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SKELETAL SYSTEM

99 OSTEOLOGY: Study of bony skeleton

99 The skeletal system of an adult is composed of
approximately 206 bones.
99 A birth, we have about 300 bones

TYPES OF SKELETON
1. Axial Skeleton
ƒƒ 80 bones that form the axis of the body
ƒƒ Supports and protects the organs of the head,
neck, and trunk
2. Appendicular Skeleton
ƒƒ 126 bones of the upper and lower limbs and
the bony girdles.
ƒƒ Anchors appendages to the axial skeleton.

FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

1. Support - framework for the body
2. Protection - skull, vertebrae, ribcage
3. Leverage - bones are levers, joints are fulcrums
4. Mineral storage (calcium)
5. Lipid Storage (yellow marrow)
6. Blood cell formation – haematopoiesis

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

Axial: Skull bone, vertebrae, ribs, sternum

Acc to POSITION
Appendicular:
Upper limb - pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula), free bones
Lower limb - pelvic girdle (hip bone), free bones sternum

Intramembranous Ossification: Occurs directly in primitive Connective Tissue without

cartilage formation
99 Bones of face & Skull, Clavicle
Acc to
OSSIFICATION Intracartilagenous / Endosteal Ossification:
yy Replacement of cartilage of bone
yy Cartilage destruction is a pre-requisite
99 Involves all the bones of the body developing by cartilage Except Bones of face &
Skull, Clavicle

99 Long bones 99 Irregular bones 99 Sutural bones 99 Wormian bones

Acc to SHAPE
99 Flat bones 99 Sesamoid bones 99 Pneumatic bones

Woven bone / Immature bone / Primary bone / Lamellar bone / Mature bone /
Acc to Bundle bone: Secondary bone:
CALCIFICATION yy Newly calcified yy Remodeled from woven bone
yy Found in Developing and growing bones; yy Found in All normal regions of
hard callus of bone fractures adult bone
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Spongy(Cancellous): Compact (Cortical)

yy Lighter and less dense.
yy Has plates (trabeculae) and
bars of bone adjacent to small,
irregular cavities that contain red
bone marrow.
yy Canaliculi connect adjacent
cavities and Haversian systems
are absent
Acc to BONE yy Trabeculae are arranged
GROSS STRUCTURE in a haphazard yet organized
manner, to provide maximum
strength.
yy Trabeculae follow the lines of
stress and can realign if the
direction of stress changes.
yy Trabeculae are lined by
endosteum containing
Osteoprogenitors, Osteoblast
and Osteoclast
yy Has closely packed osteons or
haversian systems.
yy Each osteon has a central oste
onic (haversian) canal,
surrounded by concentric
rings (lamellae) of matrix.
yy Osteocytes are located in
spaces called lacunae.
yy Small channels (canaliculi)
radiate from the lacunae to
the osteonic (haversian)
canal.
yy The osteonic canals contain
blood vessels.
yy Volkmann’s channel - found
at the right angle of osteon

(a) Sutural bones

• Very small bones located
within the sutural joints b/w
cranial bones
99 At sutural joints between
cranial bones
(b) Irregular bones
• Have complicated shapes
99 Vertebrae and some facial
bones
(c) Short bones
• Roughly cube shaped
• Have approximately equal
length & width
99 Ankle
99 Wrist bones

(d) Flat bones

• Consists diploes with two
plates of compact bone with
intervening spongy bone
and marrow
99 Cranial bones
99 Sternum & Ribs
99 Scapulae

(e) Long bones

99 Greater length than width
99 Consist of a shaft and a
variable number of endings
(extremities)

(f) Sesamoid bones Pneumatic bones Wormian bones

99 Develop in some tendons • Contains air filled spaces which
in locations where there • Subset of the small intrasutural bones that
are lined by mucous membrane
is considerable friction, lie between the cranial sutures formed by
99 Frontal the bones of the skull vault
tension, & physical stress
99 Maxillary
• Patellae (kneecaps) in • Typically found around the lambdoid
quadriceps 99 Sphenoid
suture
• Femoris muscle 99 Ethmoid

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PARTS OF A LONG BONE

PERIOSTEUM ENDOSTEUM DIAPHYSIS / SHAFT

• Dense regular, fibrous and specialized CT with • Thin cellular layer with • Elongated hollow central
osteogenic cells Osteogenic properties portion of the bone located
• Covers outer surface of bone. around marrow cavity between the Methaphyses
• Helps in repair of bone fracture. • Made of compact tissue
• Lines inner bony cavity
• Bound to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers
fibers) • Encloses the medullary cavity
(bundle of periosteal collagen fibers)

EPIPHYSIS EPIPHYSEAL PLATE / GROWTH PLATE

• The expanded articular ends
• Separated from the shaft by the
epiphyseal plate during bone growth
• End of long bone, made up of spongy
bone
• Covered by a thick cortex of compact bone
• Separation of epiphysis from diaphysis
• Site of Endochondral ossification
• The plate is found in children and adolescents
• In adults, who have stopped growing, the plate is replaced by an
epiphyseal line

METAPHYSIS
• Transitional region connecting the Epiphyseal plate & diaphysis
• Contains connecting cartilage enabling the bone to grow
• Disappears at adulthood
• Characterized by a rich vascular supply, as well zas by the vascular stasis.
• In children, it presents a high risk for the hematogenous spread of infection

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LONGITUDINAL BONE GROWTH

yy Epiphyseal plate is the area of growth in a long bone.

yy Cartilage on the epiphyseal side and ossified on the

diaphyseal side.

yy The Epiphyseal plate is histologically composed of four

zones of cells and activity

Epiphyseal plate
zones
Description
(from epiphysis to
diaphysis)

Quiescent chondrocytes are found at

Zone of reserve
the epiphyseal end

Zone of Chondrocytes undergo rapid mitosis

proliferation under influence of growth hormone

Chondrocytes stop mitosis, and

Zone of maturation begin to hypertrophy by accumu-
and hypertrophy lating glycogen, lipids, and alkaline
phosphatase

Zone of Chondrocytes undergo apoptosis.

calcification Cartilaginous matrix begins to calcify

Osteoclasts and osteoblasts from

Zone of the diaphyseal side break down the
ossification calcified cartilage and replace with
mineralized bone tissue

APPOSITIONAL BONE GROWTH

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STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE

OSTEON BONE MARROW

• Basic structural unit of bone • Produces blood cells
• Runs parallel to long axis of bone • Two types
• Surrounds and opens into Haversian canal • Red
• Yellow
BLOOD VESSEL • Red marrow is located within the cancellous tissue and extends into the
• Channel in the bone through which the larger bony canals (Haversian canals) that contain blood vessels
blood circulates, carrying the nutrients • White or yellow marrow fills up the medullary cavities of the shafts of
and mineral salts the bone requires the long tubular bones

ARTICULAR CARTILAGE HAVERSIAN CANAL

• Smooth resistant elastic tissue covering the
terminal part of the bone • Lengthwise central canal of the osteon – encloses
• Facilitates movement and absorbs shocks blood vessels and nerves

VOLKMANN’S CANALS PERIOSTEUM

• Perforating canal • Fibrous membrane that envelopes the bone
• Transverse canals of the compact bone • Rich in blood vessels
enclosing blood vessels and nerves • Contributes to appositional growth
• Connects the Haversian canals and with • Anchored to the bone by collagen fibres called
the medullary cavity and the periosteum Sharpey’s perforating fibers

