Beruflich Dokumente
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Instructional Technologies
Summary 201
Key Terms 202
References 203
INTRODUCTION
HPGD3103 Instructional Technologies is a course offered by Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth four credit hours and should be covered
over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to learners taking the Postgraduate Diploma in Teaching
programme. The main aim of the course is to provide you with critical thinking,
problem solving and lifelong learning skills to be applied in the field of academic
research.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a four-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 160
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 160 study hours could be
accumulated.
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 4
Study the module 66
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 8
Online participation 30
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 37
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 3 describes the fundamentals of learning theories and relates these theories
to learning and instruction.
Topic 10 examines some of the more recent trends in technologies, the application
of these trends in education and the changing role of students, instructors and
administrators with the use of these technologies.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently
refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your
understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,
journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References section), at the
end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or
refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed and to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Association of Specialist Group Work. (1992). Professional standards for training
group workers. Alexandria, Virginia.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2014). The systematic design of instruction.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design
and technology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of instructional technology has often been misinterpreted. When we
come across "instructional technology", we may conclude that it involves the usage
and application of technology equipment such as computers, televisions and
overhead projectors as well as applications and tools such as videos, PowerPoint
slides. DVDs and even cloud applications being used in the teaching process.
However, this is a misconception about instructional technology.
Evans and Nation (2000) explain that technology is not a tool but an art or science
of how to use a tool for a purpose. Seels & Richey (1994) states that technology
included tools, processes, applications, skills and organisation. Technology in
education or instruction is more than the technical application of tools, machines,
computers, products and communication systems (such as multimedia,
computerised instruction, games, simulations or interactive video). It also
encompasses the „application of the principles of science in order to solve learning
problems...‰ In other words, technology is the practical application of knowledge
for a purpose (Spector, 2015).
SELF-CHECK 1.1
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Meanwhile, Illinois School District U-46 (U-46.org, 2005) claims that instructional
technology is the use of a variety of teaching tools to improve student learning. At
the mention of instructional technology, we usually think of computers and
computer software, but instructional technology is not limited to the use of
computers in the classroom. In fact, instructional technology describes all the tools
used for teaching and learning such as cameras, CD players, PDAs, GPS devices,
computer-based probes, calculators and electronic tools.
From all these definitions, a new definition of instructional technology was born
which emphasised mental processes and cognitive analysis of learning tasks. It
was suggested by Reiser (2001) as shown in the following:
ACTIVITY 1.1
Next, please read Reeves, T. C. & Oh, E. G. (2016) paper on The goals
and methods of educational technology research over a quarter century
(1989-2014). Has the definition of instructional technology evolved?
Discuss the trends in research in this field. You may refer to the
following webpage: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-
016-9474-1. Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
Term Definition
Instruction A planned process that facilitates learning.
Instructional systems A group of interdependent parts that work together to
accomplish a goal such as a classroom or learning
management system.
ISD/ID This refers to Instructional Systems Design (or also
known as Instructional Systems Development) that
requires sound decision making to determine the who,
what, when, where, why and how of training. ISD is often
called System Approach to Training (SAT) or Analysis,
Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate (ADDIE).
Instructional context This refers to the physical and psychological
environment in which instruction is delivered or in
which transfer occurs. We call it the learning
environment.
Individualised instruction This means the use, by students, of systematically
designed learning activities and materials specifically
chosen to suit their individual interests, abilities and
experience. Such instruction is usually self-paced.
1.4 DOMAINS
Instructional technology is a multifaceted field. Seels and Richey (1994) identify
five domains which contribute to the field. They can be remember with the
mnemonic acronym M-DUDE which stands for:
The Definition and Terminology Committee has provided description for each of
the five domains (Seels & Richey, 1994) as follows:
(a) Design refers to the process of specifying conditions for learning. The design
component demonstrates knowledge, skills and dispositions to design
conditions for learning by applying principles of instructional systems
design, message design, instructional strategies and learner characteristics.
(c) Utilisation refers to the use of processes and resources for learning.
Utilisation incorporates knowledge, skills and dispositions to use processes
and resources for learning by applying principles and theories of (and
research related to) media utilisation, diffusion, implementations and policy-
making.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Ć Instructional technology has been defined in many ways in the topic. However,
the latest one emphasises on mental processes and cognitive analysis of
learning tasks.
Instruction M-DUDE
Instructional technology Technology
Reeves, T. C., & Oh, E. G. (2016, August, 17) The goals and methods of educational
technology research over a quarter century (1989î2014). Retrieved from
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11423-016-9474-1
Seels, B. B., & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and
domains of the field. Bloomington, IN: Association for Educational
Communications and Technology.
INTRODUCTION
There is awareness among instructors from both academic institutions and
corporate industries on designing their own teaching and learning materials for
students and workers. However, how are these instructional materials designed?
Designing instructional materials is not easy as it involves many aspects such as
instructional design theories, learning theories and instructional media. The
instructional design may guarantee effective teaching and learning.
In this topic, we will begin by defining what learning and instructional design are.
The concepts of instructional design will also be discussed. Moreover, we will also
address the importance of the instructional design process and later compare
traditional instructional design to systematic instructional system development.
(a) A child is fixing a bicycle tyre with the help of instructions from his father.
He is interacting with his surroundings ă the bicycle and his father. Learning
is said to happen here.
(b) You are baking a cake with the help from your mother. She explains to you
the ingredients used and the right temperature needed to bake a cake. You
are involved in the learning process.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Dick, Carey & Carey (2014) define instruction as a set of events or activities
presented in a structured or planned manner through one or more media, with
specific learning goals for the learners to achieve specific behaviours. Some
examples of instruction are as follows:
(a) Mrs Lee, a Physics teacher, is preparing a lesson plan for her class the next
day. She decides to use a demonstration of an experiment as the lesson
involves a dangerous experiment. The teaching process is happening here.
(b) Mrs Ravi and her husband have agreed to educate their daughter on sexually
transmitted diseases. As this is a sensitive issue, they decide to use the
discussion method. They begin by showing pictures and videos of socially
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, and then ask questions and ask their
daughter to predict what could happen when the socially unacceptable
behaviour is continued. Their method of teaching is by asking questions and
having discussions.
Can instruction take place without a teacher? Consider the following case:
Watch a YouTube video titled Mental Health Awareness. Is there any instructions
going on? Is there any learning? A viewer of the video would learn about the
concept of mental health and at the same time pick up pointers on the warning
signs, preventive measure or actions to be taken when he watches the video.
Hence, the instruction can take place without a teacher. In what other cases does
instruction occur when there is no teacher present?
This means that instruction is a complex process and does not depend on a set of
guidelines and rules of instructional design. Instead, instruction for learning
depends on theories of communication, philosophy, psychology and sociology
(DeWitt, Alias & Siraj, 2014). This is because, in order for instruction to be effective,
one needs to communicate in a manner that can enable interactions and motivate
a person to learn.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
14 TOPIC 2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
SELF-CHECK 2.2
2.2.1 Definition
The goal of the instructional design is to make learning more efficient and effective
(Morrison, Ross, Kemp & Kalman, 2011). Whether the learning takes place in a
face-to-face situation with the teacher in front of the students, in an online
environment or blended environment, we need instructional design to make the
best learning experience. An instruction is a set of events that facilitate learning,
but with instructional design, a creative pattern or a rational, logical and sequential
process is employed to solve instructional problems (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2015).
Hence, instructional design focuses on solving instructional problems so that
performance can be improved.
Source Definition
Reigeluth (1983) The process of deciding which methods of instruction are best
for bringing about desired changes in student knowledge and
skills for a specific student population.
Seels and Richey Instructional systems design (ISD) defined it as „an organised
(1994) procedure that includes the steps of analysing, designing,
developing, implementing and evaluating instruction‰.
Reiser & Dempsey The theory and practice of design, development, utilisation,
(2002) management, and evaluation of processes and resources for
learning.
Branch & Kopcha Instructional design is intended to be an iterative process of
(2014) planning outcomes, selecting effective strategies for teaching
and learning, choosing relevant technologies, identifying
educational media, and measuring performance.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
How do you think instructional design can be best defined? From the
definitions provided, how do you summarise the term „instructional
design‰? Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Reflect on all the given definitions and construct one that is based on
your teaching experience.
Instructional design has been used in business and government, in the medical
field, military and of course, education. It is noted that some industries spend large
amounts of money on training which requires instructional design. For example,
Accenture invested USD841 million on staff training and professional
development in 2015 with a total of 15 million hours of training delivered or at an
average of more than 40 hours per employee (Accenture, Jan 13, 2016).
According to Morrison, Ross, Kemp & Kalman (2011), training in business and
governmental agencies can be grouped into four broad areas: technical training,
soft-skill training, management and supervisory training, and sales training, while
in the medical field, training is for continuing education to update skills and
maintain certification. In education, instructional design has been used in higher
education to improve teaching skills and assist with course development, as well
as to work on the design and development of distance education courses
(Morrison, Ross, Kemp & Kalman, 2011).
The objective of instructional design is to serve the learning needs and success of
students through effective presentation of content and fostering interaction. The
practice of instructional design process can help to:
(e) Ensure that the learning content matches the intended objectives;
(f) Ensure that the teaching can be applied to various suitable scenarios; and
(g) Ensure that the teaching plan adheres to the time allocation.
(f) Evaluate whether the goals, objectives and needs are met.
ACTIVITY 2.2
The roles and tasks of an instructional designer are evolving. There is a shift
towards a more user-centred perspective instead of the traditional content-centred
perspective of earlier definitions (Kim, Lee, Merrill, Spector, & van Merriënboer,
2008). This means that there is more awareness of the context and processes of
learning (Irlbeck, 2011).
Irlbeck (2011) suggests generic steps for problem-solving strategies are used to
advance skills that enable advanced instructional designers to understand and
implement complex learning interventions.
The traditional systematic teaching (Dick and Carey, 1978), and instructional
systems development or ISD (Branson, 1975) used the components and sequence
of planning, design, develop, execute and evaluate such as in Figure 2.2.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
Instructional
Traditional Instruction Systematic Instruction
Components
Aims Based on: Based on:
Traditional curriculum. Evaluation needs.
Alternatively, previous Task analysis.
syllabus. External or global reference.
Internal reference.
Objectives Stated as teachersÊ Stated based on evaluation
accomplishments. needs or task analysis.
Identical for all students. Stated as behavioural
accomplishments.
Selected based on studentsÊ
needs.
StudentsÊ Students are not told. Mentioned to the students
awareness about Acquired intuitively from before the lessons or stated
the objectives textbooks and the lesson. clearly in the presentation.
SELF-CHECK 2.5
Step Description
Gain attention To gain studentsÊ attention, the teacher should present a
good problem, a new situation, use multimedia and ask
questions. This helps to ground the lesson, and to
motivate students to remain focused.
Describe the goal The teacher should state the goals or objectives explicitly
e.g. state exactly what students will be able to
accomplish and how they will be able to use the
knowledge.
Stimulate recall of prior The teacher reminds the student of prior knowledge
knowledge relevant to the current lesson (facts, rules, procedures or
skills). Show how knowledge is connected, provide the
student with a framework that helps to learn and to
remember. Tests can be included.
Present the material to be Present the information using, e.g. text, graphics,
learned simulations, figures, pictures, sound, etc. Chunk
information (avoid memory overload, recall
information).
Ć The practice of instructional design process can basically improve the teaching
and learning processes and benefit both teachers and students.
Accenture (Jan 13, 2016). Accenture invests more than US$840 million in employee
learning and professional development. Retrieved from
https://newsroom.accenture.com/news/accenture-invests-more-than-us-
840-million-in-employee-learning-and-professional-development.htm
DeWitt, D., Alias, N., & Siraj, S. (2014). Transforming learning: Collaborative
mLearning for a problem-centered approach. UM Press: Kuala Lumpur.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2015). The systematic design of instruction.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Driscoll, M. P., & Bruner, K. J. (2005). The cognitive revolution and instructional
design. In Royer, J. M. (2005). The cognitive revolution in educational
psychology. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Pub.
Kim, C., Lee, J., Merrill, M. D., Spector, J. M., & van Merriënboer, J. (2008).
Foundations for the Future. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. van
Merriënboer, & M. P. Driscoll (eds.) Handbook of research on educational
communications and technology (3rd ed.). (pp. 807-815). New York, NY:
Taylor & Francis.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kemp, J. E., & Kalman, H. (2011). Designing effective
instruction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2002). Trends and issues in instructional design
and Technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
INTRODUCTION
The practice of instructional design or ID has been influenced by psychological
theories which explain how learning occurs. Hence, learning theories have made
an impact on instructional design. There are three major learning theories which
can be divided into the following: behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist. The
design of instruction requires the bridging of these theories in pedagogy,
instructional design and technology. If students fail to understand the strengths
and weaknesses of each theory, it will be difficult to apply it to designing
instruction.
3.1.1 Pavlov
Pavlov developed classical conditioning or stimulant replacements. His famous
experiment involves a dog, food and a bell as summarised in Table 3.1.
