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h i g h l i g h t s
Suitability of dried limestone sludge (LS) as filler in bituminous concrete mixes was assessed.
Material characterization of LS and conventional stone dust were done.
Mixes consisting both fillers were designed at four different filler contents and tested.
LS mixes delivered superior performance against rutting, fatigue and ravelling.
Cost and energy analysis were done and predicted lower manufacturing costs and lesser greenhouse gas emissions.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The dimensional limestone industries produce a substantial amount of waste limestone sludge during the
Received 4 August 2019 polishing of stone slabs. The storage and disposal of this non-biodegradable sludge cause issues regarding
Received in revised form 2 November 2019 environmental pollution, shortage of disposal land, increase in transportation cost, and several other
Accepted 2 December 2019
associated problems. This study investigated the usability of dried limestone sludge (LS) instead of con-
Available online 24 December 2019
ventional stone dust (SD) as filler in bituminous concrete mixes. The performance of SD and LS incorpo-
rated mixes in several aspects was compared, and the amount of LS needed to ensure optimum
Keywords:
bituminous mix behavior is determined. The physical and chemical properties of both fillers were initially
Filler
Bituminous mix
explored. Then bituminous concrete mixes having both fillers added at four different proportions (4, 5.5,
Dimensional limestone 7.0, and 8.5% by weight of aggregates) were prepared using the Marshall mix design method and their
Limestone sludge optimum bitumen contents (OBC) were determined. The performance of both mixes was studied. LS
Industrial waste mixes displayed paramount rutting resistance, fatigue resistance, indirect tensile strength, ravelling,
Recycling and resilient modulus than conventional mixes. It mostly attributed to the fine nature of LS, which
Sustainable construction ensured its better distribution. LS mixes also had lower OBC than SD mixes due to lower porosity and
bitumen extender action of LS. LS displayed a good affinity towards bitumen due to calcite in its compo-
sition, which led to excellent adhesion and moisture resistance in its mixes. The test results suggested
that the utilization of chosen LS as filler at an optimum filler percentage of 6.45% can result in formation
of bituminous mixes with satisfactory engineering properties, lower bitumen content as well as lower
greenhouse gas emissions.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117781
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781
Conclusions
active and passive adhesions analysis. The load distribution ability Table 1
of all mixes was computed by the calculation of indirect tensile Properties of aggregates and bitumen.
stiffness modulus or resilient modulus of the mixes. The cost anal- Material Property Specification Results
ysis and environmental analysis of all mixes were conducted by Used
comparing the production and greenhouse gas emission of the Aggregates Bulk Specific gravity of coarse ASTM C127 2.795
mixes. Finally, the optimum filler content of both types of mixes aggregate
was determined, which is based on various laboratory test results. Bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate ASTM C128 2.720
The entire methodology has been summarized in Fig. 2. Water Absorption of coarse aggregate ASTM C127 0.374
(%)
Aggregate Impact Value (%) [33] 11.1%
3. Material properties and experimental analysis Los Angeles Abrasion Value (%) [33] 13.4%
Combined Flakiness and Elongation [32] 21.3%
Index
3.1. Material
Bitumen Absolute viscosity at 60 °C, (poise) IS: 73 [31] 2692
Penetration at 25 °C (0.1 mm) 62
Coarse and fine dolomite aggregates were collected from a local Softening Point (°C) 51.5
supplier in Varanasi city (25.31°N, 82.97°E) whose properties are Ductility at 27 °C (cm) >100
stated in Table 1. The gradation used to prepare the bituminous Specific gravity 0.999
concrete mix was chosen as per MORTH [41] specification (Fig. 3).
VG 30 bitumen (similar to the 60/70 penetration grade binder)
was utilized in this study, whose various properties are stated in Indian scenario. Dolomite stone dust was utilized as the conven-
Table 1. These are two of the most widely used materials for the tional filler and was collected locally. Dried LS was collected from
preparation of the bituminous concrete mix especially in the the dump yard of the dimension stone industry located in Kota city
4 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781
Table 2
Characterization of limestone sludge and stone dust.
