Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Feasible utilization of waste limestone sludge as filler in bituminous

concrete
Jayvant Choudhary, Brind Kumar, Ankit Gupta ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, India

h i g h l i g h t s

Suitability of dried limestone sludge (LS) as filler in bituminous concrete mixes was assessed.

Material characterization of LS and conventional stone dust were done.

Mixes consisting both fillers were designed at four different filler contents and tested.

LS mixes delivered superior performance against rutting, fatigue and ravelling.

Cost and energy analysis were done and predicted lower manufacturing costs and lesser greenhouse gas emissions.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The dimensional limestone industries produce a substantial amount of waste limestone sludge during the
Received 4 August 2019 polishing of stone slabs. The storage and disposal of this non-biodegradable sludge cause issues regarding
Received in revised form 2 November 2019 environmental pollution, shortage of disposal land, increase in transportation cost, and several other
Accepted 2 December 2019
associated problems. This study investigated the usability of dried limestone sludge (LS) instead of con-
Available online 24 December 2019
ventional stone dust (SD) as filler in bituminous concrete mixes. The performance of SD and LS incorpo-
rated mixes in several aspects was compared, and the amount of LS needed to ensure optimum
Keywords:
bituminous mix behavior is determined. The physical and chemical properties of both fillers were initially
Filler
Bituminous mix
explored. Then bituminous concrete mixes having both fillers added at four different proportions (4, 5.5,
Dimensional limestone 7.0, and 8.5% by weight of aggregates) were prepared using the Marshall mix design method and their
Limestone sludge optimum bitumen contents (OBC) were determined. The performance of both mixes was studied. LS
Industrial waste mixes displayed paramount rutting resistance, fatigue resistance, indirect tensile strength, ravelling,
Recycling and resilient modulus than conventional mixes. It mostly attributed to the fine nature of LS, which
Sustainable construction ensured its better distribution. LS mixes also had lower OBC than SD mixes due to lower porosity and
bitumen extender action of LS. LS displayed a good affinity towards bitumen due to calcite in its compo-
sition, which led to excellent adhesion and moisture resistance in its mixes. The test results suggested
that the utilization of chosen LS as filler at an optimum filler percentage of 6.45% can result in formation
of bituminous mixes with satisfactory engineering properties, lower bitumen content as well as lower
greenhouse gas emissions.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction strength by forming a rigid structure, while the bitumen binder is

Bituminous mixes are one of the most widely used materials in
the binder and surfacing course of flexible pavement networks
around the world. These mixes are conventionally made up of
non-renewable resources like aggregates and carbon-based bitu-
men binder. In these mixes, the aggregates of various sizes provide
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Jayvant.chaudhary.civ13@itbhu.ac.in (J. Choudhary),
kumar_brind.civ@iitbhu.ac.in (B. Kumar), ankit.civ@iitbhu.ac.in (A. Gupta).
responsible for holding the mix together and enhancing its durabil-
ity. In 2013, construction industries around the world produced
approximately 92.53 million tonnes of bituminous concrete mixes
for pavement construction [44,63]. Production of such a large
quantity of mixes has inherent distinctiveness for environmental
damage due to the continuous exploitation of natural resources,
particularly aggregates. Exhaustive mining of aggregates also
causes problems such as vegetation loss, loss of water retaining
strata, lowering of groundwater table, and disturbance in the
existing ecosystem. In many cases, authorities impose mining