Procedure Observation
Before conditioning Ring a bell in front of the dog. No traces of saliva observed.
He uses animals like hungry cats, dogs, fish and monkeys in his experiments. In
one of his experiments, the cat was put in a cage where a string could be triggered
to obtain the food. By trial and error, the cat gradually developed a behaviour that
was rewarded with food.
The theory proposed by Thorndike consists of three laws: law of effect, law of
exercise and law of readiness as in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Thorndike's Three Laws: Law of Effect, Law of Exercise and Law of Readiness
Laws Description
The connection of S-R strengthens when the response is given is
satisfactory.
Otherwise, if the response is painful, the connection weakens.
Law of effect
Response satisfactory S-R connection = Strong
Response painful S-R connection = Weak
Exercise refers to the repetition of a chain of S-R.
S-R connection strengthens when there is practical exercise.
Plenty of exercise. S-R connection = Strong
Law of exercise
Little amount of exercise. S-R connection = Weak
Plenty of exercises but no Not necessarily helps increase
response. achievement.
Watson believes that human beings are born with reflex and emotions such as love
and anger. Other types of behaviour are the product of S-R conditioning.
Procedure Observation
Albert touches the mouse. Albert is not afraid.
A loud noise is sounded the Albert is afraid of the sound; by
moment Albert touches the mouse. conditioning, he begins to fear the
mouse.
The mouse is replaced with another AlbertÊs fears expand to other small
small animal. animals.
The fear is terminated by showing The fear from conditioning is strong
Albert, a mouse without the noise. and long-lasting (Harris: 1979,
Samelson: 1980, cited in Good &
Brophy: 1990).
SELF-CHECK 3.1
The act of pressing the lever (G), which operated on its surroundings, is known as
an operand. Operands create a response (R) which makes the mouse press the
lever. The mouseÊs behaviour is strengthened and possibly repeated in the same
situation. This learning is called operant conditioning.
Skinner believes in S-R patterns in conditioned behaviour. His theory is about the
change in behaviour that can be observed and not in the process happening in the
mind. The books written by Skinner, Walden Two (1948) and Science and Human
Behaviour (1953), emphasise operand conditioning, not classic conditioning. Table
3.4 depicts the relationship between action and response according to Skinner's
experiment.
Table 3.4: The Relationship between Action and Response According to Skinner's
Experiment
Action Response
Positive reinforcement or reward Rewarded response most probably will be
repeated.
Negative reinforcement Response followed by pain and hardship will
not be repeated.
Destruction or no reinforcement Response which is not reinforced will not be
repeated (ignoring studentsÊ wrongdoings will
terminate the behaviour).
Penalty Painful response will not be repeated.
Experiment Action
SkinnerÊs Behaviour Formation Animal began to make the connection
Trapped animal took a long time to realise between lever and food.
that pressing a lever would produce food.
Principle Example
Positively reinforced behaviours will be Students when continuously given
repeated. Intermittent reinforcement is feedback and praise for a behaviour will be
very effective; able to repeat the behaviour.
Information is given a little at a time to The behaviour to be learnt should be
reinforce the response (shaping); and taught incrementally with feedback so as
to shape the correct behaviour.
Reinforcement can be generalised and Reinforcement given can be for one
create second-order conditioning. behaviour which can be linked to another
behaviour, such as the dog salivates when
hearing the bell.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
There were also other important aspects of learning and instruction which arose
from this theory such as behavioural objectives and concepts of feedback which
influenced the field and contributed to ideas such as programmed instruction
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). Some of the contributions arising from behavioural
theories are discussed in the following subtopics.
Levels Descriptions
Knowledge Observe and recall information such as date, location and
basic lesson contents
Example: list, define, show, group, tabulate, state, name
Understanding Understand the information, translate them into new
context, compare and make predictions
Example: simplify, differentiate, compare, discuss, expand
Application Make use of the information, method and concept given in
new situation
Example: show, calculate, check, relate
Analysis Observe patterns, arrange, identify components
Example: explain, connect, divide, refer
Synthesis Use existing idea to generate new idea, make generalisation,
summarise
Example: integrate, rearrange, design, formulate, rewrite
Evaluation Compare ideas, evaluate, make selections, confirm evidence
Example: evaluate, decide, test, support
Levels Descriptions
Verbal information Verbal information is linked to the knowledge that
requires students to memorise information.
Also known as declarative knowledge.
Example: Name the capital of Malaysia.
Intellectual skill At a higher level compared to verbal information as it
utilises cognitive processes.
Also known as procedural knowledge.
Divided into three levels ă understanding a concept
(lowest), use of rules (intermediate) and problem-
solving (highest).
Example: A student uses the Pythagoras Theorem,
square root and rules to solve problems.
Cognitive strategy The skill to control own learning and thinking.
Example: Analyse information before answering
questions.
Attitude Feelings or trust in oneself that motivates a person to
perform a task.
Motor skill Any activity that involves one or all parts of the body in
performing a task.
Example: Dancing, sewing, typing and conducting
experiments.
Mastery learning assumes that all students can master the materials provided.
Bloom expanded on MorrisonÊs idea but believed that mastery learning was only
suitable for lower cognitive levels and not appropriate for teaching higher
cognitive levels.
Table 3.9: Contributors for the Teaching Machine and Programmed Instruction
Contributor Contribution
Sydney L. Pressey (1925) Introduced a machine to administer multiple choice
questions.
Peterson (1931) PresseyÊs student who built a teaching machine.
World War II (1939-1945) Phase checks tool (the 1940s and 1950s) teaches and tests
the skill to assemble and disassemble instruments.
Norman A. Crowder Trained electronic tool function troubleshooting.
(1921-1998)
B. F. Skinner (1965) SkinnerÊs Machine. Students answer questions and receive
a response (Saettler, 1990).
The stated contributions formed the framework for programmed instruction when
the design for individualised instruction began.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
ACTIVITY 3.1
Levels Descriptions
Knowledge Observe and recall information such as date, location
and basic lesson contents.
Example:
State the capital of Malaysia
Understanding Understand information, translate it into new context,
compare and make predictions.
Example:
Bandura and Walters found that children did not imitate behaviours that had been
reinforced. The operand conditioning theory stated that all humans must
demonstrate behaviour and accept reinforcement before they could learn on their
own. Sometimes, they used new behaviour models without any need for reward
or enrichment. This observation is not consistent with behaviourism, and this is
one of the reasons Bandura discarded the operant conditioning theory. Bandura
suggested the Social Cognitive Learning Theory for Social Learning and
Personality Development (1963).
SELF-CHECK 3.4
(a) Schema
The concept of schema was proposed by Bartlett (1932, 1958) during his
studies on memory. Schema is an intrinsic knowledge structure. A schema is
formed when new information is compared with the existing cognitive
structure. Schema can be combined, developed or changed to accommodate
new knowledge.
(i) Sensory register ă Receives input from sensory organs. The information
stays about one to four seconds before being deleted or changed to
newer and latest information. Most of the information do not reach
short-term memory, but all information can be traced and performed
actions with it, if necessary.
(iii) Long-term memory (LTM) and storage ă This stage holds items that are
to be used for a longer time. Information is sometimes forced into the
LTM by rote learning and past learning. Deep processing such as
connecting new information with the information already stored is
better for memory retention and access.
What is important in the transfer is the ability to apply what we have learned
to different situations or contexts.
3.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is an epistemology, or a collection of views on learning which
differs from assumptions in cognitive theories (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). As an
example, in information processing theory, learning is from the surrounding
environment to be structured within, meaning the learner obtains information
from the environment and acquires knowledge, which is stored in his memory. In
constructivist environments, learning is from the inside out whereby the learner
imposes organisation and meaning on the surrounding environment and
constructs knowledge in the process (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). There are many
different views of what constructivism really is. However, in general,
constructivism is based on the following principles:
(a) Each individual constructs his own knowledge representation from his
experiences ă therefore, there is no single correct knowledge representation
(Kant, adapted from Von Glaserfeld, 1984; Hawkins, 1994). Constructivists
believe that students construct their own reality or perceived reality based
on their perception of their own experience.
(d) Learning takes place in a social context ă interactions between peers are
important in the learning process (Vygosky, 1978).
As we know, children gain experience about their surroundings from birth. These
informal ideas are then brought into the classroom. The purpose of education is to
provide further explanation of these ideas so that they will become more
meaningful. Therefore, it is important for teachers to consider the initial informal
ideas when introducing new concepts. This is to ensure that any changes or
development of ideas by the students are correct.
(c) Support learners in setting their own goals and regulating their learning; and
(d) Encourage learners to reflect on what they have learnt and how they are
learning (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007).
SELF-CHECK 3.5
However, there are still some guidelines that can be followed in constructivism. In
order to construct knowledge, instructional designers need to structure the
surroundings by doing the following:
ACTIVITY 3.2
(a) The behaviourist approach may guide learners towards mastery of content
(knowing what). Meanwhile, cognitive strategies are useful for problem-
solving (why) and constructivist strategy is suitable for ill-defined domains
via reflection. (Ertmer P. and Newby, T., 1993);
(d) Tasks that require higher order thinking are usually related to strategies
connected to constructivism.
SELF-CHECK 3.6
Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1971). The abstraction of linguistic ideas. Cognitive
Psychology, 2, 331ă350.
Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and body: Psychology of emotion and stress. New York,
NY: Norton.
Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design
and technology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1980) Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: R.J. Spiro
et al. (eds) Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension, Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals and understanding.
Hillsdale , NJ: Earlbaum Assoc.
INTRODUCTION
A model may be useful as it can be used to show how something exists in nature.
However, in instructional design, the purpose of having a model is to describe how
something could exist, as they describe the process by which something can be
created, but not the thing which is created (Gibbons, Boling & Smith, 2014).
There are prescriptive and descriptive instructional design models (DeWitt, Alias
& Siraj, 2015). Seels (1997) identified three different types of instructional design
models: theoretical/conceptual models, organisation models, and planning-and-
prognosis models. These models are the prescriptive instructional design models
as organisation models to prescribe instructional planning (Branch & Kopcha,
2014). These models are mainly instructional systems design (ISD) models. ISD is
defined as the systematic and iterative method for creating a learning experience
that develops and enhance skills and knowledge. ISD helps to organise learning
and take into account the different systems in instruction such as the context, the
learner, the environment, and the resources as well as the interactions between the
systems, which can be divided into five phases as shown in Figure 4.1:
Newer instructional design models which are constructivist in nature may differ
and only provide guiding principles for analysing, producing, and revising
learning environments. Hence, the instructional design models which will be
applied, either old or new, need to take into consideration new and emerging
theories on learning in the variety of contexts in which instructional design is being
applied (Branch & Kopcha, 2014).
In this topic only instructional systems design (ISD) models are discussed. An
overview of the eight ISD models and principles described are depicted in
Figure 4.2:
Its analysis of needs, the content and skills required, as well as the context and the
learners, refine these goals. The output of one component will be the input to the
next. However, this model provides for revision of instruction as one component
may influence another in the model. This model uses a systems approach for
designing instruction, where instructional goals are identified at the beginning and
end with summative evaluation. This model has also be used for constructivist
learning environments (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014).
SELF-CHECK 4.1
What are the important elements in Dick and CareyÊs model? In the
myINSPIRE forum, describe them in your own words.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
How does Hannafin and PeckÊs model differ from Dick and CareyÊs
model? Discuss this with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE forum.
The ASSURE acronym in ASSURE model stands for the following important
components (see Figure 4.5):
This model stages denote a linear, input-output nature, with decisions made in the
first stage contributing to decisions in succeeding stages, as shown in the
following:
(a) State general characteristics of learners and the specific competencies they
need such as knowledge, skills and attitudes;
(b) State the learning objectives regarding what learners will know or be able to
do as a result of the instruction;
(d) Plan how the materials will be used, gathering the necessary materials
together and using them in instruction;
(e) Provide activities and time for adequate practice and reinforcement of
performance; and
SELF-CHECK 4.3
How is the ASSURE model different from Dick and CareyÊs model?
Compare both models in the myINSPIRE forum.
This model is simple in design but inclusive of details. It tries to convey this
inclusiveness through circles and arrows. It is a small-scale model, which means
that it can be used for individual lessons or units. One weakness of this model is
that the focus on evaluation and development seems to appear very late in the
process.
SELF-CHECK 4.4
The designer must address learner needs, content and context throughout the
design, while other models view these issues as inputs to the system. The
involvement of intended users in the prototyping is one of the strengths of this
model. The intentions of this model are complex instructional situations where no
one right way exists to design a response to an instructional problem, and where
flexibility is necessary to respond to unique situations. It has the appeal of having
extended involvement with the intended user. This is missing in many models.
SELF-CHECK 4.5
In ADDIE model (see Figure 4.12), the analysis stage discovers who are the
learners or audience (audience analysis) and what is the goal or intended outcome
(goal analysis). In the design stage, it lists the contents of the course (subject matter
analysis); steps of instruction (lesson planning-writing objectives); and also the
type of media or presentation mode (media selection).
