Albert Einstein 1

Albert Einstein: Pacifism, the bomb,

and the social responsibility of scientists

Marcie Fairchild

History of Science and Technology

Dr. Doris T. Zallen

December 3, 2007
 Albert Einstein 2

Abstract

As an ardent pacifist, Einstein spent his life promoting peace through embracing an

international government and rejecting authoritarianism and militarism. During the First World

War, Einstein began to publicly advocate pacifist methods. This continued after the war with his

participation in the League of Nations and the German League for Human Rights. In 1933 with the

appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany, Einstein’s worldview quickly changed.

Hitler’s fascist rule opposed everything Einstein stood for including the sanctity of life, the

importance of intellectual freedom, and the futility of militarism. In 1938 with the world on the

brink of the second world war in two decades, physics and military technology collided with the

possibility of the atomic bomb utilizing Einstein’s equation e=mc2. At the request of other

scientists, Einstein signed letters to President Roosevelt encouraging atomic research. After the war,

without the risk of the “Nazi menace”, Einstein spoke out against the menacing nature of man

encouraging the disarmament of nuclear weapons. Additionally, he continuously denied

responsibility for the atomic bomb. Albert Einstein’s actions following the detonation of the atomic

bomb in the context of his pacifist nature speaks to his view on the social responsibility of scientists.
 Albert Einstein 3

Albert Einstein: Pacifism, the bomb, and the social responsibility of scientists

While society often depicts scientists as aloof and disconnected from the world they live in,

the implications of their work are certainly not. Few scientists see, in their lifetime, these

implications affect humankind as Albert Einstein did. In a unique combination of world affairs,

scientific discovery, and political policy, theory from Einstein’s paper on special relativity came to

life as the most destructive weapon ever used. The life of Albert Einstein provides an interesting

combination of scientist and politician, “father of the bomb” and social advocate, pacifist and

activist. Additionally, these events set a unique precedent for the social responsibility of scientists.

As a German patent clerk, Albert Einstein began publishing scientific papers in 1901. In

1905, Einstein’s annus mirabilis, he published multiple papers, one of which he later received the

Nobel Prize for. In the years following these publications, Einstein focused on science and in 1914

moved to Berlin to accept the position as Director of Research at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in the

midst of the First World War (Hoffmann, 1973). Einstein’s first public affirmation of the pacifist

movement came later that year. He along with three other supporters signed the “Appeal to

European Response” (also called “Manifesto to Europe”) in response to “Appeal to the World

Kultur” (also called “Manifesto to the Cultured World”) (Rotblat, 1979; Sonnert, 2005). This

manifesto rejected the nationalistic promotion of the war effort in Germany. While Einstein was

not secretive about his political views, he was still primarily a physicist. His politics, unlike his

scientific theories, were largely undeveloped and lacked cohesive underpinnings. Although a

member of the New Fatherland Association, a group focused on bringing peace and establishing an

international government, Einstein remained in the background of the movement concentrating on

the completion of his general theory of relativity. He wrote to a friend in early 1915 “in spite of the

troubling, disgusting war I work quietly in my room” (Rowe & Schulmann, 2007, p. 61). Later that
 Albert Einstein 4

year, Einstein began to look beyond the confines of his desk into the struggling war torn world and

wrote an essay on the psychological origins of war. Georg Nicolai, author of the 1914 manifesto

and a confidant of Einstein’s future wife, Elsa, perhaps sparked Einstein’s interest in the pacifist

movement (Rowe & Schulmann, 2007).

Einstein was thrust into public acclaim with the confirmation of his theory of relativity in

1919. Though he detested fame, he embraced the influence and responsibility that accompanied his

fame (Rowe & Schulmann, 2007). He used the success of his science as a platform to promote his

social agenda. In the following years, Einstein further developed his political views and composed

countless letters, publications, and essays pleading for the development of an international

government. Einstein was active with the League of Nations, specifically the Committee of

Intellectual Cooperation, seeing the organization as an important step towards an international

governing body. He was also a member of the German League for Human Rights and spoke out

against fascism and war calling for people to refuse military service (Rosenkranz, 1998).

In 1933, Einstein’s politics quickly shifted as Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany.

Foreseeing the destruction of Europe that was looming, he turned from idealism to survival. More

insightful than most of his pacifist counterparts, Einstein saw the goals of Hitler to include the

occupation of Europe (Rotblat, 1979). The Fascist regime of the Nazis contradicted everything

Einstein stood for including the sanctity of life, the importance of intellectual freedom, and the

futility of militarism. He also recognized the importance of military presence in democratic

countries to thwart the Nazi takeover of Europe. Reflecting in on his convictions in a 1953 letter

Einstein wrote, “I am a dedicated but not an absolute pacifist; this means that I am opposed to the

use of force under any circumstances except when confronted by an enemy who pursues the

destruction of life as an end in itself” (Neuenschwander, 2004). A 1933 political cartoon in The

