Métropolisation Et Periurbanisation À Cotonou

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Métropolisation et dynamiques périurbaines :

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1
On peut consulter à ce propos Veltz P. (1996/2009), Osmont A. (2002), Cavallier G. (2002),
Benko G. (2007), etc.
2
Concernant la remise en cause des régimes politiques dans les villes africaines, on peut se
référer à certains travaux : Pourtier R., 2000, «Brazzaville dans la guerre : crise urbaine et
violences politiques», In Annales de Géographie, n°611. p. 3-20. Dorier-Apprill et Ziavoula,
2006, Brazzaville, une ville à reconstruire, Karthala ; Gervais-Lambony et Nyassogbo (dir.),
Lomé. Dynamiques d’une ville africaine, Karthala, 2007 ; etc.

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3
Depuis le début des années 2000, la plupart des pays d’Afrique de l’Ouest ont mis en place
sous l’égide des bailleurs de fonds des politiques de lutte contre la pauvreté.
4
On peut se référer à l’article de Nyassogbo (2010): Les contraintes de l’étalement urbain ou
l’absence de politique urbaine dans les villes du Togo : l’exemple de Lomé, in Ahoho, Revue de
Géographie, Université de Lomé (Togo).
5
Selon L. Delcourt, 2007, qui cite M. Davis (2006), la chaîne s’étend sur environ 600 km et
comporte au moins 300 entités urbaines.
6
Igué J.O., 1995 et selon les propos de Monsieur Elong Mbassi, ancien coordinateur du
Partenariat pour le Développement Municipal (PDM), lors du séminaire sur la relance de la
politique d’aménagement du territoire en Afrique de l’Ouest et du centre des 12 er 13 mai
2003.

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7
Agossou Noukpo et Tchibozo Eric sont deux enseignants de l’université d’Abomey-Calavi, Ces
expressions ont été employées par chacun d’eux lors des entretiens séparés dans le cadre de
cette recherche.
8
Igué J.O, Conférence de l’UEMOA (Union Monétaire et Economique Ouest-Afriaine) à
Ouagadougou, 2013

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9
Aloko-N’Guessan J. et N’Dahoulé-Yao R., 2010, « La planification urbaine à l’épreuve des
pratiques résidentielles dans la métropole ivoirienne », in Aloko-N’GuessanJ., Diallo A.et
Montcho K. H., 2010, Villes et organisation de l’espace en Afrique, Paris, Karthala, p.57-74.
10
Dubresson A. et Jaglin S., 1993, Pouvoirs et cités d’Afrique noire. Décentralisations en
questions. Karthala.
11
Le constat montre que plusieurs migrants quittent leurs villages d’origine pour la ville de
Cotonou sans jamais passer par les villes secondaires.
12
Cités Unies, 1990, La ville, moteur du développement..., Osmont A., 1995 et2002 ; Cavallier
G., 2002, Gervais-Lambony Ph, 2004, Dubresson A, 2005. On peut consulter également de nombreux
rapports de la Banque Mondiale sur la question urbaine, …

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13
Igué J. O., 2008, Les villes précoloniales d’Afrique noire, Paris, Karthala, 248 p.

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14
Il existe des villes comme Dubaï, Le Caire, Lagos, etc. qui sont pleinement dans le
processus de métropolisation, mais elles sont à une étape de « métropolisation incomplète » ou
de «métropolisation passive». Elles ne remplissent pas encore tous les critères de ce
processus ou traînent encore certaines tares.

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15
Shaw G.B. (1856-1950) cité dans Notre manne quotidienne, 2010, bulletin trimestriel
paraissant à Lagos (Nigeria), vol.11, p.79.
16
Pour Pascal Marchand et Ivan Samson (2003) qui se sont appuyés sur les travaux de deux
historiens F. Braudel (1979) et Jeno Szucs (1985), la métropolisation remonte au Moyen-âge au
temps où la ville de Venise animait un vaste espace commercial dans le monde.

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17
DiopA., 2010, «Les expressions spatiales de la mondialisation. Le commerce chinois à Dakar »
in Malam Moussa, T. A, Soulé B. G.et Afouda A. S., 2010, Echanges et réseaux marchands en
Afrique, Paris Karthala, p.168-189.
18
On peut se référer aux travaux de F. Ascher, 1995, Métapolis ou l’avenir des villes, Paris,
Jacobs.

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19
Concernant cet aspect marginal de la périurbanisation, on peut consulter beaucoup d’auteurs
parmi lesquels Prost B (2001), Yapi-Diahou A. (2003), Mirloup J. (2004), Vanier M. (2008),
etc.
20
La délimitation et le fonctionnement de ces espaces ont fait l’objet de nombreuses études
menées par l’équipe du LARES.

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21
Dubresson A. et Raison J-P, 2003, L’Afrique sud saharienne : une géographie du changement,
Paris, Armand Colin, 245 p.

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Brunet R. et al, 1993, Les mots de la Géographie. Cf. Bibliographie.

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24
Propos recueilli auprès des personnes âgées qui ont vécu l’époque coloniale et pratiqué le
sens historique de métropole.
25
Beaucoup d’autres aspects du développement de ce mot, comme par exemple les métropoles
d’équilibre en France, sont largement débattus dans la thèse de Isabelle Roger, 2007, Les
processus de métropolisation dans les capitales régionales européennes : (agglomération de 500
000 à 1 million d’habitants). Les cas de Bordeaux, Bristol, Montpellier, Saragosse et
Toulouse. Université de Toulouse II Le Mirail, 258 p.
26
Rochefort, M. 1995, « Des métropoles d’équilibre aux métropoles d’aujourd’hui », in
Métropoles en déséquilibre ? Actes du colloque de Lyon de 1990, p.3-8.

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27
Roncayolo M., 1993, « Métropoles : hier et aujourd’hui », in Métropoles en déséquilibre ?
Colloque de Lyon, Economica, p.9-17

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28
Pinchemel P. et G, 1992, La face de la terre, ….
29
Cette notion a été déjà utilisée par Denise Pumain, 1993, « au niveau supérieur d’un réseau
urbain national ou supranational » pour situer le niveau auquel se trouve la métropolisation.

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Saskia Sassen, 1991 ;
31
Pierre Veltz, 1996/2009
32
Pierre Veltz, 1996/2009,
33
Données de l’année 2008 pour Ibadan, Kano, Kumasi. Pour Lomé, 2010 pour l’agglomération,
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34
Citation de Roger(2007), p.14-15. DATAR : Délégation à l’Aménagement du Territoire et à
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35
Pour plus de compréhension, lire Isabelle Roger, 2007, Les processus de métropolisation dans
les capitales régionales européennes : (agglomération de 500 000 à 1 million d’habitants). Les
cas de Bordeaux, Bristol, Montpellier, Saragosse et Toulouse, thèse de doctorat, Université de
Toulouse II Le Mirail, 258 p.
36
Citation de Petit O, 2003, Note de synthèse sur la métropolisation, Centre de Documentation
sur l’Urbanisme, DGUHC, Paris la Défense.
37
J C Bury, 2003, est de la même tendance ; la différence entre ce qu’il dit et ces deux
auteurs est légère et se limite à quelques mots : « La métropolisation est un mouvement qui
transforme les grandes villes en métropoles. »

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38
Cette analyse s’est appuyée sur l’article de Benko G., 2007, « Economie urbaine et régionale
au tournant du siècle », in Métropoles n° 1, Revue électronique, http://metropoles.revues.org.