(b) Summative Evaluation: Usually occurs after instruction was completed and
implemented.
(a) Speed up the process ă Focusing the team and serve as foundation for project
development;
(c) Cover all phases of good instructional design ă Make sure that all elements
of instruction are included, relate to and support each other.
SELF-CHECK 4.6
The Dick and CareyÊs model is a macro-level model which is useful for structuring
the design task in the learning environment. It consists of nine stages which are
iterative. The model starts with analysing the instructional goals, and all the stages
work towards achieving the instructional goals. These goals can be refined if
required, depending on the other analysis done.
In Hannafin and PeckÊs model, there are only three phases of needs assessment,
design and development/implementation for the development of the learning
environment. Evaluation and revision occurs in all phases.
The ASSURE model focuses on the implementation phase. However, similar to the
previous two models, it comprises a needs analysis phase to analyse learnersÊ
needs. Also, objectives are identified before methods, media and materials are
selected. It differs from the others as learner participation is required for
engagement in discussion, small group activities and formative assessment.
Knirk and GustafsonÊs model focuses on the instructional problem and designing
to solve the problem. Evaluation only comes at a later stage.
The Gerlach-ElyÊs model is used when one has content expertise in the subject area.
The design process is iterative, and the analysis of evaluation of performance and
of feedback determines whether the objectives are suitable. Another model which
focuses on evaluation is the Rapid Prototyping model. It is a model for continuous
testing and evaluation of a prototype to ensure feasibility and suitability for the
current situation.
Gagne and Briggs system model analyses the system, course and lesson level in
detail. In this way, it incorporates the analysis, implementation as well as
evaluation of the processes. In this model, the lesson objectives are classified by
learning type to ensure the designer addresses the different types of learning
domains.
The ID models can be classified into three types: classroom, product and system
(Gustafson & Branch, 2002). The types of ID models would depend on differences
in the function and content. Which of the ID models are system models? Which are
for classroom use? Moreover, what can be used for developing a product? Some
of the models may be suitable for more than one type of model.
ACTIVITY 4.1
(b) Design of the materials for an effective, efficient and relevant learner
environment;
4.11.1 Analysis
The first phase is the analysis phase. Some of the components that need to be
analysed and an example of the results and decision that could be made based on
the results is shown in Table 4.2.
4.11.2 Design
The next phase is the design phase. Some of the components that need to be
addressed in the design phase, as well as examples of the results/ discussion, and
decisions that could be made based on the results are shown in Table 4.3.
4.11.3 Development
The next phase is the development phase. Some of the components related to
development that need to be addressed in this phase, as well as examples of the
results/discussion, and decisions that could be made based on the results are
shown in Table 4.4.
4.11.4 Implementation
The fourth phase is the implementation phase. The use of software as the
components that need to be addressed in the implementation phase, as well as an
example of the results/discussion on how it could be used, and decisions that
could be made based on the results are shown in Table 4.5.
4.11.5 Evaluation
Finally, in the evaluation phase. Some of the components related to evaluation, as
well as examples of the results/discussion, and decisions that could be made based
on the results are shown in Table 4.6.
SELF-CHECK 4.7
What are the main components in all of the instructional design models?
Discuss your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
In conclusion, ISD models can essentially be divided into five phases as discussed
earlier. Each of these phases has particular elements which can be used to identify
the phase. However, newer instructional design models may differ in comparison.
Some of these models may only provide guiding principles, and the instructional
designer will need to determine the processes involved. In this topic on
instructional systems design, the ISD models are discussed.
Ć ISD is defined as the systematic and iterative method for creating a learning
experience that develops and enhances skills and knowledge.
Ć ISD models help to organise learning and can be divided into five phases:
analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation.
Ć The models are needed when designing instructional materials because it will
serve as a guideline in speeding up the process, assisting in communication
and covering all phases of good instructional design.
Ć The instructional models can be classified into three types based on the
function of the content: classroom, product and system.
Ć There are three types of instructional design form: vertical, circular and
horizontal.
Branch, R. M., & Kopcha, T. J. (2014). Instructional Design Models. In J.M. Spector
et al. (eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and
Technology, (pp. 77ă86). DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_48, © Springer
Science+Business Media New York 2014.
Gibbons, A. S., Boling, E., & Smith, K. M. (2014). Instructional Design Models. In
J.M. Spector et al. (eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational
Communications and Technology, (pp. 607ă615). DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-
3185-5_48, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014.
İşman, A., Çağlar, M., Dabaj, F., & Ersözlü, H. (2005). A new model for the world
of instructional design: A new model. The Turkish Online Journal of
Educational Technology, 4(3), 6.
INTRODUCTION
In topic 4, we looked at some ISD models. If you recall, instructional design models
describe the process by which a product or a learning environment can be created
(Gibbons, Boling & Smith, 2014). ID procedures can be used for developing
education and training materials in a consistent, reliable and iterative process. ISD
models are systematic and iterative methods for creating a learning experience that
develops and enhance skills and knowledge through the phases of analyse, design,
develop, implement and evaluate.
If so, do we apply the basics of instructional systems design (ISD) and use the
framework of the ADDIE model (analyse, design, develop, implement and
evaluate) while designing teaching and learning materials for our instruction?
know about ID. The majority (65.2 per cent) did not quite understand ID models
and theories, while only 13 per cent had some idea of the ID concept. Most of the
instructors evaluated their instruction, but all were unsure about its design (see
Table 5.1).
We will be considering all the stages in the model, and an example in designing a
lesson using this model is shown in Table 5.2. This model is a systems approach
for designing instruction, where instructional goals are identified at the beginning,
and it ends with a summative evaluation. This model has also been used for
constructivist learning environments (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014).
Conduct Goal analysis. Goal analysis to break the goal into tasks
instructional and subordinate skills (see Figure 5.1).
analysis Identifying domain of
learning. Domain of learning
Performing a task − Verbal information: Identify
analysis. ingredients.
The Dick and CareyÊs model involves refining the goal from a fuzzy goal to ensure
a better-refined goal can be produced. The domains of learning can be determined,
and an instructional analysis can be conducted. After conducting the learning
analysis, the instructor will be able to determine the entry level skills of the
students. Knowing the context of the instruction will also enable planning for the
instruction. Based on the goal analysis, a terminal objective can be stated, and from
the task analysis, the performance objectives can be determined. In the Dick and
CareyÊs model, the criterion-referenced test items are designed after writing the
objectives, to ensure the objectives are tested. An example of a test item to test
learned skill is shown in Figure 5.2.
Next, the instructional strategy which comprises the delivery system, how the
content will be clustered and sequenced, and what are the components of
instruction, as well as student groupings. The components of instruction are
elaborated in Figure 5.3. The instructional package consists of a set of quiz
questions and a link to a video to show the process of baking a butter cake. A recipe
sheet will be provided and checklists to assist students in self-evaluation of the
procedures. During implementation, these checklists and recipe list will be
referred to. At the end of the lesson, a summative assessment with test items on
intellectual skills and cognitive strategies (example as per Figure 5.2) will be given
to students. To transfer learning, discussions can be made on how to bake a
different cake, such as chocolate and fruit cake, and an assignment can be given to
continue baking at home, and viewing the video again to recall.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Problem Task for Science Form 2: You are given a tooth. From the tooth, make
appropriate analysis to identify what animal it is, and what diet the animal
probably had.
The ASSURE model starts with learner analysis, followed by the objectives. In
formulating the objectives, the rubric for assessment would be designed. The
condition of the learning would be specified in the objective.
Based on the objective, the methods, media and materials would be selected. For
this purpose, a problem-based learning approach with inquiry and investigation
is used to achieve the objective. Hence, instructional material included real or
models of tooth and skulls of named animals, as well as online photos of the same.
Next, the instructional strategy for using the media employed a problem-based
learning approach with inquiry and investigation which comprises of the scientific
approach. Worksheets would be used to support the process. The instructional
strategy would also ensure learnerÊs participation in the scientific investigation. In
the R, or require learner participation phase, the form of participation is specified.
Finally, the evaluation is done to see if the objectives were met during the
instruction. At this phase, any revision would be suggested to implement in the
next cycle of development.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Table 5.4: Elements of the Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs Model
Instructional Objectives for the cognitive, The trainee will be able to:
Objectives psychomotor and affective (a) Greet a potential customer.
domain.
(b) Answer customersÊ queries on
five different models of phones.
(c) Respond to the need of the
customer to convince suitability
of a phone model.
Content Instruction sequenced Sequencing of content
Sequencing according to the learner,
(a) Greeting potential customer.
which is familiarity and
according to difficulty. (b) Answering queries.
(c) Responding to a customer who
needs the following:
(i) A basic communication
device;
(ii) Communication and
camera/video; and/or
(iii) Others.
(d) Responding to a customer who
are:
(i) Uncertain of his needs;
and/or
(ii) Upset.
Instructional (a) Procedure for teaching The instructional strategy used
Strategies cognitive procedures: (a) Watching videos of the process
(i) Demonstration; (demonstration and modelling
(ii) Organisation; of behaviour);
(iii) Elaboration; and (b) Take notes and pointing out key
behaviours (Organisation);
(iv) Practice.
(c) Mental image on process
(b) For teaching (Elaboration); and
interpersonal skills:
(d) Problem situations to practice
(i) Model; with their colleagues.
(ii) Verbal and
imaginal models
(Organisation);
(iii) Mental rehearsal
(Elaboration); and
(iv) Overt practice.
All the components of the model are interrelated and can be changed and
sequenced at any time. For example, formative evaluation can occur during
instruction, and if required, the tasks may be redesigned so as to enable it to fit the
objective required. Content sequencing is important so that what is familiar to the
learner is given first, and more difficult situations are given at a later stage.
Although evaluation takes place at different parts of the instruction, the design of
instruments, and for this purpose the checklist is done to determine if the
objectives can be achieved.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
(a) What is the focus of the Morrison, Ross, Kalman and KempÊs
model?
ACTIVITY 5.1
Ć The Dick and Carey Model comprises of nine stages: identify instructional
goal, conduct goal analysis, identify entry behaviour, write performance
objectives, develop criterion reference test, develop instructional strategies,
develop and select instructional materials, develop and conduct formative
assessment, and develop and conduct a summative assessment.
Ć The ASSURE model has six phases: analyse learners; state objectives; select
methods, media and materials; utilise media; require learner participation; and
evaluate and revise.
Ć The Morrison, Ross, Kalman & Kemp model has four main components as the
framework for systematic instructional planning: learners, objectives,
methods, and evaluation. There are nine elements within the process:
instructional problems, learner and context, task analysis, instructional
objectives, content sequencing, instructional strategies, designing the message,
development of instruction, and evaluation instruments.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2014). The systematic design of instruction.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Gibbons, A. S., Boling, E., & Smith, K. M. (2014). Instructional Design Models. In
J.M. Spector et al. (eds.), Handbook of research on educational
communications and technology, (pp. 607-615). DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-
3185-5_48, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kalman, H. K., & Kemp, J. E. (2011). Designing
effective instruction (6th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
INTRODUCTION
The instructional designer will design appropriate teaching strategies to present
the information and to engage the learners (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2014). Teaching
or instruction is done by the teacher through a variety of activities such as group
discussion, role play, projects and problem solving tasks. These strategies are a
micro strategy which is used for instruction. However, the teacher needs to plan
for the macro strategy of instruction to include the micro strategies, determining
the objectives, motivating the learners, present the content and engage the
learners.
In this topic, some strategies which can be used for instruction are suggested.
These strategies may be based on different learning theories. However, as a 21st
century learner, creative and critical thinking is important and needs to be
emphasised upon. Hence, strategies for teaching and learning thinking skills will
be discussed in this topic.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
The next phase is discussion where the teacher checks for students'
understanding and whether the learning outcome can be achieved. Effective
teachers ask more questions which are convergent and practice effective
questioning techniques.
Koslov et al. (1999) identify the following typical steps of a lesson. See if you can
identify these steps with the phases of direct instruction as elaborated by Joyce,
Weil and Calhoun (2000). They include the following:
(b) Orientation or preparation: Teacher presents the goal of the lesson and
demonstrates how the lesson builds on prior work.
(d) Lead: Teacher organises some guided practice. Firstly, all together (choral
responding) and then more individually. If necessary, he goes back to the
model.
(g) Error correction: Persistent errors are identified, and if necessary, the teacher
has to start over with model/lead/ test.
(h) Additional material: Learners are engaged with different materials where the
same strategies have to be applied to a common feature (more
generalisations).
Direct instruction has been used for programmed instruction so that instructional
material can be produced to ensure students achieve the learning outcomes of
small units of lessons which may be measured by diagnostic and entry-level tests.