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117781
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781

restrictions in several regions, which reduces the availability of

aggregates. It consequently leads to inflation in the cost of bitumi-
nous mixes. Also, in the construction of bituminous and concrete
pavements, aggregates production alone is considered a responsi-
ble factor for half of the entire greenhouse gas emission [30].
Mineral filler can be termed as the finest part of aggregates
(having the consistency of flour) and consider as a vital part of
the bituminous mix. Fillers are the fine mineral grains, most of
which pass through a 75 mm sieve and represent up to 12% of the
aggregates by weight in the bituminous mix [41]. It primarily acts
as an inert component that fills voids in between aggregates in the
mix and produces denser and impermeable mix. However, filler
particles finer than bitumen film thickness affects the viscosity of
bitumen-filler mastic and thus influences the performance of bitu-
minous mixes against various pavement distresses [20,29,57]. Per-
formance of bituminous mixes is ultimately linked to the various
physical, morphological and mineralogical properties of the filler, (a)
its physical-chemical interaction with bitumen and its volumetric
concentration in the mix [4,19,42,52,67]. Filler type and its content
in the bituminous mixes also influence the mastic behavior and
affect the mixing and compaction of the bituminous mixes
[39,40]. So, the selection of the appropriate filler is crucial amongst
field engineers. Stone dust, cement, and hydrated lime are being
conventionally utilized in bituminous mix composition as fillers
since they deliver satisfactory performances in the mix [5,19,18].
However, there is an immediate need for functional substitutes
of conventional fillers without compromising the quality of bitu-
minous mixes produced.
Utilization of waste materials in place of conventional pave-
ment material is a potential solution of two crucial and delicate
issues: the growing problems concerning the safe disposal of waste
materials and the immediate need to find viable alternatives for
conventional pavement materials. Various studies were conducted
to investigate the impact of solid wastes like bauxite residue [19];
(b)
brick dust [5,6]; carbide lime [19]; construction and demolition
waste [5]; copper tailing [42]; fly ash [5,18]; Oil shale [14]; phos- Fig. 1. (a). Production of LS during the polishing of limestone sludge (b). Disposal of
phogypsum [37] on the properties of bituminous mixes when uti- dried sludge in the open dumping ground.
lized as fillers. However, most of these studies are either limited to
fewer aspects of the bituminous mixes, or they used the particular
waste in a limited proportion. Arguably, more extensive research reduces soil fertility and groundwater table (Fig. 1(b)). This fine
on alternative sources of filler is needed to cater to the demand dust, after being airborne, also cause vision, bronchial, and skin
of conventional fillers. problems to the neighboring residents. Hence judicious utilization
The dimension stone industry is one of the largest producers of of LS as filler in bituminous mixes can not only save a significant
non-biodegradable solid waste. Dimension stone is a vital con- amount of conventional fillers but also systematically resolve the
struction material widely utilized in flooring, paving, and cladding problems mentioned above.
of the building, monuments, and railway platforms. There is a wide
range of dimension stones like granite, marble, sandstone, lime- 2. Scope and objectives
stone, slate, and travertine produced extensively in 28 major coun-
tries around the globe [54]. The dimension limestone is considered The entire objective of the study is divided into three parts:(a)
as one of the most popular stones in the world market because of Analyzing the aptness of fillers (conventional stone dust (SD) and
its lower cost and superior ability to take polish similar to the mar- LS) based on detailed primary characterization (b) Design of bitu-
ble [54]. According to a report by the United States Geological Sur- minous concrete mixes containing both fillers at 4 different filler
vey, the dimension limestone constitutes 45% of the USA’s market contents (4, 5.5, 7 and 8.5%) at their respective optimum binder
[22]. Dimension limestone after being mined undergoes finishing content (OBC) and compare their mechanical and durability prop-
operations like cutting and polishing, which produces a significant erties (c) Analysis of cost and environmental viability of mixes.
amount of non-biodegradable solid wastes. The mining operations Detailed characterization of fillers was conducted according to
generated coarser stones as wastes, which could be utilized as the various tests specified in the Indian paving guidelines [41],
alternatives to coarse aggregates in cement concrete or bituminous and with the reliable tests highlighted in numerous relevant stud-
mixes. However, during the cutting and polishing operations of the ies. Then, bituminous concrete mixes incorporating different fillers
limestone slab, the large amount of waste is generated in the form were designed, and their respective OBC’s were assessed accord-
of LS. It is produced when blades are sprayed with cold water to ingly. At their respective OBC, the Marshall, volumetric properties
soaks up the fine dust (Fig. 1(a)). This sludge mostly consists of sus- of mixes, as well as their behavior against rutting, cracking, fatigue,
pended dust particles and is disposed of in the landfill nearby the and ravelling were analyzed using relevant test parameters (Mar-
industrial area. The water from the sludge after being evaporated shall quotient, indirect tensile strength, indirect tensile fatigue test
leaving behind a vast amount of fine dust which occupies valuable and Cantabro test (dry and wet)). The performance of mixes
lands affects the region’s landscape, hinders soil permeability, against moisture was assessed using a modified Lottman test,
 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781 3