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39
Citation de Nicole Rousier : Lacour et Puissant, 1999, p.74.
40
Cavallier G., 2002, « Les villes, acteurs de la mondialisation », Ramses, p.107-124, p.113
41
Sur cet aspect on peut consulter A. Osmont, G. Cavallier, R. Escallier, etc.
42
African Perspectives 2011 Conference, the African Metropolis. Appel à contribution au
colloque de Casablanca, Maroc, 2011.

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On peut consulter entre autres documents les publications de : Oatley Nick (2001) :
L’apparition de l’Edge (of) City : quels noms pour les nouveaux espaces urbains ? in Hélène
Rivière D’Arc : Nommer les nouveaux territoires urbains, les mots de la ville, Editions de
l’UNESCO, Editions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, Paris, 279 p. Haumont Nicole, Lévy
Jean-Paul (1998) : La ville éclatée : quartiers et peuplement, L’Harmattan, Paris, etc.

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Ferrier J-P, 2001, « Pour une théorie de la métropolisation », Cahiers de la
métropolisation, 1-2001, p.42,
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Escallier R., 2005, « Métropoles et globalisation dans le monde arabe et méditerranéen »,
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Igué J. O. (1995) a remarqué par exemple que la plupart des « métropoles régionales » ouest-
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Braudel F. (1979) cité par P. Veltz (2009), p.15
58
Parmi ces chercheurs, on peut citer M. Roncayolo (1993), F. Ascher (1995), P. Veltz (2009),
P. Marchand et I. Samson (2003), etc.

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Boiteux-Orain Céline et Huriot Jean-Marie (2000, p.82), Les facteurs de production sont
considérés par ces deux auteurs comme formant la force agglomérative. L’information joue dans
ce cadre un rôle majeur, elle est considérée comme force d’agglomération,

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60
On peut consulter pour les aspects liés au pouvoir financier et à l’ancienneté des
métropoles les auteurs comme Veltz P., 2009 ; Ascher F., 1995 ; Saskia Sassen, 1996, etc.
61
Oyedepo D. O., Conférence sur le leadership, Cotonou le 07/10/2008.

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62
On regroupe sous cette appellation tous les actes posés en vue de favoriser l’économie
métropolitaine : la réorganisation des espaces de services, l’implantation de nouveaux
équipements, les infrastructures de transport, les acteurs économiques, etc.

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63
Sur les zones franches, on peut se référer aux travaux de François Bost : entre autres
Anales de Géographie, Les zones franches, 2007, n° 658, Armand Colin; Atlas mondial des zones
francheset Gervais-Lambony P. et Nyassogbo G., (dir.), 2007, déjà cité.

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64
Lerique Florence, 2010, A l’heure de la métropolisation. Appel à contribution, 2-3 décembre
2010, Université Montesquieu Bordeaux-IV, CERDARE.
65
Bury J.-C., Rapporteur de la commission du Conseil Economique et Social français, a bien
souligné ce fait dans les Notes d’IENA, n° 137, du vendredi 4 avril 2003

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territoires périurbains / Géocarrefour, Volume 76, Numéro 4, p. 319 – 325.
68
Wackemagel M. et Rees W. (1999) Cités par Cavallier G., 2002, Les villes, acteurs de la
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sociopolitiques, p.8

Expression empruntée à Alain Dubresson et Jean-Pierre Raison, 1999, L’Afrique subsaharienne.
Une géographie du changement, Paris, A. Colin, 245 p.

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Moriconi-EbrardF., 1996, Angoisses injustifiées et erreurs des experts. Explosion urbaine, le
sens de la démesure, p.3. Concernant l’aspect rentier, Roland Pourtier prend Brazzaville comme
un cas qui illustre bien ce qui se passe en Afrique : «Au-delà des rivalités entre les
principaux protagonistes entrepreneurs politiques (…) une question de fond se pose désormais :
celle de la viabilité d’une capitale trop longtemps gouvernée par l’utopie rentière»(2000,
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Miossec J-M, 2002, in Cahiers de la Méditerranée, n° 64.Déjà cité.

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Pour la croissance de ces villes coloniales, se référer aux thèses de Sotindjo S. D. (1995),
de Yapi-Diahou A. (2000), de Kassi I. (2007), etc.
78
Avant la construction de cet axe routier qui relie directement Cotonou à Lagos, les gens
passaient par la ville de Porto-Novo pour aller au Nigeria. Cela donnait un poids à la ville
et à son marché. On le verra plus loin au chapitre 4
79
Expression empruntée à Sotindjo, 1999.

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Il semble que la notion de « logique d’axe de retour » ne reflète qu’une partie de la
réalité du phénomène. L’évolution actuelle de la ville de Cotonou permet de dire que chaque
communauté béninoise chercher à marquer sa présence dans la métropole nationale. Ce débat va
être poursuivi dans les chapitres suivants (4 et 5).
83
Il s’agit en fait d’une tendance, Abomey-Calavi étant âprement disputé aujourd’hui, beaucoup
de Béninois s’y installent sans cette considération.

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84
Crozat Dominique, 2000, Bals des villes et bals des champs. Villes, campagnes et périurbain
en France : une approche par la géographie culturelle. In: Annales de Géographie. 2000, t.
109, n°611. p. 43-64.
85
Cela devient de moins en moins évident avec la contestation des parcelles et les recours
fréquents en justice qui finissent souvent par la démolition des habitations ; le ménage se
retrouve du jour au lendemain sans abri. Les projets de lotissement (modèle béninois)
conduisent aussi à cela.

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86
La frontière de l’espace périurbain étant difficile à fixer par son caractère mouvant, il
s’agit surtout de la partie la plus saisissante pour tout observateur du phénomène. Ici les
activités du monde rural s’égalent presque avec celles de la ville.

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87
Ce fait qui devient inquiétant a amené le ministre de la décentralisation à suspendre du 15
mai au 29 juillet 2013 (deux mois et demi), tous les projets de lotissement en cours à Abomey-
Calavi. La commission mise en place continue son travail jusqu’à tout clarifier.
88
Cité par A. Diop, 2008, p.96

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89
Le pré-morcellement, le pré-lotissement, le morcellement privé ou autre sont des expressions
spécifiques au mode de lotissement béninois. Il s’agit des actes posés avant l’opération
officielle de lotissement ; ils permettent aux propriétaires terriens de connaître la
superficie totale de leur domaine, d’en avoir un levé et un plan parcellaire leur permettant
de vendre une partie ou tout le domaine.
90
Les groupes d’opposition qui se forment s’élèvent souvent pour dénoncer la vente qui a été
faite. Mais très souvent parmi les contestataires on retrouve des gens qui avaient apposé
leurs signatures comme témoin de la vente. La contestation prend plusieurs aspects selon les
cas et les milieux. Elle peut venir après la mort du véritable vendeur, soit de
l’administrateur des biens qui n’est pas informé de ce qui s’est passé, soit lui-même cherche
à manipuler les autres et les informations pour vendre la parcelle à son compte, etc.
91
Cette réévaluation consiste à augmenter le prix de la parcelle voire à le doubler et à fixer
des échéances de paiement pour permettre à l’acquéreur de conserver sa parcelle.

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92
Cette affirmation vient du professeur Moudachirou de la Faculté des Sciences et Technologies
de l’Université d’Abomey-Calavi (FAST/UAC) qui a travaillé sur cette espèce végétale. Selon
lui ces espèces végétales sont d’origine asiatique et seraient déposées à cet endroit par les
colons navigateurs.
93
Depuis 1985, le premier juin de chaque année, appelé : « journée nationale de l’arbre »,
est consacré à la mise en terre des plans d’arbre dans tout le pays afin de lutter contre la
déforestation.
94
Le lotissement de ce domaine a été autorisé par le conseil des ministres du 16 décembre 1996
qui en a approuvé le plan directeur connu par la suite sous le nom de Plan d’Aménagement de
Référence d’Abomey-Calavi (PAR). Pour son lotissement, le domaine a été subdivisé en deux
parties : la partie nord et la partie sud.