(26.91°N, 75.78°E), India. It was obtained directly from the dump- (4.5–6.5%). All ingredients were mixed at the mixing temperature
ing ground of the industry as the dried sludge (dust), which was of 162 °C determined as per the MS-2 guideline to form a loose
produced during the polishing of limestone slabs. Both conven- mix. The compaction of the loose mix was done at 152 °C deter-
tional and waste fillers were dried in the oven and passed through mined as per MS-2 guidelines [7]. For each mix, 15 samples (3
the 75 mm sieve. The material which passed through the 75 mm for each binder content) were prepared, and their Marshall stabil-
sieve is used as filler. ity, flow, and volumetric properties (voids in mineral aggregates
(VMA), voids filled with bitumen, air voids were determined [12].
3.2. Characterization properties of fillers OBC was considered as bitumen content in the compacted speci-
men having 4% air voids [7,41]. The increase in the filler proportion
Detailed physical and chemical properties of each filler were of mix was done by a simultaneous reduction in the fine aggregate
determined according to relevant specifications. Specific gravities proportion to maintain the chosen gradation. After the determina-
of all fillers were determined using a pycnometer as per ASTM tion of OBC for each mix, three more samples were prepared (a
D854-14 [9] guideline. Particle size distribution curves were plot- total of 24 samples for eight types of mixes), and the average val-
ted as per ASTM D422-63 [8] specifications and were characterized ues of Marshall and volumetric properties were compared. At OBC,
using fineness modulus and mean particle size (D50). It was deter- average apparent film thickness (AFT) of each mix was devised
mined by calculating the sum of filler percentages coarser than 75, according to NCHRP Report 567 [21]. Average AFT was estimated
50, 30, 20, 10, 5, 3, and 1 mm and then dividing the sum by 100 using Eq. (1).
[52,64]. Particle shape and surface texture were analyzed using
1000VBE
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. The porosity of fillers AFT ¼ ð1Þ
was determined as per the German filler test prescribed by the Gmb Ss Ps
National Asphalt Pavement Association [48]. In this test, a small where, AFT = Apparent film thickness (microns); Gmb = bulk specific
quantity of filler is added in continuous dosage to the 15 g of gravity of mix; Ss = Aggregate specific surface (m2/kg); Ps = Aggregate
hydraulic oil until the filler oil mix loses its cohesion. The porosity content, (% by total mix weight); VBE = Effective bitumen content
of filler is inversely proportional to its German filler value. (% by total mix volume)
Prevalent minerals in the filler composition were evaluated
using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) investigation, which was conducted 3.3.2. Resistance against rutting
using a Rigaku benchtop XRD device operated with Cu Ka radiation The Resistance of the bituminous mix against rutting was deter-
at 1.5406 Å wavelengths. The analysis of Methylene blue values of mined using the Marshall quotient, which measures mix’s resis-
fillers was done as per the EN 933 [25] specification to enumerate tance to shear stress and the permanent deformation (rutting)
the harmful clay content and organic matters in fillers. pH values of [66]. It is defined as the ratio of Marshall stability (kN) to flow
each filler were determined by analyzing the pH of filler-water sus- (mm) value of compacted Marshall specimen (with 4% air voids)
pension prepared by mixing filler and water at a ratio of 1:9 by at failure. A bituminous mix that possesses higher Marshall quo-
weight. The pH value was determined after continuously stirring tient value displays superior stiffness as well as better load distri-
the prepared suspension for a minimum of 2 h. Finally, the hydro- bution capability, which ultimately results in its improved
philic coefficient test of filler is conducted as per Chinese standard resistance against creep or rutting [6]. Twenty four specimens
JTG E42 [45], to determine their relative affinity towards bitumen, (three per filler) were prepared, and the average Marshall quotient
in comparison to that of water. The Hydrophilic coefficient is deter- value of each group was determined at 60 °C.
