Humans do lots of movements -walking, running, climbing, sitting. and many more.

Other animals
may seem more physically active than humans as they have to hunt for their food, escape from
predators, do mating rituals, and the like. All these activities will be impossible to do without the
bones and muscles that animals possess.

The importance of mobility is emphasized during a time of bone injury such as fracture or
dislocation. injuries like these limit our movement and our life changes drastically. The same is
true to people with disorders related to the muscles such as muscular dystrophy which is
characterized by progressive muscle wasting. Eventually, such individuals become immobile and
have Short life spans. These situations only highlight the importance of bones and muscles in our
ability to be agile, for without these structures in proper working conditions, movement will be
impossible.

How well do you know these?

1. What is the function of the skeletal system?

2. What are the different types of skeleton?
3. How do muscles make movement possible? 4. How does muscle contraction work?

Skeletal System

imagine what will happen to your body if you have no bones or no skeleton. You would probably
lie flat on the floor like a jelly. Imagine further what it would be like to move Without a skeleton.
it would probably be similar to crawling like a slime.

Skeletons are essential to animals for movement. Without skeletons, animals would lack the
necessary support to be able to move. Moving from one place to another would be very difficult, if
not impossible. Skeletons also provide protection that is apparent in the structure of the rib cage
which encloses and protects the heart and lungs.

There are three types of animal skeleton: hydrostatic skeleton. exoskeleton, and endoskeleton.
Each has unique functions because of differences in form and structure. The hydrostatic skeleton
is named after the fluid which makes up the skeleton. The fluid is inside a sealed compartment in
the body. This skeleton, even in the absence of bones or rigid material, supports the animal body
and enables movement. The earthworm, and cnidarians, like hydra and jelly, have this type of
skeleton (Figure 6.1A). However, this skeleton is unsuitable for activities that need the body to be
lifted from the ground; hence, no terrestrial animal has this skeleton.

Exoskeleton is an external covering made up of rigid and hard materials. Different animals from
both aquatic and terrestrial habitats have this type of skeleton, although this is characteristic of
arthropods such as insects, spiders, and crabs. Arthropod exoskeleton, composed of proteins and
chitin (a carbohydrate), is an excellent armor protecting the soft-bodied animal inside. Arthropods
melt or shed their exoskeleton several times to have enough space for growth (Figure 6.1 B)
An endoskeleton is the type of skeleton we are most familiar with. This is the rigid or leathery
material located among soft tissues just like how our bones are surrounded by muscles
(endomeans inside). However, other animals such as echinoderms also have this type of skeleton.
Sea urchins have a hard case beneath their spines (Figure 6.10) while sea stars have rigid plates
inside their bodies.

Vertibrate Skeleton

The skeletal system of vertebrates has evolved from the same basic structures. However, the
different groups of vertebrates such as amphibians, reptiles (with birds), and mammals exhibit
changes to the basic framework. The vertebrate skeleton is commonly made up of an axial (always
present) and an appendicular (found in most) skeleton (Figure 6.2). The axial skeleton is the main
scaffold or support of the body’s trunk which protects delicate internal organs. This includes the
skull protecting the brain, the vertebral column for the spinal cord, and the rib cage for the heart
and lungs.

The appendicular skeleton, in contrast, consists of bones of the appendages and the bones which
connect the appendages to the axial skeieton. The pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle attach the
forelimbs and hind limbs, respectively, to the vertebral column. The limbs may vary in form,
depending on the animal group. These may be tins, wings, arms or legs.

Bones and Joints

Bones are made up of several living tissues; hence, they are also living organs like any other organ
in the body. Figure 6.3 shows the components of a bone. A cartilage covers each end of the bone to
protect it as it glides past another bone. A soft connective tissue covers most of the shaft or length
of the bone which aids in bone restructuring during fracture. Living cells inside the bone
synthesize the bone matrix, using collagen and hard minerals. The collagen maintains bone
flexibility while the hard minerals enable the bone to withstand tension.

A compact bone composes the length of the bone. Internal to this is a central cavity which holds
the yellow bone marrow which stores fats. The ends of the bone are composed of a spongy bone
with plenty of cavities. Located inside these cavities is the red bone marrow which produces the
blood cells. Bones are also supplied with nutrients and hormones carried by. blood vessels that are
attracted to them and that also transport waste materials. Nerves join the blood vessels for
coordinating this transfer of molecules between the blood and bones.