Additional practice can be provided for the students as they attempt question on
interactive multimedia courseware when reinforcement and feedback can be
provided for students' response.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Look at the cooperative activities as shown in the following Table 6.1: think-pair-
share, jigsaw, numbered heads together and group investigation. Refer to the two
major forms of cooperative learning identified by Morrison et al. (2011):
Cooperative learning has been very successful and has shown to be useful in
developing communication and interpersonal skills. However, consideration must
be made to ensure groups are not too big or too small (three to five students seem
to be ideal). Groups should be as heterogeneous as possible to ensure effective
learning, and activities need to be well planned and designed to ensure everyone
has specific tasks in which the learner can succeed in.
Find out more about collaborative learning and how is it different from
cooperative learning. See the following links:
(a) https://www.teacherswithapps.com/the-differences-in-cooperative-
learning-collaborative-learning/
(b) http://cei.ust.hk/files/public/ccl_related_stories.pdf
(c) https://resourced.prometheanworld.com/collaborative-cooperative-
learning/
(d) https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/collaboration-vs-cooperative-
learning-nea
SELF-CHECK 6.3
While some supporters of learning style argue that pedagogical designs (in
particular for electronic learning environments) should accommodate different
learning paths, Felder (in the context of class teaching) argues that it is sufficient
to incorporate a variety of teaching modes.
(i) Inductive learners (prefer presentations that proceed from the specific
to the general); or
(ii) Deductive learners (prefer presentations that go from the general to the
specific).
(i) Active learners (learn by trying things out, working with others); or
The index of learning styles was developed to measure the learnersÊ individual
learning styles (Alias, DeWitt & Siraj, 2013). Once, the individualÊs learning style
has been identified, different pedagogical strategies, activities and technology
tools can be used. In Alias, DeWitt & Siraj (2013), several models proposed for
each dimension of learning style.
SELF-CHECK 6.4
(a) Identify the main learning styles and briefly describe each of them.
The teacher has his own personal concept on a topic. He then designs activities for
learners to construct their own theories and ideas on the topic. Through
conversation and students specific actions, the teacher is able to determine and
support the student to achieve a specific concept.
SELF-CHECK 6.5
Savery and Duffy's (1994) model of PBL takes on a constructivist approach where
a cognitive conflict may occur. On reflection of a specific approach to address the
conflict, the learner is able to reorganise his knowledge structures and
accommodate the new knowledge. The following are some of the guidelines that
facilitators of PBL could use:
Steps two through five may be repeated and reviewed as new information
becomes available and redefines the problem.
In employing PBL, the teacher's role changes to being a facilitator of learning. Also,
the learner has the responsibility to be self-directed and self-regulate his own
learning. The essential elements in the design of the problem task drive the inquiry
process in PBL.
SELF-CHECK 6.6
Answer the following questions in the myINSPIRE forum.
(b) Suggest how you can design activities using PBL in instruction.
ACTIVITY 6.1
So, what are thinking skills? Alvinoo, in his 1990 "Glossary of Thinking-Skills
Terms," offers a set of definitions commonly related to thinking skills. These
definitions are not universally accepted but are used by theorists and programme
developers. These include (Cotton, 1991):
(b) Cognition
This focuses on mental operations involved in thinking; the biological/
neurological processes of the brain that facilitate thought.
(e) Infusion
Integrating thinking skills instruction into the regular curriculum; infused
programmes are commonly contrasted with separate programmes, which
teach thinking skills as a curriculum in itself.
(f) Metacognition
This is the process of planning, assessing and monitoring one's own thinking;
the pinnacle of mental functioning.
(h) Transfer
This is the ability to apply the thinking skills taught separately to any subject.
SELF-CHECK 6.7
What are thinking skills? What are the components of thinking skills?
Post your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
Also, every child should learn how to continue acquiring knowledge throughout
their lives by ensuring that love for inquiry and lifelong learning is instilled. The
child should be able to connect different pieces of knowledge and to create new
knowledge. Every child will master a range of important cognitive skills, including
critical thinking, reasoning, creative thinking and innovation. This aspiration of
having students with thinking skills is to produce Malaysian citizens who can
think skilfully in order to achieve the goals of Vision 2020 (The Curriculum
Development Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2008).
SELF-CHECK 6.8
(a) Thinking
Thinking refers to the process of creating a structured series of connective
transactions between items of perceived information.
(b) Metacognition
Metacognition refers to awareness and control of one's thinking, including
commitment, attitudes and attention.
(c) Attention;
(d) Attitudes;
(e) Classifying;
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES 117
(f) Commitment;
(g) Comparing;
(h) Composing;
(i) Comprehending;
(o) Curriculum;
In this topic, we will only discuss three of the most important and common
thinking skills ă critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision
making.
The skilful analysis involves the skills of comparing and contrasting, classifying,
arranging and sequencing, identifying facts and opinions, identifying biased
statements, giving causes, predicting, making inferences and generalisations,
interpreting and summarising.
Creative thinking skills are the skills of generating many, varied and new ideas.
The skills involved in making inventions and innovations may be classified under
creative thinking skills. PPK suggested a model for critical and creative thinking
skills as shown in Figure 6.5.
Based on the model of critical and creative thinking skills as shown in Figure 6.5,
PPK (2008) created two types of thinking skills as depicted in Figure 6.6:
Cognitive research in the last 20 years has led to a different model of problem
solving. Today, we know problem solving includes a complex set of cognitive,
behavioural and attitudinal components (Foshay and Kirkley, 2003). In 1983,
Mayer defined problem solving as a multiple-step process where the problem
solver must find relationships between past experiences (schema) and the problem
at hand and then act upon a solution. Mayer suggested three characteristics of
problem solving which are as follows:
So, when do we need to make a decision? Some conditions must exist before we
could claim that a decision is required. First, there must be two or more possible
consequences of a taken action. Secondly, there are values added as the result of
the taken action. Thirdly, there are variations in the effectiveness of the taken
action.
SELF-CHECK 6.9
ACTIVITY 6.2
Discuss what are thinking skills. How can you cultivate higher-order
thinking among your students? Share your answer with your
coursemate in the next tutorial session.
According to Wikipedia (2008), some of the earliest mind maps were developed
by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker in the third century. He graphically
visualised the concept categories of Aristotle. Ramon Llull a well-known Spanish
philosopher also used structures of the mind map form in his works. However, it
was Tony Buzan a famous British author in psychology who popularised the use
of mind maps.
SELF-CHECK 6.10
In the myINSPIRE forum, explain how can mind maps be used for
improving thinking skills.
(b) Enable you to plan routes or to make choices and will let you know where
you are going and where you have been;
(d) Encourage problem solving by allowing you to see new creative pathways;
and
According to Buzan (2002), those who use mind maps will be more creative and
be able to save time, solve problems, concentrate, organise and clarify their
thinking. They will remember better, study faster and more efficiently, thereby
passing exams with good grades. In short, mind maps make studying a breeze.
Mind maps also enable people to see the whole picture, plan, communicate,
survive and save trees (by reducing the use of paper). Simply, a mind map is used
as a (see Figure 6.11):
Buzan (2002) suggests using the following foundation structures for mind
mapping:
(a) Start in the centre with an image of the topic, using at least three colours;
(b) Use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout the mind map;
(c) Select keywords and print using upper or lower case letters;
(d) Each word/ image must be alone and sit in its line;
(e) The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The central
lines should be thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as they
radiate out from the centre;
(f) Make the lines the same length as the word/ image;
(g) Use colours ă your own code ă throughout the mind map;
(i) Use emphasis and show associations in your mind map; and
(j) Keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy, numerical order or
outlines to embrace your branches.
(a) Write the title in the centre of the paper. Form a unique shape;
(b) Draw a few lines that match the title and write the important subtitle on the
drawing lines; and
Currently, there are technology tools which can be used for creating your own
mind maps such as Mindmister (https://www.mindmeister.com), Mind Mup2
(https://www.mindmup.com/) and Coggle (https://coggle.it/).
(g) Scaffolding;
(k) Highly effective tool for improving social interaction and collaboration;
SELF-CHECK 6.11
How are graphic organisers different from mind maps? How can
graphic organisers be used for improving thinking skills? Discuss this
with your coursemate in the myINSPIRE forum.
(a) Discuss with students what graphic organisers are and how to use them;
(d) Let students help the teacher fill in the blank on the overhead projector;
(e) Give students a partially completed graphic organiser. The teacher has the
same graphic organiser on the overhead. Teacher and students fill in together
or students may fill in by working in small groups or individually;
(f) Students are given a blank graphic organiser to fill in by working in small
groups or individually;
(g) Give students opportunities to create their own graphic organiser. Let them
design their own format. They may work individually or in small groups;
and
(h) Let students present their graphic organiser to the class to teach a mini-lesson
or to explain why they chose a particular format.
Comparing Decision
Describing Classifying Sequencing Causal
Contrasting Making
Brainstormin Double Cell Hierarchy Squirrels
g Web Diagram Diagram Web
Money Web Research
Webbing Cycle
Cluster
Diagram
Desktop
Folder
System
Concept Map Simile ă
School is ⁄
Concept
Mapping
Venn KWHL Thinking
Venn grids
Matrix
Expanded
Comparison
Matrix
Desktop Linear
Folder String
Flow Chart System Expanded
Linear
String
Domino
Effect
Source: http://www.graphic.org/goindex.html
The daily practice of the majority of teachers during the teaching and learning
process is to use a verbal organiser. A verbal organiser involves putting key
information in text form on a piece of paper. The difference between a verbal
organiser and a graphic organiser is that a verbal organiser will state the
information in text form or sentences, while a graphic organiser presents
information in terms of figures with some keywords. Figure 6.15 shows how to
apply a verbal organiser and a graphic organiser for comparisons.
Figure 6.16 shows how a verbal organiser and a graphic organiser have been
applied for categorisation.
The Ministry of Education has implemented the i-Think programme for all
schools. In this programme, specific i-Think mind maps have been employed to
encourage higher-order thinking. The i-Think mind maps include the following
(see Figure 6.17).
ACTIVITY 6.3
Compare the i-Think maps with the different types of graphic organisers
and their functions. Do you find any maps which has similar functions?
Figure 6.19 depicts the process of skilful questioning includes (UAB, 2008):
Socratic questioning has been used to develop critical thinking. By asking the right
questions, learners are encouraged to reflect, assess their understanding and make
a judgement. As depicted in Figure 6.20, there are six types of Socratic questions
as follows:
Asking the right question can ensure that one probes deeper into one's
understanding and critical thinking.
SELF-CHECK 6.12
ACTIVITY 6.4
(a) Discuss how this thinking tool can help in the thinking process.
(b) Apply this thinking tools to discuss how thinking skills can be
improved using tools such as a mind map.
Ć Some teaching strategies are based on behaviourist while others may be based
on constructivist principles.
Ć There are three most important thinking skills discussed in this topic ă critical
and creative thinking, problem-solving and decision making.
Ć There are three types of thinking tools discussed in the topic ă mind map,
graphic organiser and Socratic questioning.
Burke, L. A., &. Williams, J. M. (2012). Two thinking skills assessment approaches:
„Assessment of PupilsÊ Thinking Skills‰ and „Individual Thinking Skills
Assessments‰. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 7, 62ă68.
Buzan, T. (2002). How to mind map: The ultimate thinking tool that will change
your life. London, United Kingdom: Thorson.
Duch B. J., Groh S. E., & Allen, D. E. (2001). Why problem-based learning? A case
study of institutional change in undergraduate education. In B. Duch, S.
Groh, & D. Allen (Eds.). The power of problem-based learning. Sterling, VA:
Stylus.
Foshay, R., & Kirkley, J. (2003). Principles for teaching problem solving. Technical
Paper 4, PLATO Learning, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.
plato.com/downloads/ papers/paper_04.pdf.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2000). Model of teaching (6th ed.) Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
Why do we need to state learning outcomes before implementing a lesson? In any
instruction that is implemented, whether online or face to face, there can be many
learning outcomes. Some of these learning outcomes are required and necessary
for learning a topic, while others include learning of unintended content or skills.
For example, when an instructor asks the class to work in groups to develop a new
design for a three-legged table, learners have to work together and use their
knowledge of balance, stability and concepts such as centre of gravity to work on
the design.
In this topic, we will discuss one of the important components of instruction which
is the learning outcome. This topic will identify the various definitions of learning
outcomes and their characteristics. The different names related to learning
outcomes are also discussed. The functions and the domains of learning outcomes
will also be highlighted in this topic. Finally, we will look at ways to develop
effective learning outcomes based on a real classroom situation.
Figures Definition
Popham, et al. (1969) Intended change brought about in a learner.
Goodlad, in Popham et al. A statement of what students ought to be able to do
(1969) as a consequence of instruction.
Bloom (1956) Explicit formulations of ways in which students are
expected to be changed by the education process.
Mager (1962) What the students should be able to do at the end
of a learning period that they could not do
beforehand.
Mager (1975) An objective is a description of a performance you
want learners to be able to exhibit before you
consider them competent. An objective describes an
intended result of instruction, rather than the
process of instruction itself.
Gallagher and Smith (1989) Properly constructed education outcomes represent
relatively specific statements about what students
should be able to do following instruction.