mined by taking the ratio of volumes after the sedimentation of
equal volumes of filler in water and kerosene for 72 h in an undis- 3.3.3. Indirect tensile strength
turbed condition. The cracking resistance of each mix was determined by compar-
ing the average indirect tensile strength (ITS) of compacted bitumi-
3.3. Designing and testing of bituminous concrete mixes nous concrete mix samples according to ASTM D 6931-12 [13]
guideline. As per the guidelines, testing was performed at 25 °C,
3.3.1. Marshall and volumetric properties and a compressive force was imposed on compacted Marshall sam-
Optimum bitumen content (OBC) of all mixes was determined ples (with 4% air voids) diametrically with the help of steel strips at
using the Marshall mix design procedure according to MS-2 guide- a constant rate of 50.8 mm/min. Twenty four specimens (three per
lines. For every mix, specified weight (1200 g) of aggregates having filler) were prepared, and mean ITS values for each group were
gradation (Table 2) is mixed with five different bitumen contents compared. The ITS values were determined using the Eq. (2):
J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781 5
2000Pmax and 0.9 s rest period) vertically along the vertical diameter of spec-
ITS ¼ ð2Þ
pDT imens using curved loading strips. The stress level in this test
should lie in between 10 and 50% of the indirect tensile strength
where ITS is the indirect tensile strength (kPa), Pmax is the load at
[11]. Hence for each mix, the load corresponding to its 10% of ITS
failure, (N), D is the diameter of the specimen (mm) and T is the
was used for testing. The horizontal deformation was determined
thickness of specimen (mm).
using two linear variable differential transducers attached at the
mid-thickness at the end of the horizontal diameter. Initially, each
3.3.4. Resistance against moisture test specimen were conditioned by the application of 100 load
The modified Lottman test (AASHTO T283) is used to evaluate pulses, and subsequently, the calculation of the modulus was done
the moisture susceptibility of bituminous mixes [1]. The moisture by taking the average of further five load pulses. The Poisson’s ratio
susceptibility of all mixes was determined by measuring their ten- of each mix was assumed to be equal to 0.35 [6,42]. For each mix,
sile strength ratio. Two sets of Marshall specimens (conditioned three samples were used, and every test was repeated two times,
and unconditioned) were prepared at 7 ± 1% air voids. Moisture- and average values are taken into consideration. The resilient mod-
conditioning of the conditioned samples was done by conducting ulus was calculated as per Eq. (3):
55 to 80% saturation; after that, they were placed in a freezer main-
tained at 18 ± 3 °C for 16 h. The specimens are then removed Pðm þ 0:27Þ
Mr ¼ ð3Þ
from the freezer and were placed in a water bath maintained at t Dd
60 ± 0.5 °C for 24 h. Finally, the specimens were then removed where Mr is resilient modulus (MPa), P is repeated load (N), m is the
from the water bath and kept in another water bath maintained Poisson ratio, t is the thickness of the specimen(mm), and dis the
at 25 ± 0.5 °C for 2 h. The ITS of both unconditioned and condi- recoverable horizontal deformation (mm).
tioned set of specimens is determined at 25 °C. The tensile strength
ratio was determined as the ratio of ITS of the conditioned speci- 3.3.7. Fatigue resistance
men and that of unconditioned specimens. The Indirect tensile fatigue test was performed as per EN
12697-24 specification using the universal testing machine for
3.3.5. Analysis of active and passive adhesion the prediction of the fatigue life of bituminous mixtures. The spec-
The adhesion loss in the aggregate-binder interface is one of the imen, specimen conditioning, and the loading procedure in the test
primarily responsible mechanisms for high moisture susceptibility were similar to the resilient modulus test specified in the previous
in the mixes. It could be divided into two components namely, section. The test was conducted under controlled stress conditions
active and passive adhesions. at 25 °C with a stress level equal to 40% of the indirect tensile
The bitumen’s ability to completely cover the aggregates during strength of the compacted Marshall specimen (with 4% air voids).
the mixing operation of bituminous mixes can be termed as active The stress level of 40% is chosen to limit the time duration of the
adhesion. The effect of various fillers on the active adhesion can be testing. The haversine load pulse with loading and rest periods of
analyzed by measuring time required by the mix to get uniformly 0.1 s and 0.4 s respectively, were as taken for the analysis. The
coated with the binder [20]. All components of the mixes were specimen was continuously loaded until its complete failure. Fail-
manually mixed at their mixing temperatures. The mixing time is ure of specimen occurred when it collapsed, or its vertical defor-
the total time (in seconds) elapsed between the moment of the mation reached 9 mm, whichever happened first. The load
binder addition into the mix and the moment at which all aggre- repetition underwent by the specimen before its failure is consid-
gates in the mix achieve 100% coating. ered as its fatigue life.