MEDULLARY CAVITY CONCENTRIC LAMELLAE

• Cylindrical central cavity • Bony layers of osteon made of collagen fibers
• Contains bone marrow – encloses • Arranged concentrically around the Haversian canal
lipid-rich yellow bone marrow • Form as the bones grow

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BONE CELLS

(a) Osteogenic Cell (b) Osteoblast (c) Osteocyte (d) Osteoclast

Mature bone cell
Matrix-synthesizing
Stem Cell that maintains the Bone-resorbing cell
cell respondible
bone matrix

Features: Features: Features: Features:

• Undifferentiated cell, • Cells of fully formed • Giant multinucleated
pale staining • Responsible for the cell closely associated
bone
• Divide - Osteoblast development of matrix with areas of resorption
(bone forming) • Flat, almond-shaped, & remodeling of bone
• Unite - Osteoclast Location: long-living cells tissue
(bone destroying) • Involved in the • Forms a ruffled border
99 Surface of developing maintenance of bony
Location: • Has clear zone
99 Free body surfaces bones matrix (Cytoplasmic zone
99 Endosteum Location: devoid of organelles)
99 Periosteum 99 Lacuna of calcified Location:
99 Lining of the Haversian matrix of a fully formed 99 Concavities of the
canal and Epiphyseal bone bone surface called
plate Howship’s Lacunae

BLOOD SUPPLY OF TYPICAL LONG BONE

BONE MATRIX 1. Nutrient artery and vein
yy A single pair of large blood vessels enters the diaphysis through the nutrient
• Organic : Collagen, Glycoproteins, foramen
Proteoglycans yy Divides into ascending & descending branches in medullary cavity
• Inorganic: Hydroxyapatite - 2. Metaphyseal vessels
yy Supply the epiphyseal cartilage where bone growth occurs
Calcium phosphate salts; CaCO₃,
3. Periosteal vessels
Mg, Na, K, Fl, SO₄ yy Provide blood to superficial osteons and secondary ossification centres

OSTEOGENESIS AND OSSIFICATION

OSTOGENESIS
Process of bone formation
Starts by 8th week of embryogenesis
yy
Continues until early adulthood
Remodeling & repair continues for life
Intramembranous
(dermal ossification)
Most of the flat bones of
the skull and the clavicles
OSSIFICATION
Process of replacing other tissues with bone
CALCIFICATION
The process of depositing calcium salts.
Occurs during bone ossification and in other tissues

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Endochondral Ossification
• Begins in the second month of development
• Uses hyaline cartilage “bones” as models for bone construction which breakdown prior to ossification

Capillaries and
Chondrocytes in
Growing blood Blood vessels osteoblasts enter the
the center of Remodeling
vessels enter the cartilage epiphyses and Epiphyses
hyaline cartilage
fill with spongy bone
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CENTERS OF OSSIFICATION
Primary Centers Secondary and Accessory Centers
• Appear in the second month of intrauterine life, • Appear shortly before birth or during the first years after birth
in the shafts, or diaphysis of tubular bones, and • They develop by endochondral osteogenesis
in the metaphysis • Appear in children, adolescents, and even adults in the
• Ossify by perichondral and endochondral apophyses of bones (e.g. tubercles, trochanters, the accessory
osteogenesis processes of the lumbar vertebrae)

Site and Number of Ossification Centres

Bone First Appearance (weeks)
Intramembranous Endochondral
Supranuchal squamous (2) --- 8
--- Intraductal squamous (2) 10
Occipital
--- Basilar (1) 11
--- Exoccipital (2) 12
Squamous (1) --- 8
Tympanic ring (4) --- 12
Temporal
--- Petrosal (14) 16
--- Styloid (2) Perinatal
--- Lateral labyrinths (2) 16
Ethmoid
--- Perpendicular plate; crista (1) 36
Vomer Alae (2) --- 8
--- Presphenoid (3) 16
--- Postsphenoid (4) 16
--- Orbitosphenoids (2) 9
--- Alisphenoids (2) 8
Sphenoid Pterygoid hamuli (2) 12
---
Medial pterygoid plates (2) --- 8
Lateral pterygoid plates (2) --- 8
--- Sphenoid conchae (2) 20
Inferior nasal concha --- Lamina (1) 20
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION CENTERS
Site and Number of Ossification Centres
Bone First Appearance (weeks)
Primary Secondary
Superciliary arch (2) --- 8
--- Trochlear fossa (2) 8.5
Frontal
--- Zygomatic process (2) 9
--- Nasal spine (2) 10-12 years
Parietal Eminence (2) 8
---
Occipital Supranuchal squamous 8
Supranuchal squamous
(Interparietal) (medial) (2) 12
(lateral) (2)
Temporal Squamous/zygomatic (1) --- 8
(desmocranial portion) Tympanic ring (4) --- 12
Nasal Central (1) --- 8
Lacrimal Central (1) --- 8-12
Body (1) --- 7
--- Zygomatic (1) 8
Maxilla
--- Orbitonasal (1) 8
--- Nasopalatine (1) 8
Premaxilla Intermaxillary (2) --- 7
Junction of horizontal and per-
Palatine --- 8
pendicular plates (1)
Vomer Alae (2) --- 8

Body (1) 6-7

---
Mandible --- 10-14
Coronoid, condylar (cartilage)
--- 7 months post conception
Mental ossicles (cartilage)
Zygomatic Body (1) --- 8

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SKULL – IN GENERAL

IMPORTANT LANDMARKS

ANATOMICAL POSITION OF SKULL

Orbitomeatal plane / Frankfort plane: inferior margin of orbit
and superior margin of external auditory meatus
Reid’s Base line: Infraorbital margin and centre of external
auditory meatus (auricular point)

FUNCTIONS
1. Protection of the brain and meninges
2. Provides space for adjustment of organs of special senses Sagittal suture
3. Provides openings for the passage of air and food Joins two parietal bones
4. Adapts teeth and jaws for mastication (serrated type)

FEATURES Coronal suture Joins Frontal and Parietal bones

• 22 bones, excluding the ossicles of the ear
• They are attached to each other by sutures, hence
immobile, except for the mandible at Temporomandibular Lambdoid suture Joins Parietal and Occipital bones
joint
• It is oval - broadened posteriorly by the parietal eminences
• In children, the prominent frontal eminences together with Occasionally present
the parietal give the skull a square shape (3 – 8% individuals),
Fuses by 6years
PARTS OF SKULL Metopic suture
Lies in the median plane and
Neurocranium separates the 2 halves of the frontal
• 8 bones which enclose cranial cavity & protect brain, bone
meninges and respective blood vessels
• Formed by cranial base and cranial vault Intersection of Coronal and Sagittal
Bregma
• Roof of cranial vault is Calvaria sutures
Paired Unpaired
Intersection of Sagittal and Lambdoid
1. Temporal bone 1. Frontal bone Lambda
suture
2. Parietal bone 2. Sphenoid bone
3. Ethmoid bone
4. Occipital bone Most superior part of skull, located
Vertex
near centre of Sagittal suture
Splanchnocranium / Viscerocranium
• Forms Facial skeleton, with orbit to protect eyes
Corresponds to H shaped suture
• Nasal cavity with olfactory epithelium
• Oral cavity - with organ of taste, the taste buds on the tongue where Frontal, Temporal, Greater
Wing of Sphenoid and Parietal bones
Paired Unpaired
Pterion meet
1. Nasal 1. Frontal bone
2. Lacrimal 2. Sphenoid bone Beneath which lies anterior branch of
3. Zygomatic 3. Ethmoid bone middle cerebral vessels and stem of
4. Maxilla 4. Occipital bone lateral sulcus called Sylvian point
5. Palatine
6. Inferior Nasal
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SKULLS