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Bénin, MEPN/DGE, 68 p.
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ONU-HABITAT & Cities Alliances, 2007, Projet élaboration de la stratégie de développement
urbain de l’agglomération de Cotonou, Abomey-Calavi et Sèmè-Podji, p.45

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99
La pluviométrie varie dans l’ensemble des territoires entre 900 et 1200 mm par an. Et à en
croire le professeur A. Afouda, les pluies de 2010 ne sont pas encore exceptionnelles par
rapport aux autres années.

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100
Selon les spécialistes le niveau maximal des crues varie entre 1,50 et 1,60 mètre.

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101
Cette vitesse varie selon les centres ou les institutions. Pour le projet de lutte contre
l’érosion côtière, elle est de 10 m par an. D’autres rapports d’étude la situent au-delà,
notamment la mairie de Cotonou (16,80m).

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102
Le projet a été évalué au départ à 30 milliards, mais du fait des retards et indécisions
des gouvernants, l’opérateur a dû réévaluer son coût. Il estimé désormais à 45 milliards s’il
n’y a plus de retard et d’autres situations à considérer.

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103
Il faut noter ici que le budget annuel de la mairie de Cotonou tourne autour de 10
milliards de francs CFA par an. Cela est insignifiant donc pour réaliser les ouvrages
nécessaires. En outre, le montant à rechercher a été porté à 400 milliards en 2012 par les
services techniques de la mairie. Il devient ainsi impossible que la municipalité de Cotonou
puisse faire face par elle-même aux problèmes d’assainissement de cette ville.
104
La seconde phase du Projet de Gestion Urbaine Décentralisée (PGUD2) concerne, les villes de
Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Abomey-Calavi, Parakou, Lokossa et Kandi.
105
Les caniveaux à ciel ouvert ne conviennent pas à l’espace urbanisé parce qu’ils sont
sources de nombreux accidents et sont vite remplis de déchets pourtant c’est cela que la
plupart des entreprises réalisent.

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106
Ce propos a été tenu lors d’un débat à la télévision nationale organisé juste après la
construction de l’autoroute Etoile Rouge-Stade de l’Amitié. A cette époque, les riverains
utilisaient le terre-plein central et les trottoirs pour sécher les produits vivriers. Il est
impossible aujourd’hui de faire cela sur cette voie, mais de nombreux faits et gestes
trahissent le comportement rural de certaines personnes, y compris de cadres intellectuels
vivant à Cotonou.

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107
Notons que la décharge finale était à Hèvié (Abomey-Calavi) à 20 km de Cotonou mais elle a
été abandonnée au profit du site actuel.

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Ce centre installé par la communauté catholique dans le village Tohouè (commune de Sèmè-
Podji) gérait les ordures des deux principales villes du Bénin Porto-Novo et Cotonou. Il
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financement ou pour d’autres appuis leurs projets de gestion de l’environnement à leurs
partenaires avec lesquels elles sont en coopération décentralisée.

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110
Données de l’INSAE et l’ONU. Pour l’année 2020, l’INSAE retient 46% alors que pour l’ONU,
on aurait 48% de population urbaine. La tendance actuelle, avec la poussée des périphéries,
incite à prendre 48%. En outre, la tendance donnée pour 2006 est largement en dessous de la
réalité.
111
Cette tendance ne va pas être renversée, elle confirme plutôt ce qui se passe sur
l’ensemble de la planète. Selon l’ONU citée par Philip S. Golub(2010) « Pour la première fois
de l’histoire humaine, la part de la population mondiale vivant dans des agglomérations
urbaines a dépassé, en 2007-2008, celle de la population vivant dans les zones rurales.
Désormais, plus de 3,3 milliards de personnes habitent en ville, dont plus de 500 millions
dans des mégapoles de plus de 10 millions d’habitants ou de très grandes villes de plus de
5 millions d’habitants. Selon les prévisions de l’Organisation des Nations unies (ONU), le
taux d’urbanisation mondial va s’accroître considérablement au cours des prochaines décennies,
atteignant 59,7 % en 2030 et 69,6 % en 2050 ; les centres urbains anciens et nouveaux vont
absorber l’essentiel de la croissance démographique à venir. » In «Des cités-Etats à la
ville globale »,Le Monde Diplomatique, avril 2010, p.20-21.
112
Gossé Marc, 2000 : « La crise mondiale de l’urbanisme. Quels modèles urbains ? » In Les
Annales de la Recherche Urbaine n° 86, 0180-930-VI-00/86/p. 85-91.

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113
Todjinou, Jean-Bosco, 2008, « Plaidoyer pour l’avènement d’une architecture et d’un
urbanisme durables au Bénin » in Ordre national des architectes et urbanistes du Bénin, 2008,
25ème anniversaire : 1983-2008 », Cotonou, 50 p. Au moment où il écrivait cet article, Monsieur
Jean-Bosco Todjinou était encore président de cet Ordre.

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114
L’indépendance du Bénin est obtenue le 1er août 1960.

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115
Théoriquement, l’Etat est propriétaire de toutes les terres au Bénin, mais les faits
prouvent que cela n’est pas vrai puisque à chaque moment où il faudra trouver un domaine pour
implanter un équipement public, il faut toujours négocier âprement et dédommager les
propriétaires, ceux qui sont reconnus par le droit coutumier comme propriétaires terriens. De
plus et au regard des conséquences (processus de lotissement complexe et long, affairisme
fonciers, conflits, etc.) qui découlent de l’existence sur un même territoire de deux droits
fonciers (modernes et coutumiers) on est en droit de se poser la question. Cette
reconnaissance du droit foncier coutumier était-elle opportune ou non ? «Les deux régimes de
droit foncier se fondent sur : (i) le droit dit moderne qui donne lieu à la délivrance de
titres fonciers (TF) - régime de l’immatriculation fondé sur la loi n°65-25 du 14 août 1965
portant régime de la propriété foncière au Bénin - ou de permis d’habiter (PH) - fondé sur la
loi n°60-20 du 13 Juillet 1960 portant régime du permis d’habiter - et (ii) le régime dit
coutumier. Seul le régime de l’immatriculation foncière confère au détenteur d’un titre
foncier le droit de propriété au sens absolu» Cities-Alliance et Serhau-sem.

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socialistes, s’était attribué (…) des prérogatives étendues qui laissaient peu de place à
l’initiative privée dans la production et la gestion des espaces urbains » (Mbow, 1992, p.6).
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116
La politique de la fête tournante consistait en l’organisation de la fête nationale à tour
de rôle dans une des villes secondaires, chef-lieu de province. Son objectif était de relever
le niveau d’équipement de ces villes secondaires pour leur permettre de jouer leur rôle
d’encadrement. Pour ce faire, l’organisation de la fête représentait une occasion pour
apporter de réponse à tel et tel autre problème d’infrastructures voire administratif.