Collection of coarse and Collection of VG 30 Collection of fillers (SD

fine dolomite aggregates bitumen and LS)

Physical, morphological and mineralogical

characterization of all fillers

Design of bituminous concrete mixes prepared with both fillers at

different filler content (4, 5.5, 7, and 8.5%) using Marshall Mix
design procedure (MS-2)

Evaluation of all mixes prepared at their OBC for

• Marshall Stability and Flow Values (MS-2)

• Volumetric Properties (MS-2)
• Resistance against Permanent Deformation (MS-2)
• Resistance against Moisture Susceptibility (AASHTO T 283)
• Resistance against Cracking (ASTM D 6931)
• Active and Passive Adhesion (ASTM D3625)
• Resilient Modulus (ASTM D4123)
• Resistance against Fatigue (EN 12697-24)
• Resistance against Ravelling (NLT 352 & NLT 362)
• Cost Analysis
• Environmental Analysis

Analyze the effect of fillers over the performance of bituminous mixes

Determination of optimum filler content for both mixes

Conclusions

Fig. 2. Flow chart describing the methodology of the study.

active and passive adhesions analysis. The load distribution ability Table 1
of all mixes was computed by the calculation of indirect tensile Properties of aggregates and bitumen.
stiffness modulus or resilient modulus of the mixes. The cost anal- Material Property Specification Results
ysis and environmental analysis of all mixes were conducted by Used
comparing the production and greenhouse gas emission of the Aggregates Bulk Specific gravity of coarse ASTM C127 2.795
mixes. Finally, the optimum filler content of both types of mixes aggregate
was determined, which is based on various laboratory test results. Bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate ASTM C128 2.720
The entire methodology has been summarized in Fig. 2. Water Absorption of coarse aggregate ASTM C127 0.374
(%)
Aggregate Impact Value (%) [33] 11.1%
3. Material properties and experimental analysis Los Angeles Abrasion Value (%) [33] 13.4%
Combined Flakiness and Elongation [32] 21.3%
Index
3.1. Material
Bitumen Absolute viscosity at 60 °C, (poise) IS: 73 [31] 2692
Penetration at 25 °C (0.1 mm) 62
Coarse and fine dolomite aggregates were collected from a local Softening Point (°C) 51.5
supplier in Varanasi city (25.31°N, 82.97°E) whose properties are Ductility at 27 °C (cm) >100
stated in Table 1. The gradation used to prepare the bituminous Specific gravity 0.999
concrete mix was chosen as per MORTH [41] specification (Fig. 3).
VG 30 bitumen (similar to the 60/70 penetration grade binder)
was utilized in this study, whose various properties are stated in Indian scenario. Dolomite stone dust was utilized as the conven-
Table 1. These are two of the most widely used materials for the tional filler and was collected locally. Dried LS was collected from
preparation of the bituminous concrete mix especially in the the dump yard of the dimension stone industry located in Kota city
4 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781

Table 2
Characterization of limestone sludge and stone dust.