TERM FETAL SKULL ADULT SKULL

Characteristics Foetal skull Adult skull Features Males Females

1/4th as long as the 1/8th of the total Weight Heavier Lighter

Size
entire body body
There are fontanelles Size Larger Smaller
made of fibrous
10% less than the
Tissue of the cartilage, in between Entire skull is Capacity Greater in males
skull the cranial bone. They bony males
close by 20-22 months
Walls Thicker Thinner
of age

Comparatively Structures More marked Less marked

Forehead More prominent
less prominent Prominence structures structures
Small when
Smaller and
Orbits Larger compared to the Tympanic Larger and margins
margins are less
size of the face Plate are more roughened
roughened
Jaw and nasal Comparatively
Small
cavity large Supraorbital
More rounded Sharp
Completely Margin
Sinuses Incompletely formed
formed
Forehead Sloping (receding) Vertical
Comparatively Harder and
thinner and softer thicker Frontal and
Skull bones Less prominent More prominent
(so less chances of Ossification is Parietal Tuber
fracture) complete Some what
Vault Rounded
Number of More (as they are flattened
Less
bones unfused) Longer due to
Contour of Rounded, facial
Tooth crypts are Formed and greater depth of the
Teeth Face bones are smoother
formed erupted jaws

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EXTERIOR VIEWS

Exterior View Bones Features

Norma Frontal Parietal eminence

Verticalis Parietals Bregma
(Superior Occipital Lambda
View) (squamous part)

Frontal Super ciliary arches

Norma Nasal Glabella
Frontalis Nasion
Maxilla Orbit
(Anterior Zygomatic Anterior nasal
View) aperture
Anterior nasal spine
Frontal Pterion
Parietal Superior and Inferior
Sphenoid temporal lines
(greater wing) Supramastoid crest
Norma Temporal Temporal fossa
Lateralis (Squamous part, Infratemporal fossa
(Lateral Mastoid part and Pterygopalatine fossa
View) Styloid processes) Zygomatic arch
Occipital External acoustic
Zygomatic meatus
Maxilla

External occipital
Norma Parietals
protuberance
Occipitalis Occipital
Superior nuchal line
(Posterior Temporal
Inferior nuchal line
view) (mastoid part)
Inion
Maxilla Incisive fossa
(Palatine processes, Posterior nasal spine
Alveolar processes) Pharyngeal tubercle
Pterygoid fossa
Palatine Scaphoid fossa
(Horizontal plate) Pterygoid hamulus
Infratemporal crest
Sphenoid Spine of sphenoid,
(Body, Greater Mandibular fossa
Articular tubercle
Norma wings, Medial and
Pharyngotympanic
Basalis Lateral Pterygoid
tube (auditory tube)
(Inferior plates) Jugular fossa
View) Styloid process
Temporal Mastoid process
(Squamous, Petro Mastoid notch
mastoid and Occipital condyle
Tympanic parts) External occipital
protuberance
Occipital External occipital
(Basilar and crest
Superior and inferior
Squamous parts)
nuchal lines

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CRANIAL FOSSAE

Cranial Fossae Contents Bony contributions Foramina (F.)

Frontal (orbital plates)

Anterior Cranial Fossa Ethmoid (cribriform
Frontal lobes of cerebral Cribriform plate f.
Extends upto posterior edge of plate)
hemispheres F.caecum
lesser wing of sphenoid Sphenoid (lesser wings
& jugum)
Optic canal
Middle Cranial Fossa Superior orbital fissure
Sphenoid (body and
Extends from by posterior edge F. rotundum
Temporal poles and more greater wings)
of lesser wing of sphenoid to F. ovale
than half of inferior sur- Temporal (petrous &
dorsum sellae (medially) and F. spinosum
face of temporal lobe squamous parts)
superior border of petrous part F. lacerum
Parietal
of temporal bone (laterally) Fissures for greater and lesser
petrosal nerves
Occipital bone (major F. magnum
Pons contribution) Jugular F.
Posterior Cranial Fossa Cerebellum Sphenoid and Temporal Hypoglossal (anterior condylar) canal
Medulla oblongata bones (minor Internal auditory (acoustic) meatus
contribution) Posterior condylar canal
Frontal crest
Groove for superior sagittal sinus
Frontal
Inner aspect of the Calvaria Groove for branches of middle
Parietal
(vault) meningeal vessels
Occipital
Depressions for arachnoid
granulations

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FORAMINAE OF THE SKULL AND STRUCTURES PASSING

ANTERIOR VIEW
Supra-orbital F. Supra-orbital nerve and vessels
Infra-orbital F. Infra-orbital nerve and vessels
Mental F. Mental nerve and vessels
LATERAL VIEW
Zygomaticofacial F. Zygomaticofacial nerve
SUPERIOR VIEW
Parietal F. Emissary veins
INFERIOR VIEW
Nasopalatine nerve
Incisive foramina Sphenopalatine vessels
Greater palatine F. Greater palatine nerve and vessels
Lesser palatine F. Lesser palatine nerves and vessels
Tympano-mastoid suture Auricular branch of vagus
Pterygoid canal Pterygoid nerve and vessels
M - Mandibular nerve
A - Accessory meningeal artery
L - Lesser Petrosal Nerve
F. Ovale E - Emissary veins connecting
cavernous sinus with pterygoid
venous plexus
M - middle meningeal artery
M - meningeal branch of
F. Spinosum Mandibular nerve
M - middle meningeal sinus
F. Lacerum Filled with cartilage
Internal carotid artery and nerve
Carotid canal plexus F. magnum
Continuation of brain and spinal
cord
Vertebral arteries and nerve
plexuses STERNBERG CANAL
F. magnum Anterior spinal artery
Posterior spinal arteries • It’s the lateral craniopharyngeal canal connecting
Roots of accessory nerve middle cranial fossa with the nasopharynx
Meninges
• Is antero-medial to the F. rotundum
Condylar canal Emissary veins
• Situated at the attachment of posterior root of lesser
Hypoglossal canal Hypoglossal nerve and vessels
wing to the body of sphenoid
Anterior part – Inferior Petrosal
• Considered as the congenital origin for the
sinus
Intermédiate part – IX, X, XI nerves intra-sphenoidal meningocele
Jugular F. & meningeal branch of Ascending • First identified by Sternberg (1988) between the
pharyngeal artery ossification centers of the 3 parts of sphenoid bone
Posterior part – Internal Jugular
Vein (superior bulb) • Presence in children at the age of 3-4 years and an
Stylomastoid F. Facial nerve incidence of 4% in adults

Canaliculus innominatus • It is in the para-sellar region of middle cranial fossa and

