With prime time TV full of shows such as CSI, Crossing Jordan, Bones and Law and Order,

dramatizing criminal investigations and forensic science, writers need to know the latest
techniques used by law enforcement.

Experts in the Field

1. Forensic Psychologists and Psychiatrists offer insight into the criminal mind. They may suggest
a psychological profile to assist law enforcement.
2. Fingerprint Experts match fingerprints using the patterns of swirls and ridges which are unique
for individuals.

3. Forensic Pathologists perform autopsies, examining bodies for any clues that can determine
the cause and manner of “unnatural” deaths. They begin with a thorough examination of the skin,
searching for cuts, marks, bruising or any sign of trauma.

4. Anatomic pathology includes surgical, autopsy and diagnostic pathology.

5. Clinical pathology includes the laboratory diagnostics required once an autopsy is conducted,
including hematology (blood analysis) and toxicology (poison, drugs, etc).

6. Crime Scene Photographers record a crime scene from every angle to clearly show every
detail, with emphasis on accurately recording the size and distance of objects.

7. Forensic anthropologists can determine a great deal a person’s appearance, lifestyle and even
cause or time of death by examining bones.

8. Forensic Artists can draw a portrait of a person based on eyewitness descriptions.

9. Forensic Sculptors are able to reconstruct faces using clay or computer modeling programs,
and a portion of a skull.

DNA

10. DNA is the genetic code for all living organisms and it is made up of four chemicals, Adenine,
Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine, abbreviated as A, T, C and G. These chemicals are like teeth
on a zipper, joining two sides of the DNA strand together and forming a “double helix”. A is joined
with T and C is joined with G.

11. Scientists find DNA markers - created with small pieces of DNA (probes) which will bind to
complementary segments (A to T, C to G). The forensic scientist knows the sequence of the
probes, so they can determine the sequence of the DNA sample when the two pieces link
together.

12. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) was one of the original methods used to
match DNA samples, but it required lots of material to get a match. A specific enzyme called a
restriction endonuclease, cuts DNA at a specific sequence pattern, a recognition site. The
resulting DNA fragments are then analyzed to verify the presence or absence of certain
recognition sites.

13. Most of the DNA strand is sequenced in a standard pattern, shared by the majority of
humans. There are a few sections (1/10 of 1% of DNA) called minisatellites that are very unique
to individuals. The unique combinations at these locations are used to match two samples of DNA

14. Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis is used to evaluate specific regions of DNA called loci.

15. Because it is passed from the mother only, mtDNA is a powerful tool for tracking ancestry and
is used to identify individuals.

16. DNA is usually extracted from the nucleus of a cell. As the sample ages, there is a lack of
nucleated cellular material, however mtDNA remains.

17. Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is a National database of DNA samples recovered at
crime scenes or taken from suspects. It has been used to identify suspects and link serial crimes
to each other.

Blood

18. Cast-Off Pattern is a bloodstain pattern created when blood is released or thrown from a
blood-bearing object in motion.

19. Spatter is blood which has been dispersed as a result of force applied to a source of blood.
Patterns produced are often characteristic of the nature of the forces which created them.

20. Swipe Pattern is the transfer of blood from a moving source onto an unstained surface.
Direction of travel may be determined by the feathered edge.

21. Forensic serology is the study of blood groups, blood, and other bodily fluids for identification
purposes following a crime.

22. The average adult has 10 to 12 pints of blood in their body.

23. 38% of the population has O+ blood type and 34% have A+. B+ is found in 9% of the
population, 7% have O-, 6% have A- and 3 % have AB+. The rarest blood type is B- found in only
2% of the population.

24. Conventional serological analysis of the proteins, enzymes, and antigens in blood is rarely
statistically individualizing and has been largely replaced with DNA testing.

25. Luminol is a chemical that reacts to hemoglobin in red blood cells and will glow greenish blue,
even with the smallest trace of blood. (1 part per million)

26. Alcohol and drug content can be determined from wet blood only. Blood begins to dry after 3-
5 minutes of exposure to air.
Prints

27. Dactyloscopy is the scientific study of fingerprints and it was developed nearly a hundred
years ago.

28. The Henry Classification System categorizes fingerprint records into primary groupings based
pattern types: arch, tented arch, right loop, left loop, whorl, and twin loop.