Bitumen’s ability to remain adhered to the aggregate surface
under the influence of external agents like traffic and moisture 3.3.8. Ravelling resistance
can be defined as the passive adhesion [62]. Analysis of passive Cantabro durability test is a relative measure of resistance to
adhesion analysis was carried according to ASTM D 3625-12 [10] disintegration (ravelling). Although it is traditionally used to assess
guidelines. As per the analysis, the bituminous mix is placed in the durability of open and gap-graded mixes, however recent stud-
the boiling water for 10 min. After that, the mix was taken out of ies found the viability of test in cases of dense-graded mixes as
the water and placed over a white towel. Bitumen coating adhered well [23,51]. This test measures the weight loss after the break-
to the aggregates was determined using the visual observation down of compacted Marshall specimens in the Los Angeles abra-
conducted by the team of five experts. Mixes are having high sion testing machine after 300 rotations at a speed of 33 rpm.
retained binder coating display superior passive adhesion and vice The percent of loss in weight (Cantabro loss) acts as an indicator
versa. of durability and is related to the adhesion and cohesion of the
compacted mix. In this study, samples were compacted by giving
3.3.6. Resilient modulus 75 blows on each side as per guidelines specified in recent research
Resilient modulus (Mr) is the most important input in flexible [23]. Further, dry and wet conditioning of samples was done as per
pavement design methodology because it signifies the capability Spanish norms NLT-352/86 [49] and NLT-362/92 [50], respectively.
of pavement layers to dispense load among them. It measures Six Marshall specimens were prepared for each mix and were
the responses of bituminous pavement layers towards the applied divided into a group of three samples each. Three samples were
stresses and their corresponding strains [3,6,66]. Resilient modulus placed under dry conditions at 25 °C for 24 h. Similarly, another
of all mixes was determined by testing standard Marshall speci- three samples were immersed in water for 24 h and maintained
mens (with 4% air voids) at indirect tensile mode as per ASTM at 60 °C. Finally, all samples were placed at 25 °C for 24 h in dry
D4123 guidelines using a universal testing machine. The machine conditions and then tested.
was equipped with a temperature control chamber which main-
tains a constant temperature during specimen conditioning and 3.4. Calculation of optimum filler content
testing. The chamber was also equipped with two linear variable
differential transducers to measure the skin and core temperatures The inclusion of less or more filler than the optimum can harm
of the specimens. All specimens were conditioned in the chamber its performance in one or multiple aspects. Various studies
for 24 h to achieve targeted testing temperature (25 °C). A haver- [3,18,29] have observed that the mixes containing particular filler
sine load pulse was applied at a frequency of 1 Hz (0.1 s load content displayed superior performance in one aspect (e.g., rutting
6 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781
resistance), but failed to perform well in another aspect (e.g., mois- (9 mm) values. SD (17.89) was the well-graded filler due to its
ture resistance). Hence utilization of the optimum amount of filler higher Cu value. While, LS (12.71) has a relatively lower Cu value,
in bituminous mixes is crucial to ensure its reliable performance and considered as a more uniformly graded filler.
on every aspect. Previous studies [3,55] have considered the opti- A filler containing a high amount of active fines may expand
mum filler contents in the bituminous mixes as the filler content when it comes in contact with water and act as a barrier between
at which mix display best performance in a particular aspect (say bitumen and aggregates, which weakens adhesion in the bitumi-
Marshall stability or lower OBC) or in multiple aspects simultane- nous mix [18]. There is no allowable limit for methylene blue value
ously. This was done by averaging the filler contents at which the specified in Indian specifications. However some European coun-
mix delivered superior performance in different aspects [3]. How- tries (like Portugal) have specified its maximum allowable limit
ever, these studies have taken only a fewer number of parameters to be 10 g/kg [24]. Both SD (3.25 g/kg) and LS (3.75 g/kg) had the
in the analysis. In this study, the optimum filler content was calcu- methylene blue value well within this permissible limit, which sig-
lated using eleven different parameters of bituminous mixes deter- nified the lower active clay content in them.
mined in previous sections. The properties under consideration are SEM images of both fillers were stated in Fig. 5. SD has the rel-
maximum stability, minimum optimum binder content, maximum atively larger and angular particles having a smooth texture, while
Marshall quotient, maximum tensile strength ratio, maximum ITS, LS has particles with shapes ranging from sub-rounded to rounded
maximum bitumen coverage, minimum mixing time, maximum with a relatively rough texture.
resilient modulus, maximum fatigue life, minimum Cantabro loss XRD diffractograms both fillers are shown in Fig. 6. Both of the
(wet) and minimum Cantabro loss (dry). The optimum filler con- fillers have calcium-based water-insoluble minerals in their com-
tent for both mixes was determined by taking an average of filler position, which produce mixes with high moisture resistance. LS
contents corresponding to these properties using Eq. (4) It is consist of calcite in its composition, which is water-insoluble in
hypothesized that the filler content determined using this equation nature and has good bitumen adhesion, which ensures good mois-
will give optimized performance in various aspects on the field. ture resistance [15]. Similarly, SD has dolomite in its composition,
which is another calcium-based water-insoluble mineral that
Optimum Filler Content forms moisture-resistant bituminous mixes.