Three kinds of joints are shown in Figure 6.4. Bones connected at the joints are held in place by
connective tissues called ligaments. The kind of joint dictates the type of movement that the bones
can do. You can swing, lift, and rotate your arms (humerus) because they are connected by ball-
and-socket joints to the pectoral girdle. Your elbows and knees, in contrast, can only be moved in
a single plane because these are hinge joints. The hinge of a door ailows it to be opened and closed
but not rotated. Moreover, moving your head from side to side is possible because of the pivot
joint that connects the first and second vertebrae in your neck.
Muscle Movement

Tendons connect muscles to bones. The ends of a muscle are attached to a bone. For bones to
move, muscles attached to them must contract or shorten --the only movements muscles are
capable of. A muscle can move a bone in only one direction; hence, it can only pull the bone.
Muscles usually work in antagonistic pairs, such as the biceps and triceps in Figure 6.5. To be able
to bring food to your mouth, your biceps must contract to pick up the food while the triceps are
relaxed. To return a fork to a plate, triceps must contract to extend the forearm while the biceps
relax.  All animals use such pairs of antagonistic muscles to be able to move.
Examine the structure of a muscle cell shown in Figure 6.6. One muscle is composed of thousands
of muscle cells or fibers bundled tOgether. A muscle cell is multi-nucleated (many nuclei) and
contains thousands of myofibrils in separate bundles with proteins actin and myosin. A
myofibn’l is composed of thousands of sarcomeres arranged in a series. A sarcomere is the basic
unit of a muscle cell that can contract. it is lined by a dark Z line on both ends and contains thin
and thick filaments alternatingly arranged within the sarcomere. Actin molecules make up the thin
filaments while myosin molecules make up the thick filaments.

Now, take a look at how the thin and thick tilaments enable muscle contraction. Figure 6.7 shows
what happens to the filaments during contraction. A muscle contracts when its thin filaments slide
past each other, shortening the distance between 2 lines. How does this happen? The myosin
molecules, attach and detach to and from the actin molecules, pulling the thin hlaments to the
middle. This motion shortens the saroomere and contracts the muscle. The attachment and the
detachment of the myosin molecules to the actin molecules is dependent on the presence of ATP,
the cell’s energy.

How is muscle contraction coordinated? A motor neuron attached to a muscle regulates

contraction by sending an action potential to the synaptic terminal (Figure 6.8). Neurotransmitters
are then released from the terminal to the muscle cell which then releases calcium ions (Ca2+)
from the cell’s endoplasmic reticulum. These Ca² ions then attach to the binding sites in the
sarcomere, inducing the myosin to attach to the actin tilaments and cause muscle contraction. How
does the body know when to stop contracting? Contraction stops when the motor neuron stops
sending action potentials, causing the endoplasmic reticulum to reabsorb the Ca² ions back.
Without these ions. myosin will not be able to bind to the actin molecules; contraction will not
occur.

What is the difference between lifting a light object and lifting a heavy object? Muscle cells are
grouped into motor units with one neuron per unit (Figure 6.9). When you lift a pen, you may use
only one motor unit, but when you pick your bag, more motor units will be needed to do the task.

Summary of Key Concepts

1. An animal's skeleton supports and maintains its shape. Three types of skeleton can be found in
animals. Hydrostatic skeleton uses fluid under pressure in a sealed compartment to provide
framework to the animal’s body. Exoskeleton forms the hard outer covering of the animal,
providing support and protection. Endoskeleton is found within the animal's soft tissues just like
the bones in humans.

2. Most vertebrate skeletons are composed of axial and appendicular skeletons. Axial skeleton
protects the main trunk of the body while the appendicular skeleton is the bone of appendages and
bones that connect the appendages to the axial skeleton.

3. A bone is a living organ and is composed of several living tissues. It has cartilage, living cells,
yellow and red bone marrow, blood vessels and neurons. The movement of muscles and bones is
dependent on the type of joints to which they are connected.

4. Muscles usually work in antagonistic pairs since they can move in only one direction through
contraction.

5. A muscle is made up of thousands of muscle fibers in a bundle. Each muscle fiber is composed
of bundles of myofibrils. A myotibril has a series of sarcomeres which is the basic contractile unit.
One unit of sarcomere is lined with 2 lines on both sides and contains thin and thick filaments
arranged alternately.

6. A muscle contracts when the thin filaments slide past each other. This is due to the action of
thick filaments made up of myosin molecules. These molecules attach and detach to and from the
actin molecules of the thin filaments that cause the sliding movement, resulting in sarcomere
contraction.

7. Muscle contraction starts when an action potential signals neurotransmitters to travel to the
muscle. This causes the endoplasmic reticulum to release Ca²+ ions which allows the myosin
molecules to attach and detach to and from the actin molecules, leading to muscle contraction. The
contraction stops when the action potential stops, inhibiting the whole pathway.

Activity

Linkages
Refer to the following websites for linkages.

Human Anatomy Online http://www.innerbody.com/

Virtual Human Body

° http://medtropolis.com/virtual-body/

Research Work

1. Research on the different organ systems of other animals; summarize your findings in a
chart/poster/illustration. Show how the organ systems of these animals compare with the human
organ systems. What are their similarities and differences?

2. Make some readings regarding the latest innovations or techniques in medical procedures
related to any organ system. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of these innovations.

Group Work

1. Create a concept map showing how the different organ systems work together in ensuring
animal survival.

2. Do some readings regarding the disorders or diseases related to each organ system. Create an
informative brochure about a particular disease. Include the cause, symptoms, treatments and
possible prevention of that disease in your brochure.

Beyond the Classroom

Write an essay about “taking good care of your organ systems”. Provide concrete examples.
Explain why you need to take good care of your body.

Values

. What is your opinion about organ-selling for income, as reported in the newspapers?

. What is your opinion about organ donations immediately upon the death of an organ donor?

. What are the moral implications of these practices?