Brooklyn Eagle depicted Einstein taking up the sword of preparedness and laying down the wings of
 Albert Einstein 5

non-resistant pacifism (Rosenkranz, 1998). In July of that year, Einstein wrote to Alfred Nahon

recanting his militant pacifism. He reasoned that if smaller countries like Belgium did not develop

their military, they would be overrun and no longer exist. This letter, at Einstein’s request, was

published in La Patrie humanie for other pacifists to read. Einstein received criticism for abandoning

pacifism in many forms including publicly by Brent Dow Allison in a 1934 article entitled “Speak,

Einstein, for the Peace for Europe.” In his response, Einstein justified the change by concentrating

on the change in the political circumstances. He writes, “I do not believe that under present

circumstance passive resistance is an effective method, even if carried out in the most heroic

manner…The confirmed pacifist must therefore at present seek a plan of action different from that

of former, more peaceful times”(Rowe & Schulmann, 2007, p. 286). The plan Einstein encouraged

was one in which the peace-seeking countries united to impede the effort of the controlling Nazi

regime. Einstein watched from Princeton, New Jersey for years as the Fascist government marched

across Europe devaluing the human life and eliminating intellectual freedom. In the article “Ten

Fateful Years” (1938) Einstein writes, “In Europe to the east of the Rhine free exercise of the

intellect exists no longer, the population is terrorized by gangsters who have seized power, and

youth is poisoned by systematic lies” (Rowe & Schulmann, 2007). The future of Europe continued

to dim as Nazi power systematically persecuted an entire race, the Jewish race of which Einstein was

a part. Einstein fought the spread of fascism by pouring out publications speaking out against the

atrocities happening in Europe.

In 1938, the worlds of theoretical physics and military technology collided when nuclear

fission was discovered by Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, and Lise Meitner (Hoffmann, 1973). It was

only then the implications of the equation e=mc2, published in Einstein’s 1907 1 paper, were realized.

1 The origin of e=mc2 is often referenced as the 1905 paper “Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper” (On the
electrodynamics of moving bodies). The equation did not explicitly appear in this form until 1907 in “Über die vom
Relativitätsprinzip geforderte Trägheit der Energie” (On the Inertia of Energy Required by the Relativity Principle).
 Albert Einstein 6

This equation articulated the relationship between mass and energy; the idea mass could theoretically

be converted to energy. With the discovery of nuclear fission, this theoretical conversion became a

reality. In 1939, Leonard Szilard, a friend and contemporary of Einstein, informed him of the

discoveries. In fact he “never thought of” a chain reaction (Fara, 2005, p. 29). Along with the

excitement of the discussion of scientific discovery came the sobering reality of the consequences if

a chain reaction was successful. With Nazi power growing in Europe, Szilard and Einstein

acknowledged the danger of such a weapon in their control. To counter, they penned a letter to

President Franklin Roosevelt encouraging the support of atomic research. Six months later, when

little progress had been made, Einstein signed another letter to the president. This letter came with

an increased urgency for action. These letters contributed to the founding of the Manhattan Project.

Einstein was never a part of the project. Federal Bureau of Investigation head J. Edgar Hoover sent

out classified “anti-Einstein memos” in addition to tapping Einstein’s phone lines and intercepting

mail. This led to Army Intelligence banning Einstein from the project (Jerome, 2005). In 1941,

Vannever Bush contacted Einstein for help solving a problem on gas diffusion through membranes.

The problem was related to the Manhattan Project, but was phrased in academic terms to Einstein

so he would not gain insight into the scientists’ progress. Although he did not have direct

connection with the project, Einstein assumed progress in developing the atomic bomb was being

made and conversed with scientists around the world on the ethical implications of the bomb,

including Niels Bohr. With a working bomb months away, scientists consulted Einstein about the

implications of detonating such a bomb. In March 1945, Szilard convinced Einstein to write

another letter introducing him to the president. It was Szilard’s intent to meet with Roosevelt to

plead with him not to use the bomb, but due to Roosevelt’s unexpected death, the meeting never

occurred. Succeeding president Harry Truman did not hesitate in the decision to use the atomic
 Albert Einstein 7

bomb. On December 8, 1945, with the rest of the world, Albert Einstein was informed of the use

of the atomic bomb on Japan. This event sparked Einstein’s most intense political activity.

With the Nazi power defeated and the second world war in three decades at a close, Albert

Einstein more fervently than ever worked for world peace. Advocating against the further

development of nuclear weapons and for the development of an international government, he

poured out publications and letters worldwide. Instead of considering Einstein a developer of

peace, the world considered him the “father of the bomb” (Feld, 1979). The July 1 cover of Time

magazine depicted “Cosmoclast Einstein” in the foreground with a giant mushroom cloud inscribed

with “e=mc2” towering over microscopic battleships in the background(Fara, 2005; Rowe &

Schulmann, 2007). In a 1945 piece in the Atlantic Monthly, Einstein responded to his critics saying, “I

do not consider myself the father of the release of atomic energy. My part in it was quite indirect. I

did not, in fact, foresee that it would be released in my time. I only believed that it was theoretically

possible” (Rowe & Schulmann, 2007, p. 376). Einstein repeatedly rejected responsibility for the

atomic bomb stating his only involvement was signing a letter to President Roosevelt (Feld, 1979).