F s þ F OBC þ F MQ þ F TSR þ F ITS þ F BC þ F MT þ F RM þ F FL þ F CLD þ F CLW Fillers having low German filler values have higher Rigden voids
¼
11 or porosity [36]. Also, fillers having higher porosity can form bitu-
ð4Þ minous mixes with higher OBC [18,19]. LS (97 g) had a lower
porosity than the SD (85 g).
where Fs is filler content corresponds to maximum stability, FOBC is Fillers having a hydrophilic coefficient below 1 are considered
filler content corresponds to minimum OBC, FMQ is filler content as hydrophobic fillers. They display a greater affinity with bitumen
corresponds to maximum Marshall quotient, FTSR is filler content than with the water. A previous study has suggested the ideal
corresponds to maximum tensile strength ratio, FBC is filler content range of hydrophilic coefficient value to be 0.70–0.85 [27]. All fil-
corresponds to maximum bitumen coverage, Fs is filler content cor- lers had hydrophilic coefficient values in the prescribed range. In
responds to minimum mixing time, FRM is filler content corresponds general, bitumen is found to be slightly acidic in nature, hence
to maximum resilient modulus, FFL is filler content corresponds to strong filler bitumen bond is expected in the case of alkaline fillers,
maximum fatigue life, FCLD is filler content corresponds to minimum which ultimately may result in superior stripping resistance of
Cantabro loss (dry) and FCLW is filler content corresponds to mini- their mixes. Hence, the desirable pH value of filler should be higher
mum Cantabro loss (wet). than seven. SD and LS had higher pH values due to the presence of
calcium-based minerals (calcite and dolomite) in their composi-
tion. Based on preliminary characterization, it can be said that both
4. Results and discussion
materials are expected to perform well and could be utilized as fil-
lers in bituminous mixes.
4.1. Characterization of fillers
4.2. Analysis of bituminous concrete mixes
The properties of all fillers are shown in Table 2 and Fig. 4-6. LS
(2.650) has a slightly lower specific gravity than SD (2.698). LS was
4.2.1. Marshall and volumetric properties
the finest filler as it has lower fineness modulus (3.03) and D50
The average Marshall and volumetric properties of all mixes at
OBC were determined and stated in Table 3. All mixes displayed
100 satisfactory Marshall and volumetric characteristics as required
by the Indian specifications, and it suggested that LS could be sat-
90
isfactorily adopted as an alternative filler in bituminous concrete
Cumulative Passing (%)
80 mix [41].
70 Marshall stability determines the strength of the mixes against
60 the pressure as well as the horizontal and vertical stresses caused
50
by the traffic [3]. Marshall stability of both mixes was found to be
increased with filler content (Fig. 7). Improvement in Marshall sta-
40
bility might be due to the toughening of bituminous mastic by an
30 increase in filler content and a subsequent decrease in OBC. This
20 trend was in agreement with the previous studies [3,29]. Flow
10 value indicates the deformation of the mixes and it has a linear
relationship with the internal friction. The mixes having high flow
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 value indicates plastic nature of the mix and vice versa. All mixes
Sieve Size (mm) had flow values within the prescribed limit, which limit their pos-
Limestone Sludge Stone Dust
sibility to be excessively plastic or brittle (Table 3). In all cases, OBC
decreases with the increase in filler content (Fig. 8(a)). In bitumi-
Fig. 4. Gradation curves of both fillers. nous mixes, aggregates are coated with bituminous mastic rather
J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781 7
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. (a). SEM images LS (b). SEM images SD.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. (a). XRD diffractograms of LS (b). XRD diffractograms of SD.
Table 3
Average Marshall and volumetric properties of bituminous concrete mixes.
