
and of the IEEE 2010 Herman Halpering Award.
Matthew Olearczyk (M’09) was born in the U.S. on
November 14, 1961. He received the Engineering de-
gree from Widener University, West Chester, PA.
He was with Public Service Electric and Gas
Company of New Jersey and is currently with the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), where
he is Senior Program Manager. He directs EPRI’s
applied research portfolio for the electric distribution
systems research area, which includes technology
development/assessment and demonstration as well
as analytical studies to identify industry-leading
practices, environmental impacts, customer behavior, and applications of
smart-grid infrastructure. He is responsible for the continuing development of
the distribution systems research program and business development across the
EPRI worldwide regions.
Mr. Olearczyk is the author of many papers and EPRI reports. He is an active
member of the IEEE Power and Energy Society and the AEIC CEC.