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117
Depuis le renouveau démocratique, l’appellation province a laissé place au département,
actuellement en usage pour qualifier le deuxième échelon d’organisation territoriale et
administrative du Bénin.
118
Ces anciennes communes ont été transformées en arrondissements depuis la loi sur la
décentralisation de 1999.
119
Bien qu’on soit dans une situation de centralisation du pouvoir, il n’y a pas eu de
coordination des actions urbaines parce que 1) l’objectif était seulement de quadriller le
territoire et de contrôler les citoyens, 2) cette politique ne semble pas percevoir la gestion
urbaine dans ce sens car les actions significatives étaient déterminées et exécutées à un
niveau très haut.

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la mise en place, HQdes structures et un dispositif capables d’exécuter cette politique.
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120
Au départ de cette politique, il y avait des sociétés nationales et des sociétés
provinciales. Il s’agit entre autres de la Société Nationale de Gestion Immobilière (SONAGIM),
la Société de Construction et de Gestion Immobilière (SOCOGIM), de la Société Provinciale de
Gestion Immobilière (SOPROGIM), etc.
121
GIGGS, mot qui serait d’origine allemande que très peu de gens arrivent à définir. Tout ce
qu’on sait est qu’il a été appliqué au projet de schéma de structure de Cotonou. C’est
pourquoi quand on parle de plan GIGGS, on sait qu’il s’agit de Cotonou et de sa proche
périphérie.

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122
La SBEE est depuis 2005 appelée Société Béninoise d’Energie Electrique. En effet, elle a
perdu le secteur de l’eau au profit de la SONEB (société nationale des eaux du Bénin).
123
Ces sept villes sont Porto-Novo, Abomey, Lokossa, Natitingou, Parakou, Bohicon et Djougou.
Elles ont bénéficié à travers le PUB des premiers plans/schémas directeurs réalisés dans le
pays.
124
Aux dires de certains acteurs de cette période, le contenu de ce schéma a été contesté par
les spécialistes ; il ne serait pas accepté comme plan directeur qui attend toujours d’être
réalisé.

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On en est arrivé à ce pourcentage sur la base des informations recueillies auprès des
personnes ressources qui connaissent plus ou moins bien l’ancienne limite de l’université.
L’utilisation du logiciel Auto CAD et des plans d’état des lieux de lotissement a permis de
déterminer par la suite la superficie perdue ou restante.

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126
Par exemple, certains riverains sont prêts aujourd’hui à creuser des trous et à mettre des
barrières pour empêcher d’autres usagers de passer sous prétexte qu’ils endommagent la rue du
quartier ou font trop de vitesse. Pendant la saison des pluies, outre les barrières, ils
mettent des tessons de brique, des déchets dans l’eau stagnée sur la rue pour rendre le
passage difficile. Lorsqu’un usager tombe dans ce piège, ils exigent qu’il paie avant de lui
venir en aide pour sortir sa voiture, engin, etc. D’autres vont ramasser des ordures qu’ils
déposent sur la berge afin de repousser l’eau. Ils y construisent leur habitat, quitte à crier
au secours à la première pluie ….

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Quelques mois avant la tenue de la conférence le gouvernement a assoupli sa position
politique en abandonnant le marxisme-léninisme et en faisant une rupture entre le parti
politique et l’Etat. Après la conférence le libéralisme économique a été choisi avec la
démocratie comme régime politique.

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128
« La prime à la démocratie » est une expression apparue au lendemain de la Conférence
Nationale des Forces Vives de la Nation de février 1990. Les bailleurs de fonds ou les pays
qui lui ont accordé cette prime encourageaient alors les Béninois pour la réussite de cette
conférence et pour leur choix courageux …
129
Nous n’avons pas pu dégager dans ce volume financier la part qui revient à la métropole et
aux autres villes bénéficiaires. Il faut noter que pendant cette période, il y a eu plusieurs
programmes dont celui de la relance du secteur privé géré dans les ministères. Ces programmes
ont des impacts sur la vie des citadins et des acteurs économiques qu’il est difficile de
mesurer par des chiffres.

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130
La SERHAU, au départ, Service d’Etudes Régionales d’Habitat et d’Aménagement Urbain est
aujourd’hui Société d’Etudes Régionales d’Habitat et d’Aménagement Urbain. C’est à ce titre
qu’elle est appelée La SERHAU. Outre le passage du statut de service à celui de société, la
SERHAU a pris successivement, au cours de cette période les noms de SERHAU-SA et de SERHAU-
SEM.
131
AGETUR, Agence d’Exécution des Travaux Urbains, joue le rôle de maître d’ouvrage délégué se
situant entre l’Etat et les entreprises exécutantes. Ce modèle de dispositif a été multiplié
dans les villes/pays d’Afrique de l’Ouest dans les années 1990.

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132
Pour les détails de ces projets, on peut se référer également à Chabi M., 2010,
« Périurbanisation et nouvelle structuration spatiale de l’agglomération de Cotonou : le cas
d’Abomey-Calavi » p.105-123. In Aloko-N’Guessan J. et al (sous la dir.), Villes et
organisation de l’espace en Afrique, Paris, Karthala, p226 ou au mémoire de fin de formation
de Zitti E, UAC, 2008. Le chiffre est obtenu à partir du cumul des superficies mises en étude
de lotissement dans chacune des deux communes pendant cette période.

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133
Plusieurs membres de l’ordre des architectes et urbanistes béninois reconnaissent qu’il n’y
a pas de pensée urbaine béninoise et presque pas de réflexion stratégique sur la métropole ou
la ville béninoise en général. Christel Alvergne-Latouche va plus loin : rares sont les
urbanistes africains qui publient dans les revues internationales, expression d’une absence de
pensée urbaine. De plus, elle constate que dans le continent les « transformations d’ordre
géographique ne s’accompagnent pas de réforme institutionnelle, ni même de réflexion sur les
échelles adéquates du développement. » (2006, p.2).

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On peut lire à ce propos Igué J.O., 2008, Les villes précoloniales d’Afrique noire,
Karthala, 228 p. En outre, les Yoruba, les Goun et les Fon sont ceux qui peuplent l’espace
métropolitain.

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137
Propos tenus à Lokossa et à Porto-Novo où le président était en tournée. Ces propos ont été
plusieurs fois repris par ses partisans et ses ministres autant à Cotonou que dans d’autres
localités pour mettre en exergue leur capacité à réaliser des infrastructures imposantes et à
construire le Bénin.
138
La première déclaration a été faite lors du dîner que le Président a organisé avec les
acteurs du port de Cotonou le 29/01/09. La seconde déclaration est intervenue le jeudi
27/01/11 lors de la rencontre qui a eu lieu à la présidence avec les transporteurs, un des
principaux groupes d’acteurs du port. Cette rencontre faisait suite à des décisions
contradictoires prises par le gouvernement et qui avaient entraîné deux mois d’arrêt de
travail. Une telle action est un ‘’drame’’ à Cotonou qui voit toutes les rues occuper par les
gros porteurs réduisant les voies au strict minimum avec de fréquents accidents et
ralentissement de certaines activités.
139
Le président Yayi sous-entend ici l’espace portuaire béninois (la métropole) exploité par
beaucoup de pays voisins. Mais il est fréquemment bloqué par des crises mettant en difficultés
les transporteurs et les opérateurs économiques de ces pays.