Type of Filler Filler Content (% of the OBC (% of the total Ratio of filler to effective Bulk Specific Gravity VMA VFB Marshall Flow AFT
weight of aggregates) weight of mix) binder content (%) (%) Stability (kN) (mm) (mm)
Stone Dust 4.0 6.20 0.66 2.430 17.02 74.22 12.22 3.43 7.85
5.5 5.95 0.75 2.444 16.21 74.43 13.99 3.62 7.34
7.0 5.38 1.39 2.453 15.31 74.79 15.96 3.50 6.47
8.5 5.34 1.73 2.466 14.70 72.01 16.58 3.22 5.77
Limestone Sludge 4.0 5.96 0.70 2.427 16.83 74.79 12.65 3.37 7.78
5.5 5.53 1.06 2.456 15.33 72.54 14.42 3.15 6.55
7.0 4.98 1.54 2.469 14.27 73.84 15.60 2.95 5.92
8.5 4.89 1.94 2.469 14.07 72.13 16.34 2.9 5.49
Requirements [41] 4–10 – – – 14.00 (min) 65–75 9.00 (min) 2–4 –
than with binder alone. It might be because less amount of binder than SD as determined from his lower German filler value. Thus,
is needed with higher filler content to make the same amount of LS incorporated mixes had lower OBC than SD incorporated mixes.
mastic for the lubrication of aggregates in the mix [29]. Hence, at The ratio of filler to effective binder ratio is shown in Table 3. At all
higher filler contents, a lesser amount of bitumen is needed to filler contents, LS mixes has higher ratio of filler to effective binder
compact mixes to the desirable air voids. Thus here fillers display ratio than conventional mixes due to their low OBC. However, at all
bitumen ‘‘extender” function in the mixes. This trend is in agree- filler binder ratio, mixes delivered satisfactory stability and
ment with that observed in the previous studies [3,18,29,56]. LS durability.
is much finer filler than SD due to its lower fineness modulus VMA is the volume of inter-granular voids between aggregates
and D50 values. Hence it displayed a greater tendency to exhibit of compacted specimen, which includes air void and the bitumen
bitumen extender function than SD. Also, LS has lower porosity which is not absorbed by the aggregates. Similar to the OBC,
8 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781
14
3
y = -0.127x2 + 2.600x + 3.784
13 R² = 0.989
2
4% 5.50% 7% 8.50%
Filler Content
12
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
Filler Content (%)
Fig. 9. Variation of Marshall Quotient of mixes with filler contents.
Fig. 7. Variation of Marshall Stability of mixes with filler contents.
R² = 0.941
5.6
observed that mixes with lower VMA and AFT resulted in higher
Marshall quotient values and vice versa [20,19,21,35]. Since both
VMA and AFT of mixes decreased with filler contents, Marshall
5.2 y = 0.037x2 - 0.722x + 8.276 quotient values were also found to follow a similar trend.
R² = 0.977
LS mixes were found to have higher Marshall quotient values
than SD mixes. It is expected since LS mixes also had the lowest
4.8
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 VMA and AFT than SD mixes. Few recent studies have also
Filler Content (%) observed that the use of fine fillers results in the formation of bitu-
minous mixes with high stiffness [19,21,35]. Higher Marshall quo-
(a)
tient of LS mixes might also be due to its finer nature. Recent
studies have observed that the fine fillers have a greater potential
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
of distribution in bituminous mixes, which resulted in their higher
17.5
stiffness [19,20,43,46].
17
16.5
y = 0.022x2 - 0.801x + 19.89 4.2.3. Indirect tensile strength
16 R² = 0.997 Bituminous mix having a higher value of ITS has superior resis-
VMA (%)
15.5 tance to cracking. A trend between ITS values of mixes with filler
15
content is shown in Fig. 10. ITS values of all mixes were found to
be proportional to the filler content. It can be explained with the
14.5
y = 0.144x2 - 2.428x + 24.25 principle of composite mechanics. Understandably, the filler has
14 R² = 0.998 a higher strength than the binder. So, at higher filler content, an
13.5 increase in the portion of filler and a simultaneous decrease in bin-
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 der content in mastic will inevitably increase its strength and as
Filler Content (%) well as ITS of the bituminous mix [29]. LS incorporated mixes
(b) had higher ITS than SD mixes at all filler percentages due to its
finer nature. A few studies have observed that fine fillers uniformly
Fig. 8. (a). Variation of OBC of mixes with filler contents (b). Variation of VMA of
mixes with filler contents.