Property Limestone Sludge Stone Dust

Specific Gravity 2.650 2.698
MBV (g/kg) 3.75 3.25
German filler (g) 97 85
FM 3.03 5.38
D50 (mm) 09 21
Hydrophilic 0.80 0.77
Coefficient
pH 10.22 12.57
Particle shape & Small size, granulous and Angular particles with
texture (SEM) somewhat spherical particles slightly rough texture
with rough texture
Mineralogical Calcite (CaCO3), Quartz (SiO2), Dolomite (CaMg
Composition Enstatite (Mg2Si2O6) (CO3)2), Quartz (SiO2),
(XRD) Ertixite (Na2Si4O9)
Fig. 3. Adopted gradations for bituminous concrete mix.

(26.91°N, 75.78°E), India. It was obtained directly from the dump-
ing ground of the industry as the dried sludge (dust), which was
produced during the polishing of limestone slabs. Both conven-
tional and waste fillers were dried in the oven and passed through
the 75 mm sieve. The material which passed through the 75 mm
sieve is used as filler.
3.2. Characterization properties of fillers
Detailed physical and chemical properties of each filler were
determined according to relevant specifications. Specific gravities
of all fillers were determined using a pycnometer as per ASTM
D854-14 [9] guideline. Particle size distribution curves were plot-
ted as per ASTM D422-63 [8] specifications and were characterized
using fineness modulus and mean particle size (D50). It was deter-
mined by calculating the sum of filler percentages coarser than 75,
50, 30, 20, 10, 5, 3, and 1 mm and then dividing the sum by 100
[52,64]. Particle shape and surface texture were analyzed using
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. The porosity of fillers
was determined as per the German filler test prescribed by the
National Asphalt Pavement Association [48]. In this test, a small
quantity of filler is added in continuous dosage to the 15 g of
hydraulic oil until the filler oil mix loses its cohesion. The porosity
of filler is inversely proportional to its German filler value.
Prevalent minerals in the filler composition were evaluated
using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) investigation, which was conducted
using a Rigaku benchtop XRD device operated with Cu Ka radiation
at 1.5406 Å wavelengths. The analysis of Methylene blue values of
fillers was done as per the EN 933 [25] specification to enumerate
the harmful clay content and organic matters in fillers. pH values of
each filler were determined by analyzing the pH of filler-water sus-
pension prepared by mixing filler and water at a ratio of 1:9 by
weight. The pH value was determined after continuously stirring
the prepared suspension for a minimum of 2 h. Finally, the hydro-
philic coefficient test of filler is conducted as per Chinese standard
JTG E42 [45], to determine their relative affinity towards bitumen,
in comparison to that of water. The Hydrophilic coefficient is deter-
mined by taking the ratio of volumes after the sedimentation of
equal volumes of filler in water and kerosene for 72 h in an undis-
turbed condition.
3.3. Designing and testing of bituminous concrete mixes
3.3.1. Marshall and volumetric properties
Optimum bitumen content (OBC) of all mixes was determined
using the Marshall mix design procedure according to MS-2 guide-
lines. For every mix, specified weight (1200 g) of aggregates having
gradation (Table 2) is mixed with five different bitumen contents
(4.5–6.5%). All ingredients were mixed at the mixing temperature
of 162 °C determined as per the MS-2 guideline to form a loose
mix. The compaction of the loose mix was done at 152 °C deter-
mined as per MS-2 guidelines [7]. For each mix, 15 samples (3
for each binder content) were prepared, and their Marshall stabil-
ity, flow, and volumetric properties (voids in mineral aggregates
(VMA), voids filled with bitumen, air voids were determined [12].
OBC was considered as bitumen content in the compacted speci-
men having 4% air voids [7,41]. The increase in the filler proportion
of mix was done by a simultaneous reduction in the fine aggregate
proportion to maintain the chosen gradation. After the determina-
tion of OBC for each mix, three more samples were prepared (a
total of 24 samples for eight types of mixes), and the average val-
ues of Marshall and volumetric properties were compared. At OBC,
average apparent film thickness (AFT) of each mix was devised
according to NCHRP Report 567 [21]. Average AFT was estimated
using Eq. (1).
1000VBE
AFT ¼ ð1Þ
Gmb Ss Ps
where, AFT = Apparent film thickness (microns); Gmb = bulk specific
gravity of mix; Ss = Aggregate specific surface (m2/kg); Ps = Aggregate
content, (% by total mix weight); VBE = Effective bitumen content
(% by total mix volume)
3.3.2. Resistance against rutting
The Resistance of the bituminous mix against rutting was deter-
mined using the Marshall quotient, which measures mix’s resis-
tance to shear stress and the permanent deformation (rutting)
[66]. It is defined as the ratio of Marshall stability (kN) to flow
(mm) value of compacted Marshall specimen (with 4% air voids)