Hartel & Foegeding (2004) A very specific statement that describes exactly
what a student will be able to do in some
measurable way. A competency may have several
specific learning outcomes so a course typically
contains more outcomes than competencies.
Neary (2002) When discussing the area of teaching for
competence the challenge for the teacher is to
„select appropriate learning outcomes which will
lead to achieving the competencies, specify
evaluation indicators and develop a functional
delivery system‰.
Most commonly, learning outcomes have been used with learning objectives. The
Eberly Center: Teaching Excellence & Educational Innovation in Carnegie Mellon
University (2016) uses learning outcomes and learning objectives interchangeably.
On the other hand, Hartel and Foegeding (2004) differentiate these terms and
specify that objectives are related to the goals of a course and a programme, and
not the competency as the outcome of the course. They define objective as „A very
general statement about the larger goals of the course or programme.‰ Hartel and
Foegeding (2004) also believe that outcomes differ from objectives as outcomes
make the learning measurable. In the University of Toronto (2018), the learning
outcomes focus on what the student should know and should realistically be able
to do at the end of the course.
However, many instructional design models use objectives to specify the learning
to be achieved (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2015; Morrison, Ross, Kalman & Kemp, 2011).
In terms of objective itself the models have many variations: terminal objective,
performance objective and behavioural objective. In some cases, terminal objective
may reflect the goal in learning (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2015), and hence, it also
refers to the goal or aim of the learning. Other terms which have been used in a
similar way to mean learning outcomes, include the following (see Figure 7.2):
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Carnegie Mellon University (2016) states that studies show that experts have
greater domain knowledge and solid representations of that knowledge.
However, instructional strategies enable novicesÊ to overcome the difficulty
in self-monitoring, giving students clear goals to which they can compare
their current performance. Knowing the goals or outcomes of a course helps
students monitor their own progress in relation to it, there is a strong case to
be made for the importance of learning objectives in helping students gain
metacognitive ability.
(g) Help relationships between teachers and learners because with explicit
outcomes, the instructor is viewed in a less adversarial role because students
are not forced to guess what is to be learned.
(o) Bridge the gap between vague but relevant and important institutional goals
and actual instruction;
The University of Toronto (2018) specifies the purpose and function of learning
outcomes for students, instructors, institutions and administrators. According to
University of Toronto (2018), students are able to use learning outcomes to focus
on application of knowledge and skills learned in a course and on the integration
of these knowledge and skills with other areas of their lives so as to be more
connected to their learning. In addition, this emphasis on integration and
generalisable skills enables students to draw connections between courses, and
between coursework and other kinds of knowledge, hence, enhancing student
engagement. Finally, it enables the student to understand the conditions and goals
of their assessment.
For instructors, the University of Toronto (2018) states that the process of
developing learning outcomes allows the instructors to reflect on the content of
the course in the context of its potential applications. In this way, the context of
learning will always be emphasised. In addition, learning outcomes enable
evaluation to be determined as methods of assessment and the standards for the
success of the course will be evaluated can be set.
As for institutions and administrators, the University of Toronto (2018) states that
it is important to set learning outcomes to determine what is important for
students to know and the relation of the course to others in the context of future
coursework and the curriculum as a whole. This enables a coherent curriculum to
be set and helps to ensure that students are prepared for future work and learning.
This can also enhance student engagement and uncovering opportunities for
interdisciplinary work. Further, the learning outcomes provide structures from
which courses and programmes can be evaluated and this can be used to identify
gaps or overlap in programme offerings, and clarify instructional, programmatic
and institutional priorities.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Hence, a learning outcome will have the following characteristics. It will have a
verb, or the behaviour that identifies the action the student should be able to
perform, the conditions under which the student should demonstrate mastery, and
a measurable criteria to show the degree the learning outcome should be achieved.
Finally, it should also mention who the learners are.
Example:
„At the end of this lesson, Form 1 Science students will be able to measure the
length of an object with the aid of a ruler correctly.‰
Element Description
Audience: Form 1 An outcome must mention the target group of learners.
Science students
Behaviour: An outcome must describe the competency to be learned in
Measure the length performance terms. The choice of a verb is all important here.
of an object Frequently used terms such as „know,‰ „understand,‰ „grasp‰
and „appreciate‰ do not meet this requirement. If the verb used
in stating an outcome identifies observable student behaviour,
then the basis for a clear statement is established. In addition, the
type or level of learning must be identified for a description of the
types of learning and their levels.
Condition: With An outcome should describe the conditions under which the
ruler learner will be expected to perform in the evaluation situation.
What tools, references, or other aids will be provided or denied
should be made clear.
Degree/ Criterion An outcome should make clear how well a learner must perform
(implied): Measure in order to be judged adequate. This can be done with a statement
the length of an indicating a degree of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of
object correctly correct responses or the like.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Select a topic in your subject area. Write three learning outcomes using
the ABCD format. See the example earlier. Were you able to write the
learning outcomes easily? Discuss your findings with your coursemates
on myINSPIRE.
Table 7.2: BloomÊs Taxonomy of Learning and Other Relevant AuthorsÊ Work
Now, let us look into each of the six learning levels in cognitive domain.
(a) Knowledge represents the lowest level of cognitive learning. This level
involves the recall of data and information. Examples of behaviour to denote
this level are: to define, to list, to state and to identify. According to Bloom
et al. (1956), this level is for recalling facts or statistics; recalling a process,
rule or definition; and quoting a law or procedure.
(c) Application is the level of cognitive learning which refers to the application
of concepts that have been learnt in a new situation. This may involve
applying what has been learnt in the classroom to new situations. Examples
of behaviour for this level are: to calculate, to compute, to apply, to
manipulate, to modify, and to operate. According to Bloom et al. (1956),
examples of activities for training to achieve this level are ă put a theory into
practice; demonstrate a situation; solve a problem; and manage an activity.
(d) Analysis is the level of cognitive learning with the ability to differentiate
between materials and concepts into component parts so that the
relationships between the parts can be understood. Examples of behaviour
for this level are: to compare, to categorise, to analyse, to distinguish, and to
illustrate. According to Bloom et al (1956), examples of activities for training
to achieve this level are ă identify constituent parts and functions of a process
or concept; de-construct a methodology or process; make qualitative
assessment of elements, relationships, values and effects; and measure
requirements or needs.
(f) Evaluation is the highest level in the cognitive domain. In this level, one
needs to have the ability to make judgement based on rational criteria.
Examples of behaviour for this level are: to compare, to conclude, to contrast,
to explain, to interpret, to summarise and to justify. According to Bloom et
al. (1956), examples of activities to be trained to achieve this level are ă review
strategic options or plans in terms of efficacy, return on investment or cost-
effectiveness, and practicability; assess sustainability; perform SWOT
analysis in relation to alternatives; produce financial justification for a
proposition or venture; calculate the effects of a plan or strategy; and perform
a detailed cost risk analysis with recommendations and justifications.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
152 TOPIC 7 COMPONENTS OF INSTRUCTION
Now, let us look into each of the five levels of affective domain.
(a) Receiving the phenomena is a level where students are given the awareness
and are willing to hear and accept the new experience. Examples of
behaviour for this level are: to ask, to follow, to pay attention, to listen and
to acknowledge. Examples of activities for training at this level are ă listen
to teacher or trainer with respect; take interest in session or learning
experience; take notes; make time for learning experience; and participate
passively.
(c) Valuing is the next level where students attach a value or a worth to an object,
phenomena or behaviour which may range from simple acceptance to more
complex commitment. Valuing is the internalisation of a set of values, which
are expressed in the learnersÊ behaviour. Examples of behaviour for this level
are: to justify, to appreciate, to demonstrate, to invite, to propose, to respect
and to share. Examples of activities for training at this level are ă
demonstrating belief in the democratic process, is sensitive towards cultural
differences, able to propose a plan to solve a problem and carry through with
commitment; and accept or commit to a particular stance or action.
(d) Organisation is the level where students are able to organise and prioritise
values, hence developing their own value system. Examples of the behaviour
for this level are: to develop, to formulate, to relate, and to compare.
Examples of activities for training at this level are to qualify and quantify
personal views, accept professional ethical standards, creates a plan in
harmony with abilities, interest and beliefs as well as prioritises time
effectively to meet needs of the organisation, family and self.
(e) Internalises values or characterisation means the student has a value system
that controls his behaviour, and the behaviour is pervasive, consistent,
predictable and characteristic of the learner as he adopts a belief system and
philosophy in his behaviour. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to act,
to discriminate, to solve, to display and to perform. Examples of activities
for training at this level are ă showing self-reliance when working
independently; cooperates in group activities, displays professional
commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis, and behave consistently with
the personal values set.
Now, let us look at each of the five levels of the psychomotor domain.
(a) Imitation is the level where students are able to observe, pattern, and
replicate the action of another. Examples of the behaviour for this level are:
to follow, to repeat, to mimic, and to reproduce. Examples of activities for
training to achieve this level are ă copying a work of art, performing a skill
while observing a demonstration.
(c) Precision is the ability to execute a skill with a high degree of precision to
solve problems. Examples of behaviour for this level are: to calibrate, to
master, to complete and to demonstrate. Examples of activities for training
are working and reworking for something to achieve precision, performing
a task or activity with expertise and high quality without assistance or
instruction; and ability to demonstrate an activity to other novice learners.
The intellectual skills, cognitive strategy and verbal information are in the
cognitive domain, while motor skills are in the psychomotor domain, and attitude
is the affective domain. How different would the learning outcomes be if this
definition for domain of learning was used?
Determining the types of learning outcomes enables the instructor to plan the tasks
and the resources and media required to achieve the learning outcome. In
addition, the student is able to see the expectations of learning he is required to
achieve.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
(b) Discuss the different learning outcomes which can be written for
each domain of learning.
Ć Learning outcomes are important as they will lead to better learning and help
students to develop their critical and creative thinking.
Ć Good learning outcomes have their own characteristics and serve many
purposes such as a useful guide for both teachers and learners alike as well as
making teaching more directed and organised.
Ć There are four elements to make sure clear statements of outcomes ă audience,
behaviour, conditions and degree/criterion (ABCD).
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2015). The systematic design of instruction.
Boston, M: Pearson.
Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction (4th ed.).
New York, NY: CBS College Publishing.
University of Toronto (2018). What are learning outcomes? Centre for Teaching
Support & Innovation. Retrieved from http://teaching.utoronto.ca/
teaching-support/course-design/developing-learning-outcomes/what-are-
learning-outcomes/
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify categories of instructional media;
2. Describe the purpose of using instructional media; and
3. Identify factors in selecting instructional media.
INTRODUCTION
After determining the learning outcomes which are required for instruction, the
process of teaching and learning takes place. In ensuring accurate information and
instructions for learning knowledge and skills, instructional media is employed.
Instructional media is a channel of communication between the sender, who is the
instructor, and the receiver, the student. Hence, delivering instruction is not
simply writing the knowledge and skills required.
Effective instruction means that the materials have to be carefully structured and
presented to engage the learner and highlight important content (Morrison, et al.,
2011). According to Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell (2000), media that carry
messages with an instructional purpose are considered instructional media.
Hence, in this topic the use of instructional media to deliver the instructional
message is discussed.
Classification by Examples
Physical characteristics Print ă text
Still visual ă photos, drawings
Motion visual ă film, video (including digital
video)
Audio ă tapes, recordings (including digital
audio)
Real object ă display, demonstration
Sensory channels Audio ă teacherÊs voice
Visual ă chalkboard, drawings
Audio/visual ă videotape
Tactile, kinaesthetic ă working models
Source: http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/edit573/modules/module13.html
Figure 8.1 shows Edgar DaleÊs „Cone of Experience‰ (1969). It organised learning
experiences according to the degree of concreteness that each possesses.
According to Dale, teachers could create an effective learning process for abstract
concepts if they have concrete information to interpret those concepts. Thus, this
cone is a practical model that could be used for media analysis in the process of
selecting instructional material.
(b) Hypermedia
It refers to linked media and interactive media, used in most technology-
based software (Robyler & Doering, 2013). In web-based instruction, the
materials are often networked within the Internet and within the software.
Webpages may be linked to other webpages or other resources and within a
software package, there may be links to other media elements. In these days,
hypermedia is also a form of multimedia as the links are to media such as
text, audio and video. Hence, multimedia is used to refer to most Internet-
based media, whether interactive or static (Robyler & Doering, 2013).
Mayer (2009) notes that there are two approaches in the use of multimedia for
learning: firstly, the technology approach which focuses on technology, and
secondly, the learner-centred approach, which focuses on how technology can be
used to enhance learning (Morrison et al., 2011). Hence, in the next subtopic, the
purpose of using technology for learning has been outlined as this is more relevant
for education.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Consider the different types of media in Table 8.2. What are the sensory
channels which these media addresses? Share your answer in the
myINSPIRE forum.
As suggested by Gagné, Briggs and Wager (1992), media can be used to support
one or more of the following instructional activities in GagneÊs nine events of
instruction (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4017416/):
among the learners and it incorporates other skills such as collaboration, team
work and different literacies (Roblyer & Doering, 2013).