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
1100
y = -2.444x2 + 78.42x + 549.7
R² = 0.997
VMA of all mixes were also decreased with the increase in filler
content (Fig. 8(b)). SD mixes were found to have higher VMA than 900 y = 3.444x2 + 25.01x + 491.6
ITS (kPa)
LS mixes, which might be due to higher porosity of SD. The voids R² = 0.99
taining LS also had higher Mr values than SD mixes for each filler
y = -0.302x2 + 1.781x + 92.10
contents. It might be due to the lower optimum binder contents
95 R² = 0.987 of LS mixes as well as due to the finer nature of LS particles. In gen-
y = -0.033x2 - 1.886x + 102.1
eral, it is believed that the use of finer fillers in the bituminous
R² = 0.986 mixes resulting in their higher stiffness [4,38,42]. Since LS has finer
90
particles than SD as observed from their lower FM and D50values,
the higher Mr values of their mixes were justified by the previous
85 studies. It can be said that LS mixes have superior load distribution
capabilities than conventional mixes. Hence, flexible pavements
80 which use LS mixes in their surface layer may support similar traf-
4% 5.50% 7% 8.50%
fic loading that of conventional SD mixes at a relatively lower layer
Filler Content thickness.
Limestone Sludge Stone Dust
4.2.7. Fatigue life
Fig. 11. Variation of tensile strength ratio of mixes with filler contents.
Result of fatigue live analysis at 40% stress level is shown in
Fig. 14. Fatigue lives of stone dust and limestone sludge
130
y = 1.666x2 - 11.3x + 101.0 6000 y = -28.88x2 + 735.3x + 1177.
120
Resilient Modulus (MPa)
Mixing TIme (Sec)
R² = 0.994 R² = 0.998
y = 34.88x2 + 21.75x + 2341.
110 5000 R² = 0.986
y = 0.592x2 - 2.163x + 83.20
R² = 0.999 4000
100
3000
90
2000
80
1000
70
4% 5.50% 7% 8.50%
0
Filler Content 4 5.5 7 8.5
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge Filler Content (%)
(a) Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
Fig. 12a. Variation of mixing time of mixes with filler contents Fig. 13. Variation of resilient modulus of mixes with filler contents.
10 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781
1000
0
0 4 5.5 7 8.5
4 5.5 7 8.5
Filler Content (%)
Filler Content (%)
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
(a)
Fig. 14. Variation of fatigue lives of mixes with filler contents.
Fig. 15a. Variation of Cantabro loss (dry) of mixes with filler contents
Table 4
Comparison of costs of various mixes.
LS mixes is the major responsible parameter for the saving. Cost tonne of SD (8.5%) and LS (8.5%) mix is about 13% and 20% lower
comparison of all mixes with respect to SD mixes having 4% filler than SD (4%) mix respectively. Leaching of heavy metals from the
(SD (4%)) is done, and it is observed that cost of the mixes reduced hazardous wastes to the groundwater level can cause serious envi-
with the increase in filler content. The total cost in producing 1 m3 ronmental and health consequences. Some researchers have con-
of SD (8.5%) and LS (8.5%) mix is about 11% and 18% lower than SD ducted the leaching analysis of the bituminous mixes containing
(4%) mix, respectively. It should also be noted that besides these industrial wastes fillers (coal waste, copper tailing etc.), using the
monetary benefits, utilization of LS as a filler can save a consider- procedures like toxicity characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP)
able amount of precious land that was used for its dumping and to assess the chemical stability of heavy metals in the wastes
also have numerous environmental benefits. [46,47]. However, it is worth noting that the LS is not classified
as hazardous waste and is obtained from the natural limestone.