Occasionally present communicates with the sphenoid sinus as well
between F. spinosum and Lesser Petrosal nerve as with the pterygopalatine fossa and/or the
ovale
nasopharynx depending upon the course of the canal
F. vesali / emissary
Sphenoidal F. • Infection may be carried from the nasopharynx
Emissary vein towards the sphenoidal sinus via the canal
Occasionally found
medial to F. ovale
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ANTERIOR CRANIAL FOSSA Other Foramina Contents
(other than that, mentioned in inferior aspect of skull)
Mastoid emissary vein Meningeal
Nasal emissary veins (present in Mastoid foramen
F. Caecum branch of occipital artery
children and 1% of adults)
Foramina in Mental foramen Mental nerve and vessels
Cribriform Axons of olfactory cells
plates Mandibular
Inferior alveolar nerve and vessels
foramen
Anterior &
Posterior Anterior & posterior ethmoidal Chorda tympani nerve Anterior
Petrotympanic fissure
Ethmoidal vessels and nerves tympanic artery
foramina
Pterygomaxillary
MIDDLE CRANIAL FOSSA Maxillary nerve
fissure
Optic nerve
Optic canals Zygomatic
Ophthalmic artery Zygomaticofacial nerve
foramen
All innervations to the orbit, EXCEPT the
Optic Nerve - Oculomotor, Trochlear,
Ophthalmic, and Abducent nerves
Divided by tendinous ring of Zinn
into 3 parts
Superior 1. Infero-medial compartment – Inferior
Orbital Fissure Ophthalmic Vein
2. Intermediate compartment –
Oculomotor nerve, Nasociliary nerve
(branch of V1), Abducent nerve
3. Supero-lateral compartment – Lacrimal,
Frontal and Trochlear nerves
F. Rotundum Maxillary nerve

Inferior orbital Infraorbital Nerve

Infraorbital Artery (an anastomostic branch
fissure between the Angular and Maxillary Artery)

SKULL BONES ARTICULATIONS

Bone Articulate with Bone Articulate with Bone Articulate with

Parietal Palatine Frontal

Vomer Maxilla
Maxilla Lacrimal
Inferior nasal concha Inferior nasal concha
Ethmoid
Ethmoid Ethmoid
Frontal Lacrimal Maxilla
Lacrimal
Maxilla
Nasal Nasal Nasal
Ethmoid
Zygomatic Zygomatic
Sometimes Sphenoid Frontal
Sphenoid
Vomer Parietal
Temporal Inferior nasal concha Temporal
Palatine
Parietal Occipital Ethmoid Occipital
Sphenoid
Sphenoid Sphenoid Palatine
Ethmoid Vomer
Occipital Vomer
Sphenoid Ethmoid
Zygomatic
Temporal Inferior Zygomatic
Sphenoid Ethmoid
nasal Frontal
Mandible concha Lacrimal
Zygomatic Temporal
Temporal Lacrimal Maxilla
Occipital Sphenoid Ethmoid Nasal
Mandible Occipital
Parietal Sphenoid

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OCCIPITAL BONE

• Base and posterior aspect of the skull
• Morphologically it is formed by fusion of 3 or 4
pre-cervical vertebrae.
• Articulations: 6 Bones #Parietal Bones (02)
#Temporal Bones (02) #Sphenoid (01) #Atlas
(01)
• Fused body  basi - occiput
• Fused transverse process  jugular process
• Inter vertebral foramen  hypoglossal canal
• Fused laminae  squamous part up to highest nuchal line
• Thecal plate of otic capsule  rest of squamous part above highest
nuchal line

SQUAMOUS PART / SQUAMA

(Pentagonal part posterior to the Foramen Magnum)

Parts Features
External Occipital Protuberance
• Prominence midway between the superior
angle of the bone and the foramen magnum
• Prominent point on it called ‘Inion’
Highest and Superior Nuchal Lines
• Two curved lines extending laterally from the
external occipital protuberance
• Superior Nuchal Line
ƒƒ Located inferior to the Highest Nuchal Line
External
ƒƒ Muscles attached
Surface
1. Trapezius
2. Sternocleidomastoid
3. Splenius Capitis
External Occipital Crest
• Extends from the External Occipital
Protuberance to the Foramen Magnum
Inferior Nuchal Line
• Curved line extending lateral ward from
middle of External Occipital Crest
Internal Occipital Protuberance

• Divides the inner surface into four fossae by

this cruciate eminence

• 4 fossae – 2 superior (occupied by occipital

lobes of Cerebrum) and 2 inferior (related to
Cerebellar Hemispheres)

Internal • agittal Sulcus  Extend upwards  gives

S
Surface attachment to Falx Cerebri with Superior Supero lateral
Sagittal Sinus Lambdoid suture
border
• I nternal Occipital Crest  Extend downwards Infero Articulates with mastoid part of Temporal
 gives attachment to the Falx Cerebelli with lateral border bone
Occipital Sinus Superior
Lambda
• ransverse grooves  one on either side 
T Angle
gives attachment to the tentorium cerebelli
Lateral Angle Asterion
with transverse sinuses

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BASILAR PART (Quadrilateral)

Parts Features
• Primary cartilaginous joint with Body of
Anterior Surface
Sphenoid
• Forms Clivus, supports the Pons and Medulla
Superior Surface
Oblongata
• Pharyngeal tubercle, 1 cm in front of the
Inferior Surface
Foramen Magnum
• Articulates with Petrous part of Temporal
Two Lateral Borders
bone

CONDYLAR/ LATERAL PART

(at sides of Foramen Magnum)
Occipital Condyles
• Are oval or reniform in shape
• Their anterior extremities directed forward and medially
• Articulate with the superior facets of the atlas-Atlanto-occipital
joints
Hypoglossal canal (anterior condyloid foramen)
• At the base of the condyle
Condyloid Fossa
• Depression behind the condyle
• Receives the posterior margin of the superior facet of the atlas when
the head is bent backward
Jugular process

PARIETAL BONE

• Quadrilateral, Form the sides and roof of the cranium

• Articulations: 5 Bones #Opposite Parietal Bone (01) #Occipital Bone (01) #Temporal Bones (02) #Sphenoid Bone (01)

Parts Features
Parietal Eminence
• Corresponds to upturned end of
posterior ramus of lateral sulcus
External Surface surrounded by supramarginal gyrus 
Wernicke’s sensory speech area
Superior& Inferior Temporal Lines
Parietal Foramen
• oncave with depressions for cerebral
C
Internal Surface convolutions, and numerous furrows for the
middle meningeal vessels
Superior Border • Sagittal suture
• Articulates with Greater Wing of Sphenoid,
Inferior Border squamous part of Temporal bone, Mastoid
part of Temporal bone
Anterior Border • Coronal suture
Posterior Border • Lambdoid suture

Angles Corresponds to Related to

Antero Superior
Bregma Superior Sagittal Sinus
/ Frontal
Postero Superior
Lambda Superior Sagittal Sinus
/ Occipital
Antero Inferior /
Pterion Middle Meningeal Vessels
Sphenoidal
Postero Inferior /
Asterion Transverse Sinus
Mastoid
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FRONTAL BONE

• A broad, convex plate of bone that forms the front of the cranium and roof of the orbits
• In foetal skulls, a metopic suture divides the two halves of the frontal bone
• Articulations: 12 Bones #Sphenoid Bone (01) #Ethmoid Bone (02) #Nasal Bones (02) #Maxillae (02) #Lacrimal Bones (02)
#Zygomatic Bones (02)