at failure. A bituminous mix that possesses higher Marshall quo-
tient value displays superior stiffness as well as better load distri-
bution capability, which ultimately results in its improved
resistance against creep or rutting [6]. Twenty four specimens
(three per filler) were prepared, and the average Marshall quotient
value of each group was determined at 60 °C.
3.3.3. Indirect tensile strength
The cracking resistance of each mix was determined by compar-
ing the average indirect tensile strength (ITS) of compacted bitumi-
nous concrete mix samples according to ASTM D 6931-12 [13]
guideline. As per the guidelines, testing was performed at 25 °C,
and a compressive force was imposed on compacted Marshall sam-
ples (with 4% air voids) diametrically with the help of steel strips at
a constant rate of 50.8 mm/min. Twenty four specimens (three per
filler) were prepared, and mean ITS values for each group were
compared. The ITS values were determined using the Eq. (2):
 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781
2000Pmax
ITS ¼
pDT
where ITS is the indirect tensile strength (kPa), Pmax is the load at
failure, (N), D is the diameter of the specimen (mm) and T is the
thickness of specimen (mm).
3.3.4. Resistance against moisture
The modified Lottman test (AASHTO T283) is used to evaluate
the moisture susceptibility of bituminous mixes [1]. The moisture
susceptibility of all mixes was determined by measuring their ten-
sile strength ratio. Two sets of Marshall specimens (conditioned
and unconditioned) were prepared at 7 ± 1% air voids. Moisture-
conditioning of the conditioned samples was done by conducting
55 to 80% saturation; after that, they were placed in a freezer main-
tained at 18 ± 3 °C for 16 h. The specimens are then removed
from the freezer and were placed in a water bath maintained at
60 ± 0.5 °C for 24 h. Finally, the specimens were then removed
from the water bath and kept in another water bath maintained
at 25 ± 0.5 °C for 2 h. The ITS of both unconditioned and condi-
tioned set of specimens is determined at 25 °C. The tensile strength
ratio was determined as the ratio of ITS of the conditioned speci-
men and that of unconditioned specimens.
3.3.5. Analysis of active and passive adhesion
The adhesion loss in the aggregate-binder interface is one of the
primarily responsible mechanisms for high moisture susceptibility
in the mixes. It could be divided into two components namely,
active and passive adhesions.
The bitumen’s ability to completely cover the aggregates during
the mixing operation of bituminous mixes can be termed as active
adhesion. The effect of various fillers on the active adhesion can be
analyzed by measuring time required by the mix to get uniformly
coated with the binder [20]. All components of the mixes were
manually mixed at their mixing temperatures. The mixing time is
the total time (in seconds) elapsed between the moment of the
binder addition into the mix and the moment at which all aggre-
gates in the mix achieve 100% coating.
Bitumen’s ability to remain adhered to the aggregate surface
under the influence of external agents like traffic and moisture
can be defined as the passive adhesion [62]. Analysis of passive
adhesion analysis was carried according to ASTM D 3625-12 [10]
guidelines. As per the analysis, the bituminous mix is placed in
the boiling water for 10 min. After that, the mix was taken out of
the water and placed over a white towel. Bitumen coating adhered
to the aggregates was determined using the visual observation
conducted by the team of five experts. Mixes are having high
retained binder coating display superior passive adhesion and vice
versa.
3.3.6. Resilient modulus
Resilient modulus (Mr) is the most important input in flexible
pavement design methodology because it signifies the capability
of pavement layers to dispense load among them. It measures
the responses of bituminous pavement layers towards the applied
stresses and their corresponding strains [3,6,66]. Resilient modulus
of all mixes was determined by testing standard Marshall speci-
mens (with 4% air voids) at indirect tensile mode as per ASTM
D4123 guidelines using a universal testing machine. The machine
was equipped with a temperature control chamber which main-
tains a constant temperature during specimen conditioning and
testing. The chamber was also equipped with two linear variable
differential transducers to measure the skin and core temperatures
of the specimens. All specimens were conditioned in the chamber
for 24 h to achieve targeted testing temperature (25 °C). A haver-
sine load pulse was applied at a frequency of 1 Hz (0.1 s load
5
and 0.9 s rest period) vertically along the vertical diameter of spec-
ð2Þ
imens using curved loading strips. The stress level in this test
should lie in between 10 and 50% of the indirect tensile strength
[11]. Hence for each mix, the load corresponding to its 10% of ITS
was used for testing. The horizontal deformation was determined