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140
Le président Boni Yayi s’est effectivement investi en 2007 pour résoudre les problèmes
d’inondation à Cotonou. Accompagné des bailleurs de fonds et des membres du conseil communal
de Cotonou, il a visité la majorité des sites inondés et rendu visite aux victimes. L’armée
est intervenue dans de nombreux cas avec des engins lourds pour évacuer l’eau. Il en attendait
certainement une récompense politique qui ne s’était pas concrétisée.
141
Rapport d’étude conduite par CRDEL, PCUG3C et LEDUR, 2010, p.56

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Ces remarques portent sur au moins trois zones différentes Lerique (France), Dubresson
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On peut citer entre autres Jérôme Chenal (2009), Philippe Gervais-Lambony(2004), Alain
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Il s’agit par exemple de l’arrêté n°0023 MEHU/DC/DU/ du 22 octobre 1996. Selon l’ancien
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cette loi, aucun lotissement réalisé n’a respecté le processus tel qu’il y est demandé.
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équipements communautaires et de la voirie. De ce fait, la pression est énorme sur le
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Mairie de Cotonou, 2008, Plan de développement de la ville de Cotonou, Cotonou, p.221.

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Il existe une Déclaration de Politique Nationale de Mobilité Urbaine et son décret
d’application datant de juillet 2004

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154
INSAE pour les taxis-villes, pour les taxis-moto, Agossou N.A (1998) et Bulletin Villes en
développement, n°77, septembre 2007, mairies. Les différences remarquées entre les chiffres
donnés montrent que le domaine des taxis motos n’est pas encore totalement maîtrisé.

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Pour les années 2006 et 2011, il s’agit des effectifs de l’agglomération de Cotonou, mis en
cause par la mairie qui estime que les anciens enregistrements sont encore pris en compte sans
séparer ceux qui ont abandonné ce travail ou qui sont morts. Elle entend revoir sa méthode de
travail pour mieux maîtriser ce domaine.

Le cas de Porto-Novo est encore plus complexe. Un travail de terrain réalisé sous la
responsabilité de Agossou N. A. a permis d’avoir en 1997 un effectif de 5456 zemijan. Mais
chaque matin des conducteurs de taxis-motos viennent des cinq communes qui entourent Porto-
Novo. En dehors d’eux, de nombreux artisans et autres exercent cette activité aux heures
creuses ou quand ils sont en difficulté financière. Ces derniers portent de maillot sans aucun
numéro, ou avec un faux numéro, etc. Ainsi, en réalité la mairie de Porto-Novo n’a pas
aujourd’hui les moyens lui permettant de connaître l’effectif des zemijan de son territoire.
157
Le nouveau maillot est jaune accompagné de vert olive suivi du numéro d’enregistrement à la
mairie d’Abomey-Calavi. Cela est devenu nécessaire pour la mairie parce que beaucoup de
zemijan se font enregistrer à Cotonou ou utilisent un numéro en circulation à Cotonou pour
travailler dans cette commune sans rien payer.

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158
Ce montant à verser tient compte de plusieurs facteurs : moto neuve avec toutes les pièces,
moto neuve sans pièce, moto déjà mise en circulation, capacité motrice de l’engin, la durée du
contrat. Ce montant varie également avec le temps et les coûts d’achat de la moto. Ainsi, il
est passé en moyenne de 2 500 f par semaine à 5 000 et 9 000 f CFA aujourd’hui.

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Le pays Agonli concerne les communes de Ouinhi, Zagnanado et de Covè situé entre 100 et 140
km de Cotonou. Le plateau de Kétou se trouve entre 100 et 130 km de Cotonou. Pour ces deux
régions géographiques se référer à la première carte (situation de la zone d’étude).

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Propos de M. Jean S. Agossou, urbaniste à l’ex-DUA (Direction de l’Urbanisme et de
l’Assainissement), ancien secrétaire général de l’ordre des architectes et urbanistes du
Bénin, il est le principal acteur du projet de Grand-Cotonou. Il n’est toujours pas d’accord
de changer l’appellation Grand-Cotonou pour lui donner Grand-Nokoué.
165
Il s’agit par exemple du Grand-Abidjan, de Greater-Accra, du Greater-Lomé, de Greater-
Lagos, etc. Du Grand-Lyon, du Grand-Paris, etc. villes qui sont généralement en coopération
décentralisée avec leurs homologues ouest-africaines.

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Il existe à Porto-Novo comme dans la plupart des localités du Bénin une association des
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167
Josse G. et al, septembre 2007, « Bénin : appuyer l’intercommunalité et la création d’une
structure d’agglomération à Cotonou » p.4-5, In Villes en développement, bulletin de la
coopération française n°77.

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171
Les expressions commerce parallèle, clandestin ou informel sont empruntés à John. O. Igué
(1976, 1983, 1992, etc.) pour décrire le type de commerce entretenu par une partie de la
population entre le Nigeria et le Bénin.
172
Le LARES estime que 60à 75% des produits importés au port de Cotonou est réexporté au
Nigeria.

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173
Les Yoruba nigérians qui sont au Bénin sont l’un des rares groupes à n’avoir pas
d’association. Ce type de regroupement ne les arrangerait pas dans un pays où ils se
confondent aux citoyens béninois.

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174
Certains aménagistes et urbanistes pensent que le site de Sèmè-Podji où sont prévus le port
et la ZFI est surchargé et mal placé pour accueillir ces équipements. D’abord, la ZFI se fonde
sur l’axe Cotonou-Lagos qui reste une zone d’intense trafic, peu appropriée pour ce faire car
les poids lourds auront à faire avec toutes sortes de transport. Ensuite, la question se pose
quant à son choix pour accueillir le second port : « comment allez-vous rejeter vos problèmes
sur le territoire de votre voisin (le Nigeria) quand on pense à l’érosion côtière causée par
le port ?»
175
Igué et Soulé, 1992 ; Dorier-Apprill et Domingo, 2004.

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176
On peut se référer aux travaux de John O. Igué et de l’équipe du LARES. Ce circuit
s’appuyait sur quelques localités frontalières comme Mèdedjonou, Adjarra, Ponto, etc. et sur
le grand marché de Porto-Novo. On se rappellera également du circuit fluvial Lagos-Porto-Novo
qui se termine par un port à la lagune de Porto-Novo.

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177
Il est très difficile à l’heure actuelle de pouvoir apprécier le volume ou la valeur
respective des trafics ou des transactions commerciales en direction de Porto-Novo du fait de
la manière dont les commerçants procèdent. D’abord, les moyens de transport utilisés sont de
toutes catégories (voitures privées, taxis, camionnettes et camions voire des motos) selon
qu’ils veuillent garder la discrétion. Ensuite, les marchandises venues du Nigeria sont
toujours mélangées avec celles venues du marché international avant d’être envoyées à Porto-
Novo : ils ne permettent donc pas d’apprécier les trafics. Même les Nigérians qui sont à
Porto-Novo procèdent de la sorte afin de maintenir la discrétion et d’éviter le regard des
officiels. Dès leur arrivée à Porto-Novo, certains produits sont directement envoyés dans les
chambres à coucher et parfois sous le lit du commerçant.

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178
La construction de l’autoroute n’est pas la seule cause. La ville capitale a été dépouillée
de tous les équipements et attributs qui pouvaient faire d’elle la métropole nationale.

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179
Agossou, N. A., 2010, « La problématique du développement équilibré entre villes et
campagnes en Afrique : le cas du Bénin » p.167-177, in Aloko-N’Guessan J., Diallo A.et Montcho
K. H., 2010, Villes et organisation de l’espace en Afrique, Paris, Karthala, 226 p.
180
Le plan de lotissement a permis de dénombrer les ilots, de dégager les secteurs de la ville
où il ne peut y avoir d’entrepôt. On a par exemple la présidence de la République et tout ce
qui l’entoure, les quartiers administratifs, les quartiers spécifiquement résidentiels comme
la Patte d’Oie. Par contre, il y a des parties où on peut avoir deux à cinq entrepôts voire
plus par ilot. C’est le cas du marché Dantokpa. Après ce travail et comparativement aux
témoignages, on peut estimer en moyenne quatre entrepôts pour cinq ilots. En outre, il faut
signaler que la construction de ce type d’équipement continue dans la ville et surtout dans sa
périphérie.
181
Les parcs de véhicules d’occasion, qu’ils soient à Cotonou ou dans les communes
périphériques, ne sont pas pris en compte ici.