29. Arch patterns have lines that start at one side of the print and then rise toward the center of
the print and leave on the other side of the print.

30. Whorl patterns have a lot of circles that do not leave either side of the prints.

31. Loop patterns have lines that start on one side of the print and then rise toward the center of
the print and leave on the same side of the print they start on.

32. Fingerprints are processed through the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification
System. (IAFIS)

33. Usually fingerprints are visible to the naked eye, but if not, a luminescent substance may be
added and the print will be visible using UV light.

34. Cyanoacrylate (CA) is the adhesive used in Super Glue. Fumes from warmed CA can
develop latent fingerprints on smooth surfaces like glass, plastic, etc.

35. The super glue method was first employed by the Criminal Identification Division of the
Japanese National Police Agency in 1978.

36. Super glue reacts to traces of amino acids, fatty acids, and proteins transferred from fingertip
to produce a visible, sticky white material that forms along the ridges of the fingerprint..

37. SoleMate is a data base of shoe patterns used to identify specific brands and models of
shoes.

38. The study of lip prints is called cheiloscopy. There are five basic types of patterns that are
used for comparison, including: diamond grooves, long vertical grooves, short vertical grooves,
rectangular grooves and branching grooves.

Fibers and Hair

39. The Locard Exchange Principle asserts that the exchange of trace material is inevitable.
“Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as
a silent witness against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from
his clothes, the glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or
semen he deposits or collects. All of these and more, bear mute witness against him.”

40. Trace materials include human hair, animal hair, textile fibers and fabric, rope, feathers,
wood, soil, glass, and building materials.

41. Human hairs can be used to determine race, body area, length, root type (naturally
shed/forcibly removed), and any artificial treatment, damage, or disease.

42. Human hair can be distinguished from other mammal hairs. Animal hairs are classified as:
Guard hairs which are the outer coat of an animal and provide protection, fur or wool hairs which
are inner coat of an animal and provide insulation and tactile hairs (whiskers) that provide
sensory functions

43. Trace evidence can be exchanged through primary or secondary contact.

44. Trace evidence can be collected by “picking” it from the surface with clean forceps, “lifting”
using tape, “scraping” with a clean spatula or similar tool to dislodge trace evidence into a
collection surface or “combing” a clean comb or brush through hair and collecting the debris.

45. “Vacuum Sweeping” is usually done after other collection techniques because it’s
indiscriminate and may result in a large amount of extraneous material.

Weapons

46. Ballistics began as the study of the flight paths of projectiles and the term is now used to refer
to the study of firearms.

47. A national Integrated Ballistic Information System (IBIS) is maintained by the Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives. The database contains bullet and cartridge casings
found at crime scenes and test-fires of guns found at a crime scene or on a suspect.

48. Rifling creates a spin on the projectile for increased accuracy and range. There are grooves in
a gun barrel that create a distinct signature on bullets such as grooves, scratches, and
indentations.

49. The number and direction of barrel grooves varies by manufacturer and model, for example:
Colt uses a left-hand twist, while Smith and Wesson uses a right hand twist; a M16 rifle uses a 1
in 7 inch twist, most civilian AR-15s use a 1 in 9 inch twist. The M1903 Springfield rifle had two,
four, or six grooves depending on the manufacturer.

50. Bullets produce tissue damage in three ways: Laceration and crushing occurs with low
velocity bullets, as in handguns, that travel less than 1000 fps (feet per second) do virtually all
their damage via crushing; cavitation causes a “permanent” cavity by the path of the bullet itself;
and shock waves which compress the medium and travel ahead of the bullet, as well as to the
sides.

51. Wounds from other types of weapons include: an incision, produced with a sharp edge, like a
scalpel; a puncture, made with a sharp, pointed instrument; an abrasion, produced by a scraping
injury; laceration is a tearing injury from a blunt object; and a contusion is a bruise made in soft
tissue by a blunt object.

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