using two linear variable differential transducers attached at the
mid-thickness at the end of the horizontal diameter. Initially, each
test specimen were conditioned by the application of 100 load
pulses, and subsequently, the calculation of the modulus was done
by taking the average of further five load pulses. The Poisson’s ratio
of each mix was assumed to be equal to 0.35 [6,42]. For each mix,
three samples were used, and every test was repeated two times,
and average values are taken into consideration. The resilient mod-
ulus was calculated as per Eq. (3):
Pðm þ 0:27Þ
Mr ¼ ð3Þ
t Dd
where Mr is resilient modulus (MPa), P is repeated load (N), m is the
Poisson ratio, t is the thickness of the specimen(mm), and dis the
recoverable horizontal deformation (mm).
3.3.7. Fatigue resistance
The Indirect tensile fatigue test was performed as per EN
12697-24 specification using the universal testing machine for
the prediction of the fatigue life of bituminous mixtures. The spec-
imen, specimen conditioning, and the loading procedure in the test
were similar to the resilient modulus test specified in the previous
section. The test was conducted under controlled stress conditions
at 25 °C with a stress level equal to 40% of the indirect tensile
strength of the compacted Marshall specimen (with 4% air voids).
The stress level of 40% is chosen to limit the time duration of the
testing. The haversine load pulse with loading and rest periods of
0.1 s and 0.4 s respectively, were as taken for the analysis. The
specimen was continuously loaded until its complete failure. Fail-
ure of specimen occurred when it collapsed, or its vertical defor-
mation reached 9 mm, whichever happened first. The load
repetition underwent by the specimen before its failure is consid-
ered as its fatigue life.
3.3.8. Ravelling resistance
Cantabro durability test is a relative measure of resistance to
disintegration (ravelling). Although it is traditionally used to assess
the durability of open and gap-graded mixes, however recent stud-
ies found the viability of test in cases of dense-graded mixes as
well [23,51]. This test measures the weight loss after the break-
down of compacted Marshall specimens in the Los Angeles abra-
sion testing machine after 300 rotations at a speed of 33 rpm.
The percent of loss in weight (Cantabro loss) acts as an indicator
of durability and is related to the adhesion and cohesion of the
compacted mix. In this study, samples were compacted by giving
75 blows on each side as per guidelines specified in recent research
[23]. Further, dry and wet conditioning of samples was done as per
Spanish norms NLT-352/86 [49] and NLT-362/92 [50], respectively.
Six Marshall specimens were prepared for each mix and were
divided into a group of three samples each. Three samples were
placed under dry conditions at 25 °C for 24 h. Similarly, another
three samples were immersed in water for 24 h and maintained
at 60 °C. Finally, all samples were placed at 25 °C for 24 h in dry
conditions and then tested.
3.4. Calculation of optimum filler content
The inclusion of less or more filler than the optimum can harm
its performance in one or multiple aspects. Various studies
[3,18,29] have observed that the mixes containing particular filler
content displayed superior performance in one aspect (e.g., rutting
6 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781
resistance), but failed to perform well in another aspect (e.g., mois-
ture resistance). Hence utilization of the optimum amount of filler
in bituminous mixes is crucial to ensure its reliable performance
on every aspect. Previous studies [3,55] have considered the opti-
mum filler contents in the bituminous mixes as the filler content
at which mix display best performance in a particular aspect (say
Marshall stability or lower OBC) or in multiple aspects simultane-
ously. This was done by averaging the filler contents at which the
mix delivered superior performance in different aspects [3]. How-
ever, these studies have taken only a fewer number of parameters
in the analysis. In this study, the optimum filler content was calcu-
lated using eleven different parameters of bituminous mixes deter-
mined in previous sections. The properties under consideration are
maximum stability, minimum optimum binder content, maximum
Marshall quotient, maximum tensile strength ratio, maximum ITS,
maximum bitumen coverage, minimum mixing time, maximum
resilient modulus, maximum fatigue life, minimum Cantabro loss
(wet) and minimum Cantabro loss (dry). The optimum filler con-
tent for both mixes was determined by taking an average of filler
contents corresponding to these properties using Eq. (4) It is
hypothesized that the filler content determined using this equation
will give optimized performance in various aspects on the field.
Optimum Filler Content
F s þ F OBC þ F MQ þ F TSR þ F ITS þ F BC þ F MT þ F RM þ F FL þ F CLD þ F CLW
¼
11
ð4Þ
where Fs is filler content corresponds to maximum stability, FOBC is