SELF-CHECK 8.1
According to Mappin et al. (1998), the basis of media selection models are the
factors affecting the choice of media. These factors include the following:
Smith and Ragan (1999) suggested the following factors to consider when selecting
instructional media (see Figure 8.3):
Gagné, Briggs and Wager (1992) provided the following practical factors to
consider in media selection:
(a) What size of group must be accommodated in one room on a single occasion?
(b) What is the range of viewing and hearing distance for the use of the media?
(c) How easily can the media be "interrupted" for pupilsÊ responses or other
activity and for providing feedback to learners?
(e) Does the desired instructional stimulus require motion, colour, still pictures,
spoken words or written words?
(g) Which media are the best for incorporating most of the conditions of learning
appropriate for the objective?
(i) Do the media under consideration vary in probable „affective‰ impact for the
learners?
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 167
(j) Are the necessary hardware and software items obtainable, accessible and
storable?
(l) Is a backup easily available in case of equipment failure, power failure, film
breakage and so on?
(n) Is a budget provided for spare parts, repairs and replacement of items that
become damaged?
Outcomes in
Selection of Media Exclusion of Media
Category of Learning
Intellectual Skills Select media that provide Exclude media with features
feedback to learner responses. that are not interactive.
Cognitive Strategies Select media that provide Exclude media with features
feedback to learner responses. that are not interactive.
Verbal Information Select media able to present Exclude only real equipment
verbal messages and or simulators with no verbal
elaboration. accompaniments.
Attitudes Select media that are able to Exclude only real equipment
present a realistic picture of a or simulators with no verbal
human model and the model's accompaniments.
message.
Motor Skills Select media which make it Exclude media with no
possible for students to provision for learner
directly practise a skill and responses and feedback.
provide informative feedback.
8.3.2 Students
A learner analysis should be done in order to determine the background of the
learner, his aptitudes, needs and other important information. This is because the
selection of media for the specific group of learner should take into account the
learnersÊ needs. Knowing students is another aspect that we should focus on when
selecting instructional media. According to the ASSURE model, there are three
important aspects which must be included in studentsÊ analysis which are as stated
in Figure 8.5.
Category of
Examples TeachersÊ Role
Teaching and Learning
Group teaching Conservative lecturing, Traditional sender,
expository learning, TV, executive of instruction
radio and film. process
Individual teaching Long-distance learning, Publisher and manager of
computer-based learning, learning resources,
mediated self-instruction facilitator and tutor
Group learning Tutorial, seminar, group Manager and facilitator
assignment, projects, games
and simulation, self-help
groups
According to Dick et al. (2015) the instructional strategy that will be employed
would cover the following:
ACTIVITY 8.2
What media and/or application do you think is suitable for group work
in a blended learning environment? Discuss your answer in the
myINSPIRE forum.
8.3.4 Practicality
Finally, the media used needs to be considered for practicality. The following
questions will guide us in selecting instructional media in terms of practicality (see
Figure 8.6):
Figure 8.6: The elements that needs to be considered when selecting instructional media
in terms of practicality
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Ć Physical characteristics of instructional media are print, still visual and motion
visual.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2014). The systematic design of instruction.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.) New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Newby, T., Stepich, D., Lehman, J., & Russell, J. (2000). Instructional technology
for teaching and learning: Designing instruction, integrating computers, and
using media (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Prentice-Hall.
INTRODUCTION
Today's rapid advancement and technological development have opened up a
new and exciting world that, just a few years ago, seemed unimaginable. Once,
when studentsÊ learning was limited to the classroom, now they can virtually
explore and wander round the streets of a city in Europe, collect real-time data,
such as temperature, precipitation and wind speeds, on the environment, develop
model from data input into computer programs, and reporting the results in a
shared document or wiki to collaborate with other members in improving the
report, and publishing the report on a webpage, which has data linked and stored
on a repository. Technology continues to change the way we live, learn, work and
interact with each other every day.
Today our young people are engaged on mobile devices as they communicate, get
information, navigate and play games. Technology has allowed for games to
evolve. Solid-state accelerometers that can sense tilting, rotation and acceleration
for a motion-sensitive controller to design Wii, a Nintendo game for playing
tennis, shooting targets with a rifle, and flying a plane (Brain, 2007).
(b) Learners are creators and require opportunities for creating and
experimenting in ways that can enable complex thinking and designing
solutions;
(c) Learning should not be for individual subject areas but should be inter- and
multidisciplinary connections between subjects like science and humanities,
and engineering and art are made to ensure authentic learning experiences;
(h) No matter how good the technology is, students always need good teachers
to guide, mentor and coach them in learning;
(i) Computational thinking develops skills for students to gather data, break
them into smaller parts and analyse patterns; and
The learning spaces of todayÊs classrooms are no longer physically bound, and
learning is active and takes on different forms. What are the technologies which
are looking at these trends?
One of the short-term trends that has been predicted to drive technology in the
next one to two years is Coding as a Literacy. Coding is a list of rules, written in a
computer programming language which can be used to program a sequence of
instructions. It is believed that coding as a part of computational thinking enables
children to develop their logical thinking (Freeman et al., 2017).
Another short-term trend is STEAM Learning. There had been a growing emphasis
on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) curricula and
programmes as it is believed that these disciplines will boost innovation. However,
the arts and humanities are important for building interpretative and creative
skills, and this then brought about STEAM movement (Freeman et al., 2017). The
A stands for art. Cross-discipline projects and inter-disciplinary learning are
important.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Trends Challenges
1.
2.
3.
With the aid of multimedia technology, courseware which was self-accessed, self-
paced and self-directed for Malay language, English language, Science and
Mathematics were developed for the curriculum. The Malaysian Smart School: A
Conceptual Blueprint was published by the Ministry of Education in 1997 to
outline the concept and the pedagogies involved in the implementation. The
implementation of the smart school pilot project in 1999 until 2002 involved 88
schools which were provided with technology infrastructure, training and
resource materials (Alias, DeWitt & Siraj, 2013).
Currently, all schools are considered smart schools and the effort in making all
schools smart is referred to as „Pembestarian sekolah‰. This process of making
schools smart leverages on the existing infrastructure such as the Computer Lab
Project, the Memartabatkan Bahasa Melayu dan Memperkukuh Bahasa Inggeris
(MBMMBI), Web-based Educational television or EduWebTV) among others
(Alias, DeWitt & Siraj, 2013).
The Frog VLE as a virtual learning environment is an online classroom and social
learning space for schools to integrate online learning experiences in the
classroom, which can be accessed anytime, anywhere (BTP, 2018). It also enables
parents to communicate with teacher and the school administration. Several
platforms have been integrated with Frog VLE such as Google Apps for education
and the Khan Academy for innovative teaching and learning (BTP, 2018). In
addition, the solution provider for the Asian region, FrogAsia, is constantly
looking at improving teaching techniques with the use of VLE (BTP, 2018).
9.2.3 STEM
In ensuring that Malaysia is able to produce sufficient workforce in the science and
technology areas the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI)
states that there needs to be a ratio of 60:40 students pursuing science, technical
and engineering in schools and universities than in the field of arts (Rose Amnah
Rauf, u.d.). Hence, there is a need to formulate creative and effective strategies to
encourage Malaysians to take up studies in the field of science and technology to
ensure the sustainability of science and technology in Malaysia. Hence, the
Malaysian Educational Blueprint 2013-2025 aims to ensure students are equipped
with the necessary skills to meet the challenges of an increasingly industrialised
world by strengthening STEM initiatives (Rose Amnah Rauf, u.d.).
life, the environment and society as a whole (KPM, 2016). Hence, teaching and
learning practices in STEM are to involve students in scientific inquiry, to solve
issues and real world problems, to involve students in productive team work and
to provide opportunities for students to apply process skills and for continuous
improvement (KPM, 2016).
ACTIVITY 9.2
Compare the current trends in the use of technology in the classroom in
Malaysia with the global trends outlined in the NMC New Horizon
Report 2017 in the previous activity. What do you think of the initiatives
carried out in Malaysia? How likely are these initiatives to succeed?
SELF-CHECK 9.1
(a) What are the five objectives of the Malaysian Smart School?
„If youÊre heading in the wrong direction, technology wonÊt help you get to
the right place.‰
Steve Ehrman (1995)
Admittedly, we know there are barriers that schools face in seeking to integrate
technology into their curriculum. We also want to examine the barriers schools
face in implementing a successful technology-rich learning environment and what
needs to be done to help teachers and administrators overcome these obstacles.
Some of these barriers are explained in an article entitled Barriers to Technology
Integration for Teaching and Learning Barriers to Technology.
ACTIVITY 9.3
The stages of technology integration in schools are described in the Figure 9.2.
Study it carefully and relate it, if you can, to how technology has been integrated
in your own organisation.
South Korea had progressed from a Web 1.0 in 1990 to Web 2.0 in 2004 where the
Cyber Home Learning System (CHLS) was introduced. CHLS, a nationwide online
learning initiative of the South Korean Ministry of Education, provided learners
with free online services offering learning content, with adaptive support to take
into account learners' capabilities, so that learners would be able to perform better
within the public school systems and to ensure equity of educational opportunities
in both the urban and rural schools in South Korea (Bacsich, 2013).
CHLS offers supplementary materials and activities related to school work for
students to access voluntarily through the Internet at home and be involved in
additional learning opportunities, with support and guidance from cyber teachers'
and tutors, in private learning spaces on cyberspace (Bacsich, 2013). The objectives
of the CHLS were as follows:
In 2005 to 2006, over 1.5 million students participated in the CHLS, which was
supported by over 6,000 cyber teachers (Bacsich, 2013).
On 29 June 2011, the Smart Education Initiative (SEI) was announced for
implementation in South Korea. SMART learning uses and open public platform
for sharing resources and is voluntary participation, utilising Web 3.0
technologies. SMART education puts voluntary participation and a sharing
culture as the centre of education (Chun & Lee, 2015). SMART learning is an
acronym which stands for:
(d) R: Resource enriched for learning, enabling all students to learn with
enriched resources.
As learner and their teachers are connected with networked technologies and
devices such as Chromebooks and iPads, collaboration among learners, with their
teachers and other experts is easily done, both during school and out of school
(AITSL, 2017a). With access to studentsÊ administrative data and curriculum
resources, teachers are able to personalise instruction for their students based on
their student aptitude, achievement, curriculum choices and pathways, while
breaking geographical barriers.
This is in line with the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young
Australians in 2008, when the Ministers of Education in Australia endorsed that
building innovation was linked with teaching and learning with technologies
(Moyle, 2010). For this purpose, Australian school education needed to provide
the capacity for a high quality of life to compete in the global economy on
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
190 TOPIC 9 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS
In teacher training, the Australian Professional Standard for Teachers note the
crucial role of the teacher for nation in ensuring student achievement and hence
promotes high professional standards to guide teachers professional learning,
practice and engagement to ensure teacher quality (AITSL, 2011). For effective
professional practice in teaching and learning, teachers need to plan and
implement effective teaching and learning to develop studentsÊ literacy and
numeracy within their subject areas. This may be done using Information and
Communication Technology to contextualise and expand their studentsÊ modes
and breadth of learning (AITSL, 2011). In addition, the standards also encourage
professional engagement with colleagues, parents or carers and the community of
educators within collaborative professional learning communities to improve their
learning and to engage with a broader professional community (AITSL, 2011).
Currently, in the UK, Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) are being used in
schools. FrogEducation is a provider of VLEs which provides educational modules
and resources for 12,000 schools (https://www.frogeducation.com/). The BBC
also provides educational content under various subject areas under BBC-Bitsize
(https://www.bbc.com/education). These digital materials were formerly part of
the BBC Digital Curriculum and Learning Zone Class Clips. By providing access
to innovative technologies through VLE and interactive content and videos, it is
believe the unengaged students or those with special needs will be motivated to
learn.
In recalling the UKÊs e-strategy to transform learning, the focus of learning had
been on productive learning activities (see Figure 9.7). The subjects in the
curriculum would need to develop learnersÊ skills, from basic to advanced and be
supported by e-learning. Technology the possibility of developing a highly
interactive environment for practising aspects of other generic skills, such as
observation, textual analysis, communication and data interpretation. E-learning
innovation focused on virtual learning environments for supporting learning
activities that support both skill learning and understanding.
Accelerating the Use of ICT in Primary schools (AICTP) was the first pilot by the
Ministry of Education in using ICT for learning. The AITP project piloted in six
schools in mid-1995, introduced multi-media teaching in key subjects at the
primary school level. The evaluation yielded positive results as the more
academically-inclined students used ICT to go beyond curricula objectives and
became more independent learners, while the less academically-inclined ones
showed greater interest in their studies, encouraged by hands-on lessons, and
were able to attain the curricula objectives (Koh & Lee, 2008).