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Ces superficies ne prennent pas en compte les nouvelles extensions au port. Dans ce cadre,
nous avons signalé que la SOBEMAP a procédé à l’agrandissement de son espace d’accueil qui
passe à treize hectares. Mais cet espace est à ciel ouvert comme les parcs de véhicules
d’occasion.

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Plusieurs commerçants qui font des affaires entre le Bénin et le Nigeria utilisent beaucoup
d’astuces pour éviter le regard des gangs, la douane ou la police. Le sac ou le sachet
ordinaire en est une. Les commerçants y mettent des liasses de billets de banque pour faire
leur trajet. Les commerçants yoruba appellent ceux-là : Olowo inu ora(celui qui a sa fortune
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185
Igué J. O., 1996, «L’économie béninoise sous-ajustement structurel : bilan et
perspectives», p.10-30 in, Anonyme : L’économie béninoise sous-ajustement structurel. Quelques
questions cruciales et perspectives. Cotonou, Friedrich Ebert, 227 p. Document préparatoire de
la conférence économique nationale de 1996
186
Depuis 2006 le président Boni Yayi a créé un ministère de la microfinance. Cet appui
politique suscite à la fois beaucoup d’intérêt et de désordre dont par exemple ‘’la Bernard
Madoff ‘’à la béninoise. La plupart des institutions opérant dans ce domaine n’ont pas
d’agrément (donc une sorte d’informel !).

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187
Il s’agit entre autres de la Fédération des Caisses d’Epargne et de Crédit Agricole Mutuel
(FECECAM), de l’Association pour la Promotion et l’Appui au Développement des Micro
Entreprises (PADME), de l’Association pour la Promotion et l’Appui aux Petites et Moyennes
Entreprises (PAPME), de financial et développement (FINADEV), de Vital finances, etc.
188
Document de travail de la BAD, 2012.

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189
L’équipe du LARES distingue trois sous-espaces économiques en Afrique de l’Ouest : le sous-
espace est (centré sur le Nigeria), le sous-espace centre (centré sur le Ghana et la Côte
d’Ivoire) et le sous-espace ouest (centré sur le Sénégal).
190
La plupart des ports et des villes ouest-africaines présentent pratiquement les mêmes
arguments pour attirer vers eux les pays de l’hinterland. De ce fait, on se doit d’aller plus
loin et d’apprécier autrement les facteurs pour éviter le déterminisme.

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191
Ce qui tient lieu de plan directeur ici est appelé plan d’aménagement de référence, adopté
par le conseil des ministres en sa séance du 17 décembre 1997. Il couvre une superficie de
8000 hectares.
192
ATRAL : Agence de Transit et de Logistique. C’est une entreprise privée qui sert de relais
pour permettre aux opérateurs venant du nord du pays de limiter leur trajet et leurs
difficultés d’entrer au port.

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les jours du marché. En introduisant les ilots d’habitation transformés en boutiques ou en
magasins, on avoisine 30 ha.

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Ismaël Kèko du journal La Nouvelle Tribune du 29/06/12. Le coût de location d’une place
varierait de 10000, 15000 à 75000 F CFA selon les zones, soit 14 à 100 fois inférieur au coût
réel pratiqué par les acteurs. Une de nos informatrices nous dit qu’il n’est même plus
possible de trouver aujourd’hui une place à moins de 3 millions à Dantokpa. Elle a été témoin
de la vente d’une place à 35 millions en 2011.
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Cité par Alvergne-Latouche, PDM, p.7

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Perspectives à long terme, Bénin Alafia 2025.
197
On estime à plus de 200 milliards de francs CFA la dette de Bénin Télécoms SA sans jamais
fonctionner ou réellement exploiter ses potentialités.
198
Ces neuf opérateurs se présentent comme suit : Bénin Télécoms SA, OTI, Isocel, Connecteo,
Alink Telecoms, Euphorbia, Moov, MTN, Glo Mobile (Information de l’autorité de régulation).

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199
Chabossou A. F., Loukpè, S. M., Zolikpo L.E., 2010, Les télécommunications au Bénin : bilan
et perspectives, Cotonou. Rapport commandité par le Conseil d’Analyse Economique, 63p.
200
Annuaire statistique de l’Autorité Transitoire de Régulation des Postes et
Télécommunications, 2011. Il s’agit aussi de la situation du pays
201
Il faut souligner ici qu’une personne a en moyenne deux abonnements
202
MPDEPP-CAG/INSAE, 2010, Les entreprises des TIC au Bénin, 2e recensement des entreprises,
MCA/CDD, 25 p.

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Il s’agit ici des différences de politiques économiques et monétaires entre le Bénin et le
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204
Bernard Hadjadj, 1992, préface de : Igué et Soulé, 1992, L’Etat-entrepôt au Bénin. Commerce
informel ou solution à la crise ? 210 p.
205
En mai 2012, dans le cadre du système de guichet unique, la nouvelle démarche à adopter a
été rendue publique. Elle entend corriger les imperfections qui existent. Mais les gens disent
que plusieurs situations de ce genre ont été présentées sans être respectées. En fait, ils ne
croient plus tellement à l’administration ou à ses dirigeants.

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206
On dirait que c’est en 2012 que cette conclusion est tirée, mais plutôt il y a vingt ans.
Probablement, la situation s’est davantage dégradée. En effet, le vide constaté au port est
alarmant. Un agent du Conseil National de Chargeurs du Bénin (CNCB) a pu dire : « Il n’y a
plus de bateau au port, on ne voit que les mouvements des vagues ». En outre, la fuite des
opérateurs économiques vers d’autres villes du Golfe de Guinée n’est pas négligeable non plus.
Que faudra-t-il écrire aujourd’hui donc ?
207
Par exemple, un des ambassadeurs d’Allemagne près le Bénin est allé plus loin en allant
voir le président de l’Assemblée Nationale en 2008 pour demander aux députés de prendre leurs
responsabilités sur la question des impôts qui empêchent les entreprises de s’installer dans
le pays. Les députés ont trouvé qu’il s’agit là d’une ingérence dans les affaires intérieures
et des propos graves. Le remous que cela a suscité au sein de la classe politique a précipité
son départ. Pourtant, il révélait les failles du système de production béninois.

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208
Voir les travaux de l’équipe du LARES, particulièrement ceux de J.O. Igué pour tout ce qui
concerne les réseaux formel et informel, d’importation et de réexportation. Ce modèle basé sur
la relation ethnique se fragilise de plus en plus du fait de l’implication des hommes
politiques dans le jeu économique pour faciliter la voie aux uns et la rendre difficile aux
autres.

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PADME : Programme de Développement des Moyennes Entreprises ; PAPME : Programme d’Appui aux
Petites et Moyennes Entreprises ; CLCAM : Caisse Locale de Crédit Agricole et Mutuel.