filler content corresponds to minimum OBC, FMQ is filler content
corresponds to maximum Marshall quotient, FTSR is filler content
corresponds to maximum tensile strength ratio, FBC is filler content
corresponds to maximum bitumen coverage, Fs is filler content cor-
responds to minimum mixing time, FRM is filler content corresponds
to maximum resilient modulus, FFL is filler content corresponds to
maximum fatigue life, FCLD is filler content corresponds to minimum
Cantabro loss (dry) and FCLW is filler content corresponds to mini-
mum Cantabro loss (wet).
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Characterization of fillers
The properties of all fillers are shown in Table 2 and Fig. 4-6. LS
(2.650) has a slightly lower specific gravity than SD (2.698). LS was
the finest filler as it has lower fineness modulus (3.03) and D50
100
90
Cumulative Passing (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01
Sieve Size (mm)
Limestone Sludge Stone Dust
Fig. 4. Gradation curves of both fillers.
(9 mm) values. SD (17.89) was the well-graded filler due to its
higher Cu value. While, LS (12.71) has a relatively lower Cu value,
and considered as a more uniformly graded filler.
A filler containing a high amount of active fines may expand
when it comes in contact with water and act as a barrier between
bitumen and aggregates, which weakens adhesion in the bitumi-
nous mix [18]. There is no allowable limit for methylene blue value
specified in Indian specifications. However some European coun-
tries (like Portugal) have specified its maximum allowable limit
to be 10 g/kg [24]. Both SD (3.25 g/kg) and LS (3.75 g/kg) had the
methylene blue value well within this permissible limit, which sig-
nified the lower active clay content in them.
SEM images of both fillers were stated in Fig. 5. SD has the rel-
atively larger and angular particles having a smooth texture, while
LS has particles with shapes ranging from sub-rounded to rounded
with a relatively rough texture.
XRD diffractograms both fillers are shown in Fig. 6. Both of the
fillers have calcium-based water-insoluble minerals in their com-
position, which produce mixes with high moisture resistance. LS
consist of calcite in its composition, which is water-insoluble in
nature and has good bitumen adhesion, which ensures good mois-
ture resistance [15]. Similarly, SD has dolomite in its composition,
which is another calcium-based water-insoluble mineral that
forms moisture-resistant bituminous mixes.
Fillers having low German filler values have higher Rigden voids
or porosity [36]. Also, fillers having higher porosity can form bitu-
minous mixes with higher OBC [18,19]. LS (97 g) had a lower
porosity than the SD (85 g).
Fillers having a hydrophilic coefficient below 1 are considered
as hydrophobic fillers. They display a greater affinity with bitumen
than with the water. A previous study has suggested the ideal
range of hydrophilic coefficient value to be 0.70–0.85 [27]. All fil-
lers had hydrophilic coefficient values in the prescribed range. In
general, bitumen is found to be slightly acidic in nature, hence
strong filler bitumen bond is expected in the case of alkaline fillers,
which ultimately may result in superior stripping resistance of
their mixes. Hence, the desirable pH value of filler should be higher
than seven. SD and LS had higher pH values due to the presence of
calcium-based minerals (calcite and dolomite) in their composi-
tion. Based on preliminary characterization, it can be said that both
materials are expected to perform well and could be utilized as fil-
lers in bituminous mixes.
4.2. Analysis of bituminous concrete mixes
4.2.1. Marshall and volumetric properties
The average Marshall and volumetric properties of all mixes at
OBC were determined and stated in Table 3. All mixes displayed
satisfactory Marshall and volumetric characteristics as required
by the Indian specifications, and it suggested that LS could be sat-
isfactorily adopted as an alternative filler in bituminous concrete
mix [41].
Marshall stability determines the strength of the mixes against
the pressure as well as the horizontal and vertical stresses caused
by the traffic [3]. Marshall stability of both mixes was found to be
increased with filler content (Fig. 7). Improvement in Marshall sta-
bility might be due to the toughening of bituminous mastic by an
increase in filler content and a subsequent decrease in OBC. This
trend was in agreement with the previous studies [3,29]. Flow
value indicates the deformation of the mixes and it has a linear
relationship with the internal friction. The mixes having high flow
0.1 value indicates plastic nature of the mix and vice versa. All mixes
had flow values within the prescribed limit, which limit their pos-
sibility to be excessively plastic or brittle (Table 3). In all cases, OBC
decreases with the increase in filler content (Fig. 8(a)). In bitumi-
nous mixes, aggregates are coated with bituminous mastic rather
 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781 7