SQUAMA
Parts Features
Frontal Eminences - Larger in the male than in
the females
Super Ciliary Arch - Bony ridge superior and
parallel to supra orbital margin
External Surface Glabella - Rounded and lies between the two
super ciliary arches
Supraorbital Notch / Foramen
Nasal Part - Nasion is the middle of the front
nasal suture
Sagittal Sulcus
Foramen Caecum - Usually impervious but
Internal Surface
when open, it transmits a vein from the nose to
the Superior Sagittal Sinus
Articulates with Parietal bones at Coronal
Posterior Border suture and inferiorly articulates with Greater
Wing of Sphenoid

ORBITAL/HORIZONTAL PART
Parts Features
Lacrimal Fossa - A shallow depression
laterally for the lacrimal gland
Inferior Surface Fovea Trochlearis - A depression on medially,
or occasionally a small trochlear spine, for
the attachment of the cartilaginous pulley of
Superior Oblique muscle
Ethmoidal Notch - Separates the two orbital
Superior Surface plates, is quadrilateral, and filled by the
cribriform plate of the Ethmoid
Thin and serrated, articulate with the lesser
Posterior Border
wings of the Sphenoid
Lateral Border Articulates with Greater Wing of Sphenoid
Articulates with labyrinth of ethmoid bone
Medial Border with anterior and posterior ethmoidal canals at
its articulation

SPHENOID BONE

• Wedge-shaped bone
• Key bone in the cranium
• Resembles a bat with its wings extended
• Divisions: Body, two great and two small wings extending outward from the sides of the body, and two pterygoid
processes which project from it below
• Articulations: 12 Bones #Vomer Bone (01) #Ethmoid Bone (01) #Frontal Bone (01) #Occipital Bone (01) #Parietal Bones (02)
#Temporal Bones (02) #Zygomatic Bones (02) #Palatine Bones (02)

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SPHENOID BONE

• Wedge-shaped bone
• Key bone in the cranium
• Resembles a bat with its wings extended
• Divisions: Body, two great and two small wings extending outward from the sides of the body, and two pterygoid
processes which project from it below
• Articulations: 12 Bones #Vomer Bone (01) #Ethmoid Bone (01) #Frontal Bone (01) #Occipital Bone (01) #Parietal Bones (02)
#Temporal Bones (02) #Zygomatic Bones (02) #Palatine Bones (02)

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BODY
• Cubical in shape with the sphenoidal air sinuses
• Body of the sphenoid and the basilar part of the Occipital bone together form the Clivus
Parts Features
Ethmoidal Spine - articulates with the cribriform plate of the ethmoid
Jugum Sphenoidale - related to gyri recti and olfactory tracts
Sulcus Chiasmaticus - transverse groove, above which lies the optic chiasma; the groove ends on either side
in the optic foramen
Superior Sella Turcica
Surface Composed of three parts
1. Tuberculum Sellae
2. Hypophyseal Fossa
3. Dorsum Sellae
Posterior Clinoid Processes
Lateral Surface • Carotid Sulcus with the Internal Carotid Artery
• Sphenoidal Crest - articulates with the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone contributing to the
Anterior Surface
formation of nasal septa
Inferior Surface • Sphenoidal Rostrum that articulates with grooved upper margin of Vomer

GREATER WINGS
Parts Features
Foramina
1. Foramen Rotundum
Cerebral 2. Foramen Ovale
Surface 3. Foramen Spinosum
4. Canaliculus Innominatus
5. Emissary Sphenoidal Foramen

Orbital Surface • Forms posterior part of the lateral wall of the orbit

• With infra temporal crest dividing into upper area (temporal fossa), lower area (roof of infra temporal
Lateral Surface
fossa)

Spine of • Gives attachment to,

• Three ligaments: Anterior ligament of Malleus, Sphenomandibular ligament & Pterygospinous ligament
Sphenoid • Two tendons: Tensor Veli Palatine & Tensor Tympani

LESSER WINGS
Parts Features
Superior Surface Related to the frontal lobe of the cerebral hemisphere

Inferior Surface • Forms posterior part of the orbital roof and upper boundary of the superior orbital fissure

• Forms the Anterior Clinoid Process, Lesser wing is connected to the body by a thin flat anterior root
Medial End
and a thick triangular posterior root, between which is the optic canal

PTERYGOID PROCESSES
(Each of these processes consists of a narrow medial plate a broader lateral plate separated by the pterygoid fossa)

Parts Features

Ends inferiorly with a hook - like projection  pterygoid hamulus

Medial Plate Divides superiorly to form  Scaphoid fossa
Superior to the Scaphoid fossa  opening of the pterygoid canal

L. Pterygoid Plate • Its lateral surface forms part of the medial wall of the infratemporal fossa

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TEMPORAL BONES
• Form parts of the sides and base of the skull
• Articulations: 6 Bones #Parietal Bones (02) #Occipital Bones (01) #Sphenoid Bone (01) #Zygomatic Bones (02)

SQUAMOUS PART

Parts Features
• Forms part of the Temporal fossa
• Supramastoid Crest
External Surface • Suprameatal triangle (of Macewan)
(Temporal Surface) ƒƒ A depression between the anterior end of the Supramastoid crest and the posterosuperior
median of the external acoustic meatus
ƒƒ Mastoid Antrum lies at a depth of 12-15 mm

Internal Surface • Contains depressions corresponding to convolutions of the temporal lobe of the cerebral
(Cerebral Surface) hemisphere

Zygomatic Process • Articulates with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone to form the zygomatic arch

• Has an anterior articular area  formed by the squamous part

• Posterior non-articular area  formed by the Tympanic part
• Separated from the tympanic part by the Squamotympanic fissure
Mandibular Fossa • Tegmen tympani
ƒƒ Projection from the petrous part of the temporal bone
ƒƒ Lies in the Squamotympanic fissure
ƒƒ Divides into petro tympanic and Petrosquamous fissures

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PETRO MASTOID PART

(Divided into Petrous and mastoid parts for descriptive purpose)
Parts Features
• Most posterior part of the temporal bone
• Outer surface gives attachment to the occipital belly of Occipito Frontalis and Auricularis posterior
Mastoid • Mastoid process: Sternocleidomastoid, splenius Capitis and Longissimus Capitis are attached to its lateral
Part surface. Mastoid notch on its inner surface gives attachment to posterior belly of digastric muscle. Occipital artery
runs in a shallow occipital groove medial to this notch
• Internal surface has a deep, curved sigmoid sulcus for the sigmoid venous sinus
• Wedged between the sphenoid and occipital bones
• Has a base, apex, three surfaces (anterior, posterior and inferior) and three borders (superior, posterior and
anterior) and contains the acoustic labyrinth
1. Base - part that lies on the base of the skull
2. Apex - forms one of the boundaries of the foramen lacerum
3. Surfaces
i. Anterior surface
ƒƒ Contributes to the floor of the middle cranial fossa
ƒƒ Mostly formed by Tegmen tympani  thin bony plate that forms the roof of the mastoid Antrum
ƒƒ Trigeminal impression - location trigeminal ganglion
Petrous ƒƒ Groove and hiatus for the greater Petrosal nerve
Part ƒƒ Groove and hiatus for the lesser Petrosal nerve
ii. Posterior surface
ƒƒ Upper half of the posterior surface of the Petrous part of the temporal bone is the internal acoustic meatus
iii. Inferior surface
ƒƒ At the base of the skull between greater wing of sphenoid and basilar part of occipital bone
4. Borders
i. Superior border – grooved by the superior Petrosal sinus
ii. Posterior border – medially related to inferior Petrosal sinus, behind contributes to the formation of jugular
foramen
iii. Anterior border – joined laterally to the squamous part of the temporal bone at the petrosquamosal suture
and medially it articulates with the greater wing of the sphenoid bone