The Student's and Teacher's Workbench (STW) implemented in six pilot secondary
schools in Singapore in 1996, provided a central repository of educational
resources and lesson packages for teachers at the Secondary One level for a fully
ICT-based Science curriculum. The evaluation indicated that students were
motivated to learn Science. The JCNet was a research and development project on
the use of the Internet and was implemented in two Junior Colleges in 1997.
The ICT Masterplan II was launched in April 1997 and one of its agenda was the
integration and expansion of the scope of these three major pilot initiatives (AITP,
STW, and JCNet projects). It took into account the lessons learnt from these
initiatives. For example, several features of the STW had been incorporated in the
Masterplan, such as the development of Digital Media Repositories (DMRs) of
resources for use by teachers and the involvement of private sector content
providers in the project. In the course of implementing the ICT Masterplan in all
secondary schools, further lessons were drawn from the STW project to decide on
how such an initiative could be extended to other schools.
Schools are also connected to Singapore ONE, the worldÊs first nationwide
broadband network via the Singapore ONE@Schools. The project has provided
high-speed information access and facilitated the delivery of multimedia-intensive
and content-rich educational materials to teachers and students. They have faster
access to government services, news-on-demand, distance learning, video
conferencing capability and fast Internet.
In addition, the ICT CORE Training for all schools was completed by May 2001,
where the teachers were trained in basic ICT competencies in the use of the word
processor, spreadsheets and the Internet. (http://sam11.moe.gov.sg/tn/)
All these initiatives are supposed to fulfil the six intended outcomes for ICT
integration in Singapore schools as stated in SingaporeÊs Masterplan II for IT in
Education which are as follows:
(d) Schools have the capacity and capability in using IT for school improvement;
(f) There is an infrastructure that supports widespread and effective use of IT.
Figure 9.12 shows the four main MOE support for schools in Singapore. The
Master Plan is monitored by the Educational Technology Division under the
Ministry of Education Singapore.
Figure 9.12: Support for school provided by Ministry of Education (MOE) Singapore
Source: Huat (n.d.)
ACTIVITY 9.4
Will the learners have more opportunities to develop the skills they need
for participating fully in a technology-rich society? Will the learners
have more choices about where, when and how to study?
What about teachers? What type of benefits, if any, did teachers gain
from the implementation? Could teachers improve their teaching skills
with the integration of technology applications and processes?
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Education needs to prepare the learners to enter the workforce. What skills do the
learners in the 21st century require? New technologies provide the learners the
opportunity to explore new approaches to teaching and learning. However, are
teachers still teaching in the same way as well, or have their teaching methods
changed to reflect the changes in the world? The information-rich world means
that information is available anywhere anytime, and so the way we teach will need
to change.
Teachers use new technologies for the same reason they use books,
worksheets, and other teaching tools·to help their students learn.
Short term trends which will drive educational technology in schools in the
next two years include Coding as literacy and STEAM (science, technology,
engineering, arts and mathematics) learning.
Best practices in Korea are the Cyber Home Learning System (CHLS), a
nationwide online learning initiative of the South Korean Ministry of
Education for learners to access free online services and learning content and
the Smart Education Initiative (SEI), for sharing resources and is voluntary
participation, utilising web 3.0 technologies.
Alias, N., DeWitt, D., & Siraj, S. (2013). Development of Science pedagogical
module based on learning styles and technology. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia:
Pearson Malaysia.
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (2017a). 21st century
education (Video). Retrieved from https://www.aitsl.edu.au/tools-
resources/resource/21st-century-education
Bacsich, P. (2013). Virtual initiatives in Education: South Korea. (D. Proli, Major
Update). Retrieved from http://www.virtualschoolsandcolleges.eu
/index.php/South_Korea
Ehrmann, S. C. (1995). Asking the right questions: What does research tell us about
technology and higher learning? Change, 27(2), 20ă27.
Freeman, A., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Davis, A., & Hall Giesinger, C.
(2017). NMC/CoSN Horizon Report: 2017 Kă12 Edition. Austin, Texas: The
New Media Consortium.
Lever-Duffy J., & McDonald, J. B., & Mizell, A. P. (2005). Teaching and learning
with technology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education.
Rose Amnah Abd Rauf (u.d). STEM Pedagogical approach for primary science
teachers' through early engineering twining program. Retrieved from
http://eprints.um.edu.my/16793/1/0001.pdf
INTRODUCTION
As computer and networking technologies become ubiquitous, we are surrounded
with devices networked with our everyday equipment in our homes. We are able
to control our TV, refrigerators and air conditioning at a distance through our
mobile device. The Internet of Things (IoT), where the interconnection via the
Internet of computing devices embedded in everyday objects, enabling them to
send and receive data, enables usersÊ mobility and changes the way we do things.
There will be changes in the way we perceive transportation, medical and
healthcare, agriculture and security.
In 2003, Downes stated that future technologies have the potential to change the
fabric of learning through four ways (see Figure 10.1):
Are these areas still relevant today? In what way has the delivery of technology
changed?
Hence, it is crucial for us to outline some of the issues, challenges and questions
facing schools and higher education institutions as they consider the use of future
technologies in support of teaching and learning. A few questions need to
answered as shown in Figure 10.2:
These are some of the questions we will try to answer together in this topic by
studying the latest top trends in learning technologies.
According to Khalifeh (2016), the frequently used mobile activities in Malaysia are
(see Figure 10.3):
The pervasiveness of the mobile devices is undeniable. We have smart phones and
tablets to smart watches, all mini computers which are changing the way humans
interact with information and their surroundings. Hence, there is a large potential
in designing for learning environments using the mobile platform.
Mobile learning is not something new in the Malaysian education system. Since
2009, Open University Malaysia (OUM) was already experimenting with
SMS-based learning (Yahaya, 2017). There were many isolated projects on using
text message through SMS in schools for language learning and science (Sim, 2005;
DeWitt, 2010). Today, there are numerous applications on both Android and
iPhones. Content from the Internet is also accessed easily as mobile web pages,
interactive simulations and videos.
Mobile learning has been defined in several ways. When it focuses on the
technology, which is mobile technologies to access to materials virtually
anywhere, it focuses on the use of the device. However, Traxler states that mobile
learning can be defined to emphasise the ownership of the mobile device, the
context of the learning or the mobility of the learner (Traxler, 2009). It can be
considered as the process of acquiring and constructing knowledge through
interactions with content and other learners, where the content is delivered in
smaller chunks (DeWitt, Alias & Siraj, 2015). M-learning differs from e-learning
because of the ownership of the personalised device, and the form of learning for
the mobility of the learner, the process of learning and the organisation of content
materials (DeWitt et al., 2015).
As depicted in Figure 10.4, there are a few methods for mobile learning which are
delivering content through:
When text messages are used for learning, these text messages are pushed to
learners who were enrolled in a course in the form of SMS or MMS alerts
(Naismith, Lonsdale, Vavoula, & Sharples, 2004). Later studies had more
interactive text messages with content. In a project for driving, sport and health
education, messages, dialogues, quizzes and mobile content using Flash animation
have been delivering content to the learner (Colley & Stead, 2003 as cited in
Naismith et al., 2004).
The current trend is the use of mobile apps to deliver content and simulate learning
environments. Educational apps such as Ready4 SAT, Photomath, My Study Life,
Math Motion: Cupcake! and edX are some of the popular iPhone and Android
apps which can be downloaded from iTunes and Google Play Store. Some of these
apps have content attached to them while others such as Dropbox and Evernote
are for content curation and compilation.
Location-based mobile apps are also used to deliver content using push
technologies. Mobile technologies use global positioning system (GPS) to detect
the location and deliver activities and content in the authentic environment.
Subjects such as biology, geophysics and geography could use the location in the
real environment to deliver additional information and activities (Pintus, Carboni,
Paddeu, Piras & Sanna, 2004).
The Mobile Virtual Campus has also assisted students in making virtual field trips
for distance education in physical geography and science (Tan, Liu & Burkle, 2013).
There are apps for tourists such as Detour which provides guided walking tours
around a cityÊs famous neighbourhoods and landmarks. As you approach the
location of the landmark, the apps trigger audio clips to describe the landmark
with background music provided. This has been used in National Parks ServiceÊs
National Mall app to explore historical buildings and monuments in the city.
A detailed map that tracks landmarks and points of interest, and a „Park Lens‰
augmented reality view that tags surrounding buildings are included in the app.
Another game app, Pokémon Go, combines augmented reality technology for the
player to discover and collect Pokémons, and items in Pokéstops. PokéStop and
Gyms, which are tied to real world locations that you need to physically travel to,
encouraging players to explore their neighbourhood physically.
The first wave of mobile learning was the use of small, low-cost apps which were
extensions to the mobile device (Johnson et al., 2016). Arising from advances in
mobile technologies, numerous educational apps have been created for language
learning, mathematic and science, and for other subjects, which can be used across
Android and iPhone devices. However, the recent trend in m-learning is
demanding for more online learning opportunities to learn and experience new
concepts anywhere, and across multiple devices without being tied to specific apps
for content delivery.
ACTIVITY 10.1
How has mobile learning been used in instruction? What are the changes
in the way mobile learning has been carried out? How do you foresee
mobile learning of the future? Discuss this with your coursemates in the
myINSPIRE forum.
Knowing the learners and the skills they have, as well as the devices they can
access can assist the instructor in planning the learning experience that they
require. A survey of the learnerÊs needs and readiness, which included their
perception of the use of the tool or the environment for the mobile learning
process, would be beneficial.
What are the devices which the learner will be using? Are the devices mobile
or static? What are the capabilities of the device? What is the learning
platform? These are some of the considerations required for planning the
technologies to be used. The portability of the device, include the
psychological comfort in using the tool and devices and the satisfaction with
the tool and activities, must be considered.
ACTIVITY 10.2
As a Google user, you may be familiar with the speed and accuracy of a Google
search. How exactly does Google manage to find the right results for every
query as quickly as it does? The heart of GoogleÊs search technology is
PigeonRank™, a system for ranking web pages developed by Google founders
Larry Page and Sergey Brin at Stanford University.
The most highly visited sites often started off by helping people find something on
the Web. Some information are incredibly easy to find on almost all search sites.
Other questions cannot be answered at all using just the Internet resources; some
searches will continue to be extremely difficult. The new technological approaches
may be able to help with some kinds of searches. If nothing else, they can help give
us greater insight into the search process. For example, when you are looking for
magazines or journal articles, search engines can be helpful, but other specialised
search tools are often a better alternative ă particularly in the academic, scholarly
and sci-tech. areas.
Search engines are large software programmes or web crawlers which indexes by
associating worlds and other definable tokens from titles, page content, and
headings, or metadata, to create databases of web pages on specific information on
a given subject. Many search engines have filters that can anticipate the userÊs
requirements based on the user's current history. In this way, the search engine
anticipates your need for information (Abas, Kaur, & Tengku Shariman, 2017).
(b) PubMed
A well-known database for biomedical literature developed and maintained
by National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), at the U.S.
National Library of Medicine (NLM) (NCBI, u.d.). This is a very in-depth
collection of medical research, dating back to the 1950s. There are links
within selected article summaries that will take you to a free, full text archive.
(c) CiteSeerX
CiteSeerX is an evolving scientific literature digital library and public search
engine which focuses on scientific and academic papers, primarily in the
fields of computer and information science (About CiteSeerX, 2016). The
features of CiteSeer X enables the extraction of citation, metadata and
computes citation statistics of related documents. What is particularly
intriguing about these two databases is that they let you look for articles that
reference a particular article, thus letting you track down articles related to
your topic. Individual records list the articles that cite that record („Cited
by:‰) as well as a list of „Similar documents‰ and „Related documents‰,
calculated by analysing the articles themselves. These two databases are built
by specialised search engine spiders that scour the web for full-text articles,
so you can download the full text of any of the articles retrieved in CiteSeerX.
(d) OAIster
OAI data is obtained from Open Archives initiative (OAI)-compliant digital
libraries through the WorldCat Digital Collection Gateway (OCLC, 2018). An
index to academically-oriented „digital resources‰ available for free more
than 2,000 organizations organisations using metadata tagged to the
resources to identify the content (OCLC, 2018). These digital resources range
from images at the Library of Congress to audio files, reference books such
as dictionaries, articles from online journals and electronic books. You can
search for any word within the document, or you can limit your search to the
document title, author, subject or type of material (audio, video, text and so
on). The search results page includes a description of each item, along with a
link you can click to get a copy of the item.
After searching and finding the articles that you need, you may decide to
bookmark the article. Bookmarking tools on your browser or other social
bookmarking tools may be used (see Topic x).
ACTIVITY 10.3
Use one of the specialised Search Tools such as Google Scholar. Attempt
to do a search for a keyword relevant in your subject area. Identify how
many items are suggested. Are the number of citations per article given?
What other information can you obtain from the items identified? Share
your findings in the myINSPIRE forum.
Some resources may not be searchable with search engines, and are considered in
the invisible web. Resources on the invisible web are mainly maintained by
academics. Hence, the next development in search technology is to find means and
ways to penetrate the „walled gardens‰ of the invisible web. Technology will need
to find ways to trespass these gardens, which are impenetrable to search engines,
to harvest information (Sentance, 2016).