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210
L’histoire de certaines personnes que nous avons écoutées est parfois émouvante quand elles
racontent leurs conditions de vie. Par exemple, un homme âgé de 77 ans, retraité des TP, s’est
installé à Togoudo le 02 septembre 1982. Le secteur était encore une brousse, on pouvait donc
compter du regard le nombre de maisons bâties. Il a attendu que le lotissement se fasse, mais
n’a vu la fin de son attente que le 04 juillet 2012 (Cependant il devra attendre trois mois
encore pour être confirmé et pour avoir toutes les pièces). C’est dire qu’il a passé trente
ans à attendre, en dehors de celui qu’il a passé pour acheter la parcelle et construire.
Aujourd’hui vieux, il ne peut pratiquement plus jouir des avantages du lotissement. Cependant,
il se sent soulagé…

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211
Ce qui tient lieu d’élément d’amélioration est le passage en 2011 de motos à deux temps aux
motos à quatre temps.

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Les frais administratifs nécessaires pour arriver à mettre une activité en place sont au
minimum 202 000 f CFA soit 4 à 7 fois le montant des prêts accordés actuellement.

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213
La remarque suivante en dit long sur la question : « Au regard des critères internationaux
comme les indicateurs de "Doing Business" de la Société financière internationale ou ceux
portant sur la compétitivité globale du "Global Competitiveness Index", le Bénin est classé
parmi les 20 derniers pays en 2007. En effet, l'environnement des affaires et la gouvernance
demeurent un vrai défi puisque, selon le classement de « Doing Business », le pays a reculé de
12 places en un an, en passant de 157een 2008 à 169ème en 2009. Au Bénin, il faut en moyenne
410 jours pour obtenir des autorités administratives licences et permis divers alors qu'il ne
faut que 271 jours en Afrique subsaharienne. Cette dégradation augmente substantiellement le
coût des affaires au Bénin et semble indiquer une augmentation de la corruption. Il faut près
de 4 ans, largement au-delà de la moyenne des 3,4 ans en Afrique subsaharienne, pour solder
ses comptes en cas de fermeture d'une entreprise au Bénin. Sur ce plan aussi, le Bénin a
reculé de 21 places en 2009 par rapport à son classement de 2008. » p.2, Chabossou A, 2010,
Revue de Performance du Secteur Des TIC Benin 2009/2010, CRDI, 20p.

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Il y a des dynamiques privées qui ne résultent pas d’un dysfonctionnement du système
officiel, raison pour laquelle nous avons préféré dire «en grande partie». Pour certains (H.
de Soto), il s’agirait même de l’archétype du capitalisme à l’état « pur ».

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Vu les formes allongées des parcelles à Cotonou, il est presque impossible de réaliser un
tel ouvrage sur une parcelle de 500 m². De plus, les prix d’un appartement de quatre pièces se
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BCEAO: Banque centrale des Etats de l’Afrique de l’Ouest, SONACOP : Société Nationale pour
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Le mot yoruba correspondant est : isilé, qui est l’intégration dans la nouvelle maison.
Dans les villes yoruba, elle se traduit toujours par de grandes réjouissances offertes par le
propriétaire de la maison.
221
Cette phrase signifie : « Il a construit une maison qui dépasse l’entendement ». Ici
transparaît l’idée d’une comparaison avec d’autres exemples antérieurs pour parfois dire que
celui-ci vient de faire plus que ce que nous avons vu jusque-là.
222
Cette phrase signifie à la fois l’accomplissement d’un vœu et le constat que : « Il a
construit maison sur maisons ». Il a construit plusieurs maisons.
223
Prière pour demander qu’ « Il construise maison sur maison »

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Steck J-F, 2005, «Abidjan et le Plateau : quels modèles urbains pour la vitrine du
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Beaucoup d’entre ces personnes contournent les impôts et taxes qui devraient permettre à
l’Etat ou la mairie d’assurer les services d’entretien. Rappelons-nous aussi de ce que nous
avons dit au premier chapitre (modèle rentier), des individus qui se trouvent plus puissants
que la puissance publique.
227
Maurice Blanc est l’un des tenants de cette école. De plus, la question de la participation
a occupé les débats autant dans les milieux scientifiques que politiques dans les années 1968-
70 et 1990. On a alors parlé de la démocratie participative qui a rejailli sur les questions
urbaines.

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228
Pumain D. et Gaudin J-P, «Systèmes de villes et pouvoir. L’analyse de Giovanni Botero à
l’époque de la Renaissance», Cybergeo : European Journal of Geography, mis en ligne le 14
novembre 2002. URL : http://cybergeo.revues.org/index1836.html

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Ce constat a été fait par un sociologue béninois lors d’un entretien à la télévision
nationale du Bénin (ORTB).
230
Selon Sophie Dulucq, la plupart des nouveaux dirigeants francophones n’avaient pas assez de
marge de manœuvre dans la gestion de leurs villes afin de bien équilibrer le territoire. Ils
avaient pour conseillers des Français laissés par l’administration coloniale ou délégués par
la métropole (Paris). Voici ce qu’elle en dit : « A la lumière de ce qui s’était passé dans
les deux décennies précédentes, ils mirent en garde les nouveaux responsables politiques
‘’contre un développement urbain trop rapide et trop coûteux’’ et réclamèrent l’intégration
des plans d’urbanisme dans un programme d’aménagement régional et national. Ils insistèrent
également sur la nécessité de l’association entre croissance urbaine et croissance rurale »
Sophie Dulucq, La France et les villes d’Afrique noire francophone, p.59.

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Selon Sébastien D. Sotindjo (199, p.93), « Le gouverneur Merwalt (1911-1912) fut le premier
à se pencher sur la question du transfert de la capitale de Porto-Novo à Cotonou. Il mit, à
cet effet, sur pied une commission chargée de trancher le débat sur le choix de la capitale
entre les deux villes pour mettre fin aux hésitations. » Les deux villes sont Cotonou et
Porto-Novo.

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232
Le premier traité de protectorat a été signé en 1863 sous le règne du roi Sôdji. Il tentait
de mettre fin aux velléités de conquête de la ville par les Britanniques en 1861. Le second,
sous le règne du roi Toffa a été signé le 14 avril 1882, matérialise la présence de
l’administration coloniale française.
233
En dehors des rapports commerciaux et des écrits, il y avait de nombreux pasteurs et
missionnaires britanniques qui dirigeaient les églises et évangélisaient la population.
Beaucoup d’entre eux ont été tués ou jetés dans le fleuve.
234
Comme colonies françaises en Afrique de l’ouest ayant un regard sur la mer, on peut citer
Sénégal (Dakar), Guinée (Conakry), Côte-d’Ivoire (Abidjan), Togo (Lomé), etc. Au-delà, le même
principe s’applique Algérie (Alger), Tunisie (Tunis), Gabon (Libreville),…

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Et c’est justement par la révolte venue de Porto-Novo que Maga avait été renvoyé du
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236
Abomey est considérée comme la capitale historique du Bénin. C’est la capitale du royaume
qui porte ce nom et d’où sont sortis plusieurs rois de renom. Le territoire du royaume
s’étendait du plateau d’Abomey jusqu’à la mer (Cotonou et Ouidah) comme nous l’avons vu au
second chapitre.

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Ces spécialistes sont les urbanistes et architectes du ministère de l’urbanisme et surtout
ceux qui ont en charge le programme de réhabilitation de la ville de Porto-Novo.

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Selon Sébastien D. Sotindjo (1995/2009) la croissance démographique fulgurante de Cotonou
(8,3%) était telle que l’Etat-lotisseur a été obligé de lotir de 1976 à1985 la moitié de la
superficie constructible de Cotonou (46,64%). C’est pendant cette décennie que Cotonou est
devenue ‘’la ville du Bénin, une métropole nationale’’. La borne 1891 marque le début des
travaux de construction du Wharf ; ces travaux ont nécessité le recrutement de plusieurs
ouvriers venus des autres localités.