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TYMPANIC PART
Parts Features
• Curved plate below the squamous part and anterior to the mastoid process
STYLOID PROCESS
• Slender, pointed and projects antero-inferiorly from the inferior aspect of the temporal bone
• Has a variable length of few millimetres to 2.5 cm

STYLOID APPARATUS
(3 muscles and 2 ligaments)

Structures attached to Styloid Process Features

Stylohyoid Muscle • Supplied by Facial Nerve (Nerve of 2nd arch)

Styloglossus Muscle • Hypoglossal Nerve (developed from Occipital Myotome)

Stylopharyngeus Muscle • Supplied by Glossopharyngeal Nerve (nerve of 3rd arch)

Stylohyoid Ligament • Remnant of 2nd Branchial arch

Stylomandibular Ligament • Modification of Investing layer of Deep Cervical Fascia

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ETHMOID BONES

• Lies between the Orbits and underlies the Frontal bone

• Cuboidal & fragile, and lies anteriorly in the cranial base
• Contributes to the Medial Orbital Walls, Nasal Septum, and the Roof and Lateral walls of the Nasal Cavity
• Has a horizontal, perforated Cribriform plate, a median Perpendicular plate, and two Lateral Labyrinths which contain the
ethmoidal air cells

MAXILLA

• Maxillae form the upper jaw of the face between the mouth and eyes, surrounding the Anterior Nasal Apertures
• Articulations
ƒƒ With each other medially at the Intermaxillary Suture
ƒƒ Laterally the Zygomatic process of each Maxilla articulates with the Zygomatic bone
ƒƒ Medially, the Frontal process of each Maxilla articulates with the Frontal Bone, Nasal Bone, Lacrimal Bone
ƒƒ Also articulate with the vomer, sphenoid and palatine bones
• Has a body and four processes - zygomatic, frontal, alveolar and palatine processes

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Parts Features
Surfaces
1. Anterior
• Shallow incisive fossa, lateral to it is a larger, deeper canine fossa
• Canine eminence separates Incisive and Canine fossae
• Infraorbital foramen lies above the Canine fossa
• Medially it has concave nasal notch, and terminates at the anterior nasal spine
2. Infratemporal
• Forms the anterior wall of the Infratemporal fossa
• Centre has two or three foramina for passage of posterior superior alveolar vessels and
Body Roughly
nerves,
pyramidal
• Maxillary tuberosity lies postero inferiorly
3. Orbital
• Forms most of the floor of the orbit
• In the centre  Infraorbital groove, which continues forwards into the Infraorbital canal and
opens into Infraorbital foramen
• Near the midpoint, Infraorbital canal has canalis sinuosus  opening for anterior superior
alveolar nerve and vessels
4. Nasal
• With large opening, maxillary hiatus leading into the maxillary sinus
• Nasolacrimal groove lies anterior to the hiatus
• Anterior, Infratemporal and orbital surfaces converge at a pyramidal projection  zygomatic
Zygomatic Process
process

Frontal Process • Projects posterosuperiorly between the nasal and lacrimal bones

• Is thick and arched, bears sockets for the roots of the upper teeth
• Socket
ƒƒ Canine  deepest
Alveolar Process
ƒƒ Molars  widest and subdivided into three by septa
ƒƒ Incisors and Second Premolar  single
ƒƒ First Premolar  double
• Hard palate  composed of the palatine processes of each maxilla Anteriorly and the horizontal
plates of each palatine bone posteriorly
• Paired palatine processes of each maxilla  meet in the midline at the intermaxillary suture
• Paired maxilla and the paired palatine bones  meet at the palatomaxillary suture
• Paired horizontal plates of each palatine bone  meet in the midline at the interpalatine suture
• Incisive fossa
ƒƒ Lies in the anterior midline immediately posterior to the teeth
Palatine Process ƒƒ Walls of which contain incisive foramina
ƒƒ Incisive foramina  openings of the incisive canals
ƒƒ Incisive canals  passages between the hard palate and nasal cavity
• Greater palatine foramina  lie near the Posterolateral border of the hard palate on each side  lead
to greater palatine canals
• Lesser palatine foramina  lie posterior to the Greater palatine foramina in the pyramidal process
of each palatine bone  lead to lesser palatine canals
• Posterior nasal spine  Pointed projection in the free posterior border of the hard palate

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ZYGOMTIC BONES

• Form the prominences of the cheeks

• Contribute to the floor, lateral wall of the orbit and the walls of the temporal and infratemporal fossae
• Articulate medially with the Greater Wings of the Sphenoid Bone, Frontal, Maxilla and Temporal bones
• Roughly quadrangular
• Have three surfaces, five borders and two processes
• Whitnall tubercle
ƒƒ A small elevation on the orbital surface of the zygomatic bone just behind and within the orbital margin, about 11 mm
below the frontozygomatic suture
ƒƒ Serves as an attachment for the check ligament of the lateral rectus muscle, lateral palpebral ligament, suspensory
ligament of Lockwood and the levator palpebrae superioris muscle

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Parts Features

1. Lateral (Facial)
• Zygomaticofacial foramen lies near its orbital border
2. Posteromedial (Temporal)
• Rough anterior area articulates with Zygomatic process of the Maxilla
Surfaces • Smooth, concave posterior area forms the anterior wall of Temporal and Infratemporal
fossae, with Zygomatico-temporal foramina
3. Orbital
• Forms the lateral wall and floor of orbit
• Has Zygomatico-orbital foramina  bifurcate into Zygomaticofacial and Zygomaticotemporal foramina
1. Anterosuperior / Orbital - forms the orbital margin
2. Anteroinferior / Maxillary - articulates with the maxilla
3. Posterosuperior / Temporal - sinuous, gives attachment to temporal fascia
Borders
4. Posteroinferior - rough, gives attachment to masseter
5. Posteromedial - articulates with the greater wing of the sphenoid bone above, and the orbital surface of the
Maxilla below
Frontal Process - Articulates above with the Zygomatic process of the Frontal bone and behind with the Greater
Processes Wing of the Sphenoid bone
Temporal Process - Articulates with the Zygomatic process of the Temporal bone to complete the Zygomatic arch

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MANDIBLE

• Mandible forms the lower jaw

• Only movable bone of skull
• Articulates with the temporal bones at the Temporomandibular joints
• Has a horizontal body, and two broad rami, and the angle of mandible where the inferior margin of the mandible meets the
posterior margin of the ramus

PARTS FEATURES

EXTERNAL SURFACE
Mental Protuberance • Midline swelling
Mental tubercles • Lateral to the mental protuberance on either side
• Halfway between the upper border of the alveolar part of mandible and
Mental foramen the lower border of the base of mandible in between the premolar teeth
• Passing from the front of the ramus onto the body of the mandible
Oblique line
• Point of attachment for muscles that depress the lower lip