As observed from its mineralogical analysis, it mostly consisted
4.2.10. Environmental analysis of calcium and silica-based minerals, so TCLP analysis was not con-
A large amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) are emitted during ducted in this study.
the production and transport of materials for the construction, After the analysis, it can be said that the utilization of LS as fil-
maintenance, and rehabilitation of pavements [16]. The environ- lers has great advantages like the production of low-cost mixes,
mental benefit for utilizing limestone as filler was assessed after saving the natural aggregates, lowering of GHG emission and the
comparing the GHG emission occurred during the production of formation of strong and durable mixes. The current strategy to
ingredients required to make 1 tonne of bituminous concrete manage waste LS is to openly discharge it in landfills, rather than
mixes. GHG emission during the transportation and construction utilizing it as a by-product. This unorganized dumping of LS on fer-
process for all mixes was assumed to be same. The quantities of tile land or along roadside causes severe degradation of land,
materials were estimated as per mix design conducted in the blockage of the natural drainage, create health issues (vision, bron-
study. The greenhouse gas emission is usually measured in kilo- chial and skin disorders) in nearby residents due to airborne LS
grams of CO2 equivalent. The standard amount of emission by dust and damages the aesthetics of the region’s landscape
the various ingredients (coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, stone [53,54]. All these problems can automatically be resolved if LS be
dust (SD) and bitumen) as shown in Table 5 was taken from the utilized as filler in bituminous concrete mixes.
previous studies on the subject matter [61,65]. LS is a waste pro-
duct produced during the cutting and polishing of stone slabs,
therefore the CO2 equivalent for LS production is allotted with zero 4.3. Optimum filler content
value in this study.
The comparison of GHG emission clearly stated that the mixes According to the calculations made as per Eq. 5, the optimum
containing LS are much environment-friendly than the standard filler contents for LS and SD mixes were obtained as (6.45%) and
mixes at all filler contents. It can be seen bitumen emit a much (6.59%) respectively. Taking the assumption that the properties of
higher amount of GHG in comparison to aggregates. Hence, a lesser both mixes vary as per the trend suggested in their trend lines, cal-
amount of bitumen consumption by LS mixes leads to their lower culation of various properties of the bituminous mixes expected at
GHG emissions. Comparison of GHG emission of all mixes with optimum filler contents can be done (Table 6). At their optimum
respect to SD mixes having 4% filler (SD (4%)) is done and it is filler content, bitumen consumption of LS mixes was about 8%
observed that GHG emission in both mixes reduced with the lower than conventional SD mixes. Since bitumen is the most
increase in filler content. The total GHG emission in producing 1 expensive ingredient in the mix, the lower consumption of the
Table 5
Comparison of greenhouse gas emission of various mixes.
Table 6
Various properties of bituminous mixes at their optimum filler contents.
bitumen may lower the cost of the produced mix. Other than that All LS mixes displayed good adhesion and satisfactory perfor-
lower consumption of the bitumen might also reduce the green- mance against moisture resistance. Overall, TSR values of all
house gas emission and the carbon footprint of the bituminous mixes decreased with an increase in filler contents due to the
mix. In comparison to the conventional mixes, LS mixes at their gradual decrease in AFT. SD mixes displayed better adhesion
optimum filler contents are also expected to display relatively and superior performance against moisture at all filler contents
higher Marshall quotient (improvement by 16.74%), higher indirect due to lower AFT, lower active clay content and alkaline nature
strength (improvement by 18.36%), and marginally lower dry Can- of SD.
tabro loss (decline by 6.80%). The major reasons attributed to this LS mixes also displayed superior load distribution characteris-
performance might be the lower porosity and finer nature of LS. tics, and higher fatigue lives at all filler contents than SD mixes
However, LS mixes are also expected to show marginally lower val- due to the finer nature and cracking pinning behavior of LS.
ues of Marshall stability (decline by 0.97%), tensile strength ratio Utilization of LS as filler also resulted in lowering of material
(decline by 2.38%), and higher wet Cantabro loss (increase by cost and GHG emissions up to 18% and 20% respectively.
8.44%) than conventional mixes prepared at optimum filler con-
tent. This behavior might be due to the relatively higher active clay In conclusion, it can be said that the systematical utilization of
content as well as relatively less hydrophobic nature of LS in com- LS in place of conventional SD as filler in the bituminous mix not
parison to SD. Finally, LS mixes are also expected to display about only could be an effective solution for the safe disposal of large
18% higher resilient modulus values than conventional mixes. quantities of produced waste and ensure sustainable construction
Higher resilient modulus signifies the better load distribution practices but also can produce superior performing mixes in a
capability of pavement layers; hence pavement surface layers much economical manner.
made with LS mixes are expected to support similar volume of traf-
fic at relatively lower layer thickness than SD mixes. This may not
only save considerable amount of non renewable resources like Declaration of Competing Interest
aggregates and bitumen, but also result in lowering of labour cost
and effort for their construction. The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
5. Conclusions
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