Undertones of personal remorse appeared in a December 1945 address “The War Is Won, but the

Peace Is Not” given in New York City. Einstein explained,

Physicists find themselves in a position not unlike that of Alfred Nobel. Alfred Nobel

invented the most powerful explosive ever known up to his time, a means of destruction par

excellence. In order to atone for this, in order to relieve his human conscience he instituted

his awards for the promotion of peace and for achievements for peace. Today, the

physicists who participated in forging the most formidable and dangerous weapon of all

times are harassed by an equal feeling of responsibility, not to say guilt. And we cannot

desist from warning, and warning again, we cannot and should not slacken in our efforts to

make the nations of the world…aware of the unspeakable disaster they are certain to
 Albert Einstein 8

provoke unless they change their attitude toward each other and toward the task of shaping

the future (Rowe & Schulmann, 2007, p. 380).

In this speech, Einstein addressed the current situation and its gravity. He also acknowledged a

sense of responsibility the physicists felt, himself included, and called them to a plan of action.

Much like Nobel, inventor of dynamite, fostered peace for posterity through an endowment, it was

necessary for the physicists involved with the construction of the atomic bomb to take action to

promote peace. Einstein’s vehicle for this was the pen, drafting countless articles and

correspondence urging the importance for international government and warning of the destruction

of nuclear weapons. In 1950 Major George Fielding Eliot collected all the information (scientific,

military, and political) known about the hydrogen bomb in a volume titled The H-bomb. Einstein

provided the introduction simply restating his opinion of the absurdity and danger of the arms race

and the need for disarmament and an international government (Einstein, 1950).

Although Einstein publicly rejected responsibility for the atomic bomb, he exhibited a social

responsibility to educate and advocate on the destruction of the bomb and preventative measures.

This was in character with the active political stance he took throughout his life. For Einstein,

science was the facts, the undisputable reality. It was the application of the facts that created

controversy. In 1930 he wrote, “Science is a powerful instrument. How it is used, whether it is a

blessing or a curse to man, depends on man himself and not the instrument” (Rotblat, 1979, p. 24).

Even in the 1945 “The War Is Won, but the Peace Is Not” speech, Einstein essentially washes the

scientists’ hands placing the blame on the government to whom the bomb was given. Dwight

Neuenschwander in an address as part of the World Year of Physics stated it this way, “Nature

makes fission chain reactions possible. That’s how the world is. What we ought to do about it

presents a different kind of question, namely, what ethical principles guide our decisions about use?”

(2004). The scientist is not responsible for science, for the science already exists; the scientist is only
 Albert Einstein 9

revealing it. Robert Oppenheimer, physicist and contemporary of Einstein, reflecting on the life of

Einstein acknowledged he made special relativity beautiful, but by 1932, the experimental evidence

had mounted to a point that even sans Einstein the theory still would have been developed.

With any knowledge comes responsibility, but one cannot be responsible for other’s actions

regarding that knowledge, only oneself. Albert Einstein was not responsible for the atomic bomb

because he unveiled the theoretical conversion of mass to energy. Nor was he responsible for the

atomic bomb because he informed President Roosevelt of the possibility of its creation. Einstein

did, however, have a responsibility as a scientist and human to provide the world with his knowledge

and insight. With countless manuscripts, Albert Einstein fulfilled this responsibility. Einstein

embraced a social responsibility to promote humanity, peace, and the pursuit of truth. In his final

publication, the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, signed a week before his death, Einstein encouraged

others to fulfill their responsibility. “There lies before us, if we choose, continued progress in

happiness, knowledge, and wisdom. Shall we, instead, choose death, because we cannot forget our

quarrels? We appeal, as human beings, to human beings: Remember your humanity and forget the

rest” (Neuenschwander, 2004; Rotblat, 1979).

 Albert Einstein 10

References

Einstein, A. (1950). Introduction. In G. F. Eliot (Ed.), The H Bomb (pp. 13-15). New York: Dider.

Fara, P. (2005). The maestro of time. History Today, 55(4), 28-33.

Feld, B. T. (1979). Eintstein and the politics of nuclear weapons. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 35(3),

5-16.

Hoffmann, B. (1973). Albert Einstein: Creator and rebel New York: New American Library.

Jerome, F. (2005). Einstein on race and racism. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Neuenschwander, D. E. (2004). Taking Einstein’s ethics into the 21st century: "Remember your humanity".

Paper presented at the Sigma Pi Sigma Congress. Retrieved 30 Oct. 2007, from

http://www.spsobserver.org/2006/observer_einstein.pdf.

Rosenkranz, Z. (1998). Albert through the looking-glass: The personal papers of Albert Einstein. Jerusalem:

The Jewish National & University Library.

Rotblat, J. (1979). Einstein the pacicfist warrior. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 35(3), 6.

Rowe, D. E., & Schulmann, R. J. (2007). Einstein on politics: His private thoughts and public stands on

nationalism, Zionism, war, peace, and the bomb. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Sonnert, G. (2005). Einstein and culture. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books.