INTERNAL SURFACE

Oblique Mylohyoid • Mylohyoid muscle is attached

line • Separates Submandibular fossa below from sublingual fossa above
Genial tubercles • Two pairs of small elevation on the posterior aspect of Symphysis menti

Superior genial • Gives attachment to Genioglossus

tubercles / Superior
BODY Mental Spines
• U-shaped bone Inferior genial tubercle • Gives attachment to Geniohyoid
/ Inferior Mental
• Represents
Spines
anteriorly
as chin Mylohyoid groove • Convey the Mylohyoid nerve and vessels
• Behind the 3rd molar
Pterygomandibular
raphe • Gives attachment to Buccinator muscle on anterior aspect and superior
constrictor of pharynx on posterior aspect
Lingual nerve • Intervene between the 3rd molar and posterior end of mylohyoid line

UPPER / ALVEOLAR BORDER

• Contains sockets for the roots of the teeth of lower jaw
• Consists of buccal and lingual plates of bone joined by interdental and inter-radicular septa
• xternal oblique line is superimposed upon the buccal plate near the second and third molar
E
teeth the

LOWER BORDER / BASE

• Extends from symphysis menti to the lower border of the ramus behind the third molar tooth
• Digastric fossaNear the midline, on each side, gives attachment to the anterior belly of
Digastric

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PARTS FEATURES

MEDIAL SURFACE
• Mandibular foramen
ƒƒ Lies near its centre
ƒƒ Transmits inferior alveolar nerves and vessels
ƒƒ Leads into the mandibular canal in the body
ƒƒ This canal opens into to the mental foramen
Anteromedial margin is overlapped by a thin, triangular lingula  gives attachment to
ƒƒ
Sphenomandibular ligament
ƒƒ Above and behind mandibular foramen is related to 1st part of maxillary artery and its
inferior alveolar branch
• ylohyoid groove and Mylohyoid line – below it gives an attachment to medial pterygoid
M
muscle

• Continuous with the base of mandible

Inferior border • Meets the posterior border at the angle
• Everted in males and inverted in females
• as coronoid process in front and condylar process behind, separated by
H
RAMUS mandibular notch  transmitting Masseteric vessels and nerves

• Quadrilateral • oronoid process  flat, triangular upward projection  gives attachment

C
to temporalis muscle on its medial surface, tip and anterior border
• Temporal crest  a ridge that runs down from the tip of the coronoid
process on its medial side to the bone just behind the third molar tooth
• Retromolar fossa  triangular depression between the temporal crest and
the anterior border of the ramus
Superior border • Condylar process  roughly ovoid, antero posteriorly measuring 1 cm
• Long axis of the condyle  not at right angles to the ramus
• hen the long axes of the two condyles are extended, they meet at an obtuse angle
W
(145°) at the anterior border of the foramen magnum
• Articular head of the condyle  joins the ramus through the neck of the
condyle
• Pterygoid fovea  a small depression situated on the anterior surface of the
neck  gives attachment to part of lateral pterygoid muscle
• Thin above and continuous with the coronoid process
Anterior border
• Thicker below and continuous with the external oblique line
Posterior border • Thick and rounded, extends from the condyle to the angle

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PALATINE BONE

• Makes up the posterior third of the palate

• It’s in “L” shape
• Consists of two plates - horizontal & perpendicular
• erpendicular plate overlies the posterior third of the
P
medial wall of the body of maxilla, and articulates
with the pterygoid process of the sphenoid

PARTS
2 Plates and 3 Processes
1. Horizontal plate
2 plates
2. Perpendicular plate
1. Orbital process
3 processes 2. Sphenoidal process
3. Pyramidal process

NASAL BONES

• Trapezoidal
• Two small, symmetrical bones of the midface which
build the bridge of the nose
• Trapezoidal
• Two small, symmetrical bones of the midface which
build the bridge of the nose

Border Attachment

Medial Nasal part of the Frontal Bone

Superiorly &
Frontal process of the Maxilla
Laterally
Inferiorly Lateral cartilage of the Nose

LACRIMAL BONES

• A scale-like oval of bone

• Inferior concha spans the lower part of the opening of the maxillary sinus
• Articulates with the palatine bone, maxilla and uncinate process of the ethmoid (superior & middle Conchae are part of the
ethmoidal labyrinth)

Surface Features Border Attachment

Anteriorly Frontal process of Maxilla

Lacrimal groove which forms the
Lateral (Orbital) fossa for lacrimal sac together with Superiorly Frontal bone
the lacrimal groove of the Maxilla
Lamina papyracea of the anterior ethmoid
Posteriorly
cells
Contributes to the Middle Nasal
Medial (Nasal)
Meatus Inferiorly Anterior part of the inferior nasal concha

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HYOID BONE

• U-shaped bone
• Location: in the front of the neck between the Mandible and Larynx
• Lies at the level of the third cervical vertebra
• Has no direct bony articulations but instead is held in place by muscles, ligaments, and fascia.
• Suspended from Styloid Processes of Temporal bones by Stylohyoid ligaments

PARTS FEATURES & ATTACHMENTS

Body (Corpus) • Attachments for the Geniohyoid, Mylohyoid, Omohyoid, and Sternohyoid muscles
• irected posteriorly, end in a tubercle
D
Greater cornu
• Attachments for the Middle Constrictor, Hyoglossus, Digastric (anterior and posterior) bellies,
(or horns) - 02
Stylohyoid, and Thyrohyoid muscles
• Small nipplelike structures pointing cranially and posteriorly
Lesser cornu
• Attachments for the Stylohyoid ligament, which runs from the Styloid process to the Lesser horn of
(or horns) - 02
the Hyoid bone

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VOMER
• Unpaired facial bones
• Location: midsagittal line
• Articulations: Sphenoid, Ethmoid, left & right Palatine bones, and the left & right Maxillary bones
• Forms: Posterior part of the nasal septum, with the anterior part formed by the ethmoid

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

• Central bony pillar of body

• Supports the skull, pectoral girdle, upper limbs & thoracic
cage
• By way of the pelvic girdle, it transmits body weight to the
lower limbs
• Gives protection to Spinal cord, Roots of the spinal nerves
and the covering meninges
• Vertebral column is a flexible structure (segmented) &
made up of Vertebrae, Joints and Intervertebral discs (form
¼ length of the column)

COMPOSITION

• Vertebral column is composed of 33 vertebrae

Vertebrae Number Feature

Cervical 7 Movable

Thoracic 12 Movable

Lumbar 5 Movable

Sacral 5 Fused together forming the sacrum

Coccygeal 4 Lower 3 fused

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CERVICAL VERTEBRAE

Parts Features

Body • Disc- shaped anterior portion

• Bony ring behind the vertebral body
• Has 2 pedicles & 2 laminae posteriorly
• Has 7 processes
Vertebral Arch
1. 1 spinous process
2. 2 transverse processes
3. 2 superior & 2 inferior articular processes
Superior Articular Facets • Pointed backwards and upwards

Inferior Articular Facets • Pointed forwards and downwards

• Small and pierced by Foramen Transversarium
• very process has an anterior and posterior root, can be joined together by
E
costotransverse tavern
Transverse Processes
• ostal component is composed of anterior
C root, anterior tubercle
costotransverse pub and posterior tubercle.
• Posterior root represents the transverse component of the growing vertebra
Spine • Short and bifid

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Atypical Features of First, Second and Seventh Cervical Vertebrae