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Agossou N.A, 2010, « La problématique du développement équilibré entre villes et campagnes
en Afrique : le cas du Bénin » p.167-177, in Aloko-N’GuessanJ., Diallo A.et Montcho K. H.,
2010, Villes et organisation de l’espace en Afrique, Paris, Karthala, 226 p.

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Propos recueillis soit lors des réunions de travail et/ou de la bouche de certaines
personnes entendues. Par exemple concernant le programme spécial de réhabilitation de la ville
de Porto-Novo, beaucoup de cadres et élus ont estimé qu’un programme de ce genre doit être
réalisé pour Abomey et Parakou et probablement dans les chefs-lieux de département. Abomey a
pu obtenir le sien.

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Les Aïnonvi sont des princes et princesses de Porto-Novo. Notion qui s’élargit aux natifs
goun de cette ville.
243
Le PRD (Parti du Renouveau Démocratique) à travers lequel la plupart des Aïnonvi
s’expriment, fait et défait ses alliances politiques. Il s’est allié même avec ses anciens
‘’ennemis’’ afin de trouver le chemin qui mène au pouvoir d’Etat. On croit ici que tous les
problèmes de Porto-Novo trouveront solution quand un de ses fils accèdera au pouvoir d’Etat.

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244
Le manque de stratégie n’est seulement pas le fait de l’affection ou de la désaffection,
elle peut être aussi le reflet de l’incompétence des acteurs.
245
François Thomas, 2002. Il s’agit de son enseignement sur La morphologie urbaine à
l’Institut d’Urbanisme de Lyon.
246
Rappelons-nous ici du dicton qui dit : «On ne mobilise quelqu’un que sur la base de ses
intérêts » afin d’apprécier davantage le sens de ce débat.
247
Les projets dont j’ai connaissance concernent la mairie de Cotonou qui vient de faire
aboutir son projet de transport urbain, la mairie d’Abomey-Calavi qui a confié à un architecte
le projet ; Abomey-Calavi : ville d’avenir et le projet d’appui à l’agglomération de Cotonou
(PAACO) qui couvre trois communes (cf. chapitre3).
248
J’ai été témoin des cas où les bailleurs se sont énervés parce que le projet pour lequel on
les a invités est encore à l’étape d’idée, pas d’étude de faisabilité, pas de budget, etc.
Mais pour l’élu, l’objectif est atteint du fait d’avoir réussi à faire venir une équipe de
bailleurs dans sa commune.

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Ici comme ailleurs, le pronom personnel j’exprime un engagement tout à fait personnel.

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Le nom Agbokou donné à ce quartier est composé de deux mots : agbo et okou. Si le premier
est sujet à plusieurs interprétations entre recevoir (agba) et bélier (agbo), le second (okou)
signifie sans doute mort. Agbokou signifierait donc soit nous avons reçu le ou la mort, soit
le bélier est mort. Cette dernière signification est acceptée aussi bien des Goun que des
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257
Le Cerpa vient de reprendre son ancien nom CARDER (Centre d’Action Régionale pour le
Développement Rural) lors du conseil des ministres du 20 février 2013.

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OBSS : Office béninois de sécurité sociale. Il est devenu CNSS : caisse nationale de
sécurité sociale.
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Il s’agit de l’estimation de l’INSAE qui peut varier d’une année à l’autre.
260
A la mairie d’Abomey-Calavi comme chez la plupart des cadres qui traitent des questions
concernant cette localité, on affirme que cette localité est la deuxième ville du Bénin après
Cotonou. Il s’agit souvent d’une confusion entre le chiffre de population de l’ensemble de la
commune qui est de 307 745 habitants et celui de la localité d’Abomey-Calavi, chef-lieu de la
commune qui est de 61450 habitants. Par contre, la comme est devenue la deuxième du pays
depuis les données de 2002.

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d’enterrements) qui mobilisent beaucoup de gens et de moyens. Ces festivités peuvent s’étaler
sur plusieurs jours et avec différentes étapes dont le cimetière en est une. Il en est apparu
une forme de services et d’économie liés à ces manifestations.

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En 2012, les projets de pavage des deux rues en question ont commencé.

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263
Cette différence est due au fait que la commune d’Abomey-Calavi dispose de terre.
Cependant, elle n’accueille aucune institution politique. Il s’agit donc des infrastructures à
caractère économique.
264
Larcher Gérard, 1999, L'avenir des espaces périurbains, Rapport du sénat, Paris.

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Par exemple Dubresson A, 2005, «Métropolisation institutionnelle et spatialités économiques
au Cap (Afrique du Sud)» Tiers Monde, Benit C. et Gervais-Lambony Ph, 2003, « La
mondialisation comme instrument politique local dans les métropoles sud-africaines
(Johannesburg et Ekhuruleni): les « pauvres » face aux « vitrines » » In Annales de
Géographie, t. 112, n°634, p. 628-645, etc.

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Lévy Jacques, 1997, « Penser la ville : un impératif sous toutes les latitudes», in CEMOTI,
Paris, n’24 p25-38. Il s’agit donc du titre de son article.

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Il a été constaté que plusieurs responsables, dirigeants ou techniciens, des villes
africaines ont reproduit les documents d’urbanisme des villes européennes. Parfois ils les
modifient légèrement avant d’appliquer leur contenu à la ville dont ils ont la charge.
271
Aloko-N’Guessan J et N’Dahoule-Yao R, 2010, «La planification urbaine à l’épreuve des
pratiques résidentielles dans la métropole ivoirienne», p.57-74, in Aloko-N’Guessan J et al…
déjà cité.
272
On peut se permettre cette affirmation parce que les dettes du pays s’accroissent d’une
année à l’autre et certaines dépenses de souveraineté sont financées par les bailleurs de
fonds. Pour financer les infrastructures de la ville, il faut forcément trouver un bailleur.
De plus, on croit au Bénin que sans ressources naturelles (pétrole, or, diamant, etc.) on ne
peut pas arriver au développement. En outre, cette remarque d’Annik Osmont (2002) en instruit
davantage. « On peut se reporter ici à ce que dit un texte de la Banque mondiale de 1981,
exprimé dans le plus pur style péjoratif : "Si ces nouvelles hordes de citadins ne sont pas
intégrées à l'économie et si on ne s'occupe pas de leurs besoins, la situation risque de
devenir politiquement dangereuse et d'entraver le progrès économique". E. BERG et al. : Le
développement accéléré en Afrique au Sud du Sahara. Programme indicatif d'actions - Washington
: Banque mondiale, 1981 »

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273
Il existe une abondante littérature sur les conséquences de l’application du PAS, de la
mondialisation qui ont débouché sur les formes actuelles de l’informel. En outre, on a
commencé à parler de l’économie informelle quand on se réfère à un autre système économique.
On peut par exemple se référer aux travaux de J.O. Igué et de l’équipe du Lares, de A. Yapi-
Diahou (2000), J. Aloko-N’Guessan (2010), etc.

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274
Table ronde du 9 juin 2011 sur : Villes du futur, futur des villes : quel avenir pour les
villes du monde ? Elle a été animée par Catherine Fournet–Guerin, Jean-Fabien Steck, Alain
Dubresson, Jean-Pierre Sueur. Source : http://www.senat.fr/rap/r10-594-3/r10-594-32.html

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Métropolisation Et Periurbanisation À Cotonou

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UNIVERSITE PARIS OUEST NANTERRE LA DEFENSE

Métropolisation et dynamiques périurbaines :

A Dieu Le Père, en qui je me confie,…

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