Mobile technology has changed the way people search for information. We are
searching for information while on-the-go: during meetings, as we read
newspapers, and while travelling (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). Search
engines need to adapt to run on mobile devices, and will need to be app-based.
At present, there are a few mobile app based applications: Google app, Wikipedia
app, and DuckDuckGo (Sentance, 2016).
Digital assistants on mobile phones like Siri on iPhone and MicrosoftÊs Cortana are
able to respond to voice commands and perform tasks. Hence, the next level of
search technologies needed is to incorporate Voice search on the mobile device to
make it more efficient. Siri and Cortana can already perform search queries and
need not route their searches through Google to return the results (Sentance, 2016).
GoogleÊs voice-controlled digital assistant, Google Now is GoogleÊs reaction to
Voice activated search tool.
As wearable technologies become more common, and the digital mobile devices
become smarter and more predictive. It can already be used to read the weather
forecast. Can it soon be used to predict potential relationships and, maybe even
suggest what we should be searching for? All these are possible in the near future.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
(b) The layout contains a header, footer, and content. Usually, there is at least
one sidebar running beside the content;
(c) There are categories of posts given which may be part of the navigation;
(e) Post may contain text and images, (and often video and other media
embedded);
(f) Posts may be linked to other posts, both within a blog and to the entire web;
(g) Has a contact page and a form for submission of comments; and
Blogs may have a display of recent posts and even a plugin that automatically
sends new post details to be shared on Twitter or Facebook. There may also be
image galleries and the ability to turn the post into an easy to print document
(Byrd, 2014).
Several characteristics for successful blogs have been outlined as follows (Abas,
Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017; Collins, 2012):
(a) Your post must have content which is relevant and pertinent to your
audience. This means that you will need to know your audience;
(b) Secondly, you will need to post information that is useful to your audience.
If you aim to educate your audience, with relevant and useful information,
your blog would be valuable. However, when your information is too self-
absorbed and just stating your feeling and thoughts, it may be a failure;
(c) Thirdly, your posts should be engaging, and that means is should be well-
written, without errors, personal, interesting, and interactive;
(d) Next, your blog should be able to spark discussion and generate
conversation. So, you would include your readers in the discussion, asking
for their feedback, thoughts, opinions, or even just comments especially at
the end of article to garner a response;
(e) Further, blog posts should be readable, which means that if the articles
cannot be easily digested, people will skip reading it. So, you need to be
direct to the point. Bullets, lists, graphs, and images make content easy to
read; and
(f) Finally, do have an appropriate length for the post. If you can write a well
thought out, complete article in 400 words, that is great. If you can keep it
interesting, engaging, relevant and informative all the way to 1,500 words,
then it is still a great blog post.
In conclusion, good posts would be informative, engage the reader and enable
interaction with a sense of online community (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman,
2017).
However, there are three elements to differentiate blogs from vlogs. They are as
depicted in Figure 10.7:
Khan (2016) in Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, (2017) also highlighted six
characteristics for successful vlogs. They are as follows:
(a) Firstly, there must be a goal, a mission and a passion for the idea. It can be
about hairstyling, for example the YouTube channel, Luxy Hair which
creates hair tutorials.
(b) Then, the value of the message: Storytelling is an important element: your
stories, personal life plans, goals, and married life form an attachment
between the audience and the vlogger. People want to be entertained as well
as learn.
(c) Thirdly, depending on the mission of your vlog, what niche area it stands for
and who is the target audience interested in your content: hobbies, beauty
and fashion, entrepreneurship guidance and business.
(d) Targeting your audience, and knowing who constitutes your audience may
differ. For example, a prankster vlogger, Roman Atwood, has now grown
into a family vlogger as he films with his sons, girlfriend, dog, friends and
family, so he has a mixed audience.
(f) Finally, you have to be natural and innovative in creating your distinctive
style. Do not impersonate others, instead use your own style. For
instance, Adam Saleh is a popular YouTuber and vlogger. He has a certain
style of giving his vlog intro by saying a certain dialogue „Hey guys, whatÊs
up? I hope youÊre having an amazing day, because IÊm having an amazing
day, so if IÊm having an amazing day, so you all should be having an amazing
day‰.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Would you start a vlog or a blog? You can get some ideas from the
following link: http://tech.co/the-great-debate-blogging-vs-vlogging-
and-how-to-get-the-most-out-of-both-2016-07.
In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss why you would blog/vlog and why
you would not, if relevant.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
What are the important points to be aware of when you develop your
own vlogs? Suggest a topic which you could vlog on. Share your topic
with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE forum.
prompts such as, what questions would you ask the author on the text, and
who would most benefit from this?
However, with blogs, media tools are being used to create highly interactive
channels using audio-visuals and the Internet. Videoblogging may serve as
a strong educational tool by providing students with rich opportunities to
reflect on messages being conveyed and in the creation of their messages
(Baran, 2007).
ACTIVITY 10.5
Design a lesson for students to blog on. Identify the skills that can be
promoted in your instructional activities. Share your answer in the
myINSPIRE forum.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCFebmxJBh559c8BEcnxL-DQ
Now, let us look into some of the main benefits of blogging and vlogging for
educators as stated in Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman, (2017). They are as follows:
Podcasts and vodcasts are simple to create and view. In education, more schools
and institutions are podcasting. In the classroom, podcasting stimulates learning
through creative means and open lines of communication.
In Malaysia, radio channels like BFM produce podcasts on Tech Talks and other
popular matters, and it is fast gaining popularity (Abas, Kaur & Tengku Shariman,
2017). Table 10.2 suggests factors for the massive growth of podcasting based on
studies done in this field.
Factors Explanation
The quality of podcasts Some like on The AtlanticÊs list are full-scale
recently has improved productions with a real staff, budget and industry
(Roose, 2014) expertise behind them.
Cars are now being Just like radio-listening during the drive-time commute,
connected (Roose, 2014) drive-time commuters will now listen to online podcasts
such as GoogleÊs Android Auto and AppleÊs Apple
CarPlay.
Most new cars in the US these days come with the ability
to play smartphone audio over the carÊs speakers, either
through Bluetooth connectivity or a USB or auxiliary
plug, and it is believed that by 2025, all cars will be
internet-connected.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
(a) Podcasts seems to encourage reading habit. With the advent of engaging
podcasts such as Serial and The Atlantic, more students were reading and
listening at the same time (Godsey, 2016). Audio books and podcasts do have
their role to play, making learning a very personal to the learner.
(c) In language learning, podcasts can be used with compelling stories to discuss
and analyses situations where pieces of evidence are used to prosecute
criminals. The practice of investigative journalism can be put to practice.
(d) Podcasts can be used for reviewing materials. Students who are creating
materials and speaking out loud seem to retain information better as well.
Study groups to produce podcasts before a topic enables collaborative and
productive work.
(e) Podcasts can be independent learning projects for students to research a topic
and create a weekly podcast on the development of the event. An example is
the 60 second science podcast where an expert scientist discusses a scientific
topic for under 2 minutes.
ACTIVITY 10.6
Research into apps that can be used for recording podcasts: Soundtrap,
GarageBand, Vocaroo, and SoundCloud. Next the podcast needs to be
uploaded on a platform: Podbean and YouTube, both of which will
quickly upload Mp3 files for your class to listen to. In the myINSPIRE
forum, suggest ways in which you can create podcasts or other audio
files to share.
AI has been called machine-learning, and is related to big data and algorithms.
Hindi gives a few examples of AI: A „Google search‰ that filters what the
individual needs based on his regular search behaviour, and that decides what to
show and what not to show as he does the search; the news feed on Facebook
which is pushed based on by the profiles that the user has clicked on, as it models
what the user is interested in; and self-driving cars (Hindi, & Luckin, 2016). In all
these cases, the learning in the system is based on oneÊs interaction which may be
what we search, or click on, as there is an autonomous algorithm involved (Abas,
Kaur & Tengku Shariman, 2017). In the self-driving car, the car is autonomous and
replaces the human driver.
Hence, AIEd can be used to create learning tools that are more efficient,
flexible and inclusive than those currently available; tools that will help
learners prepare for an economy that is swiftly being reshaped by digital
technologies (Institute of Education, 2016). This would mean that we could
begin to predict what our learners need and be able to provide one-on-one
tutoring to every student, in every subject in order to create authentic virtual
learning environments while personalising learning (Institute of Education,
2016).
ACTIVITY 10.7
Have you used any virtual reality applications? How do they make use
of artificial intelligence? Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.
ACTIVITY 10.8
There are many other possibilities of using AI and virtual reality for
teaching and learning. In the myINSPIRE forum, discuss some of the
applications that can be used and how you would incorporate them into
teaching and learning.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
How does knowledge flow within a network? Which factors have an impact on
the process? If we tentatively ascribe life-like properties to our learning
networks, we can partly answer this question. Any living organism seeks two
primary functions: replication and preservation. Nodes within our networks
follow similar aspirations. Established beliefs and learning often ensure that
new information is routed through (i.e., contextualised) the existing network.
New information is evaluated and coded with reference to the existing meme of
the learning network‰.
The learning theory of the information age, „connectivism‰, differs from the
traditional theories such as behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism
(Siemens, 2005). Connectivism considers learning as a process in which the role of
informal information exchange, organised into networks and supported with
electronic tools, becomes more and more significant. Learning becomes a
continuous, lifelong system of network activities, embedded into other activities
(Bessenyei, 2008).
As we communicate differently today and use different tools for learning, we also
experience knowledge in different formats and at a different pace. There is an
overwhelming amount of information, and so new theories of knowledge and
learning are needed. And it is in this space that a whole development model of
learning must be created (i.e. learning beyond vocational skills, leading to the
development of persons as active contributors to quality of life in society).
Knowledge is no more residing only in the mind of an individual, but in a
distributed manner across a network and learning is the act of recognising patterns
shaped by complex networks.
According to Siemens (2006), the networked act of learning exists on two levels:
Web 2.0 applications foster the culture of contextualising information and building
connections for learning. This is because the users can express themselves, to share,
communicate and collaborate with others on these applications. Web 2.0
applications such as blogs, podcasts, wikis, collaborative documents and concept
mapping, VoiceThread, video sharing applications (e.g., YouTube), microblogging
(e.g., Facebook and Twitter), social networking sites and social bookmarking are
engaging and can connect millions of members of the community (Hsu, Ching, &
Grabowski, 2014). Hence, the creation of a collective knowledge can only be done
when there are connections to acquire the information distributed across all these
applications and repositories of knowledge. As the community of learners
exchange knowledge and relate and make connections with their work and life, a
collective knowledge of the community is developed.
SELF-CHECK 10.5
10.7 CONCLUSION
Technology constantly evolves and there will always be newer and better tools
developed. As an instructional designer and an educator, and a lifelong learner, it
is your task to ensure that you are constantly aware of the new developments and
updating your knowledge as well as exploring new possibilities and frontiers for
innovation and change.
Technology has changed the way we play, communicate and work. It will also
affect the way we teach and learn. In the networked work, new learning theories
are required to explain the way we learn. It is a collective knowledge, which arises
from the community. Collaboration and interactivity needs to be designed into
learning activities. While learning is personal to the learner, learning is also
situated in the communities which we are a part of. The teacher, with the support
of the learning institution needs to ensure that they support the connectivism and
allow for learners to explore and develop patterns of connections in knowledge.
As technology changes the way information is delivered, instructional designers
and teachers will need to consider the best way to adapt these technologies to
benefit the learners.
ACTIVITY 10.10
(b) What preparations do you need for the use of this technology?
What learning materials do you require?
(c) What does the learner need to do to be prepared for the use of this
technology? Describe your implementation plan.
Educators must evolve their current practices in teaching and learning when
applying these technologies.
It is more likely that there is a particular technology mode that suits an area of
study.
Andragogy Mobigogy
Artificial intelligence (AI) Podcast
Artificial Intelligence in Education Vlog
(AIEd)
Vodcast
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INTERNET READING
http://archive.columbiatribune.com/2003/Dec/20031214News002.asp
http://blog.lib.umn.edu/blogosphere/
http://csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/c5/2003/1975/00/19750128.pdf
http://technologysource.org/
http://www.connectivism.ca/about
http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/erm04/erm0450.asp
http://www.intel.com/education/handhelds/engaged_learning.htm
http://www.learningathand.com/curriculum/all.php
http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/pdf/1440.pdf
http://www.midgefrazel.net/pda.html
http://www.m-learning.org/
http://www.mpsomaha.org/willow/p5/handhelds/index.html
http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=article&articleid=CA3
19016
http://www.squidoo.com/introtoweb20/
http://www.techlearning.com/db_area/archives/TL/2003/04/spotlight.htmlht
tp://www.k12handhelds.com/apps.php
http://www.trainer.org.uk/members/theory/process/pedagogy_androgogy.htm
http://www.weblogg-ed.com/about
OR
Thank you.