Vertebrae Features
• bsence of Body and Spine
A
• Long transverse processes
First Cervical Vertebra (Atlas)
• Kidney shaped Superior articular facets
• Circular Inferior articular facets
• Presence of Odontoid process - projects from superior surface of body
(representing the body of the atlas that has fused with the body of the axis)
• Odontoid process (dens) has facet for articulation with the atlas
Second Cervical Vertebra (Axis)
(central Atlanto-axial joint, pivot)
• Foramen transversarium is directed superolaterally (in typical vertebrae, it is
directed vertically)
• pine is strong, long and not bifid
S
Seventh Cervical Vertebra
• Transverse process is relatively long and lacks the anterior tubercle
(Vertebra Prominens)
• Foramen transversarium is relatively small

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THORACIC VERTEBRAE
• 1 2 in number
• Identified by the presence of costal facet/facets on the sides of their bodies for articulation with the heads of the ribs
• Typical: 2nd to 8th
• Atypical: 1st and 9th to 12th

Vertebrae Features

• esembles 7th cervical vertebra

R
T1 • Superior costal facet  circular
• Superior vertebral notch  deep and clearly seen

T9 • Only superior demi facet is present

T10 • Only single large complete costal facet is present

• ingle large circular costal facet is present

S
T11
• Articular facet on transverse process is absent
• esembles 1st lumbar vertebra
R
T12 • Single large circular facet is present
• Transverse process has three tubercles: superior, inferior, and lateral

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LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
• 5 in number  first 4 (L1 to L4) are typical and fifth (L5) is atypical
• Has the largest body among all the vertebrae
Identifying Features
1. Enormous reniform bodies
2. Absence of costal facets on the body
3. Absence of foramina transversaria in the transverse processes
4. Presence of accessory and mammillary processes
5. Thick quadrilateral spinous processes

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SACRUM
• Consists of 5 vertebrae fused together to form a wedge-shaped bone, which is concave anteriorly
• Upper border, or base articulates with the 5th lumbar vertebra
• Narrow inferior border articulates with the coccyx
• Laterally, the sacrum articulates with the two iliac bones to form the sacroiliac joints
• Vertebral foramina are present and form the sacral canal
• Anterior and upper margin of the first sacral vertebra bulges forward as the posterior margin of the pelvic inlet and is
known as the sacral promontory
• Sacral canal contains the anterior and posterior roots of the sacral and Coccygeal spinal nerves, the filum terminale, and
fibrofatty material and it also contains the lower part of (the subarachnoid space down as far as the lower border of the
second sacral vertebra
• Laminae of the 5th and sometimes those of the 4th sacral vertebra, fail to meet in the midline, forming the sacral hiatus
• Anterior and posterior surfaces of the sacrum each have four foramina on each side for the passage of the anterior and
posterior rami of the upper 4 sacral nerves

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COCCYX
• occyx consists of 4 vertebrae fused together to form a single, triangular bone that articulates with the sacrum
C
• 1st coccygeal vertebra is not fused or is incompletely fused with the 2nd

CONTENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL CANAL

• uccession of the vertebral foramina forms the vertebral canal which contains:
S
ƒƒ Spinal cord which end at lower border of 1st lumbar vertebra
ƒƒ Covering of the spinal cord which forms the meninges
99 Dura mater & arachnoid end at 2nd sacral vertebra
99 Pia mater end with spinal cord and continue as filum terminal
99 Between arachnoid mater & Pia mater is subarachnoid space which contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Internal vertebral venous plexus lies in extradural space which communicate with veins of the neck, thorax, abdomen and
pelvis
• Anterior and posterior spinal arteries

CURVES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Primary Curvature
• In fetusvertebral column has one continuous anterior concavity
Secondary or Adult Curvatures
Curves in the • After birth  when the child able to raise his head  cervical part becomes convex anteriorly
Sagittal plane • End of the 1st year  when the child stands upright  lumbar part becomes convex anteriorly
• Modification in the shape of the intervertebral discs  Secondary curves
• Adult in the standing position  cervical (anterior convexity), thoracic (anterior concavity), lumbar (anteri-
or convexity) & sacral (anterior concavity) curves
• I n late childhood, thoracic region witnesses the development of minor lateral curves
Curves in the • Normal condition
Coronal plane • Caused by the predominant use of one of the upper limbs. E.g. right-handed persons will often have a
slight right-sided thoracic convexity

Abnormal Curves of the Vertebral Column

Kyphosis An abnormally increased backward thoracic curvature

Lordosis An abnormally increased forward lumbar curvature

Lateral deviation (curvature) of the vertebral column in the thoracic region

Scoliosis
Resulting from unequal growth of the vertebral column

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JOINTS

In Vertebral Column
Atlanto-Occipital joint Atlanto-Axial joint Below the Axis
• Synovial joint between the • 3 joints between axis and at- • Vertebrae articulate with each other by means of
occipital condyle and atlas, las, at which rotation of the ƒƒ Cartilaginous joints between their bodies
where flexion and extension head occur (intervertebral discs)
of the head occur ƒƒ Synovial joints between their articular
processes

Between Vertebral Bodies

• pper & lower surfaces of the bodies of the adjacent vertebrae are covered by thin plates of hyaline cartilage
U
• An intervertebral disc of fibrocartilage is sandwiched between the plates of hyaline cartilage
• Intervertebral discs
ƒƒ Thickest in the cervical and lumbar regions
ƒƒ Serve as shock absorber as in falling from a height
ƒƒ Each disc consists of Anulus fibrosis (peripheral part) and nucleus pulposus (central part)
ƒƒ Anulus fibrosis is composed of fibrocartilage
ƒƒ Nucleus pulposus is children and adolescents are an ovoid mass of gelatinous material

Between Two Vertebral Arches

• Are of synovial joints between the superior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebrae.
• Ligaments
1. Supraspinous: between tips of adjacent spines
2. Interspinous: connects adjacent spines
3. Intertransverse: runs between adjacent transverse processes
4. Ligamentum flavum: connects the lamina of adjacent vertebrae

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MOVEMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Movement Meaning Extensive Region Restrictive Region

Flexion Forward movement Lumbar & cervical Thoracic

Extension Backward movement Lumbar & cervical Thoracic

Lateral Flexion Bending of the body to one or the other side Lumbar & cervical Thoracic

Rotation Twisting of the vertebral column --- Lumbar

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SKULL BONES ARTICULATIONS

Bone Articulate with

Parietal
Maxilla
Ethmoid
Frontal Lacrimal
Nasal
Zygomatic
Sphenoid
Temporal
Parietal Occipital
Sphenoid
Occipital
Zygomatic
Temporal
Sphenoid
Mandible
Temporal
Occipital Sphenoid
Parietal
Palatine
Vomer
Inferior nasal concha
Ethmoid
Maxilla
Lacrimal
Nasal
Zygomatic
Sometimes Sphenoid
Vomer
Inferior nasal concha
Palatine
Ethmoid
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Vomer
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Inferior nasal concha
Lacrimal
Lacrimal
Ethmoid Nasal
Sphenoid
Frontal
Maxilla
Lacrimal
Inferior nasal concha
Ethmoid
Maxilla
Nasal
Ethmoid
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
Sphenoid
Palatine
Vomer
Ethmoid
Zygomatic
Frontal
Zygomatic Temporal
Maxilla
Mandible Occipital

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