(a) (b)
Fig. 5. (a). SEM images LS (b). SEM images SD.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6. (a). XRD diffractograms of LS (b). XRD diffractograms of SD.

Table 3
Average Marshall and volumetric properties of bituminous concrete mixes.

Type of Filler Filler Content (% of the OBC (% of the total Ratio of filler to effective Bulk Specific Gravity VMA VFB Marshall Flow AFT
weight of aggregates) weight of mix) binder content (%) (%) Stability (kN) (mm) (mm)
Stone Dust 4.0 6.20 0.66 2.430 17.02 74.22 12.22 3.43 7.85
5.5 5.95 0.75 2.444 16.21 74.43 13.99 3.62 7.34
7.0 5.38 1.39 2.453 15.31 74.79 15.96 3.50 6.47
8.5 5.34 1.73 2.466 14.70 72.01 16.58 3.22 5.77
Limestone Sludge 4.0 5.96 0.70 2.427 16.83 74.79 12.65 3.37 7.78
5.5 5.53 1.06 2.456 15.33 72.54 14.42 3.15 6.55
7.0 4.98 1.54 2.469 14.27 73.84 15.60 2.95 5.92
8.5 4.89 1.94 2.469 14.07 72.13 16.34 2.9 5.49
Requirements [41] 4–10 – – – 14.00 (min) 65–75 9.00 (min) 2–4 –

than with binder alone. It might be because less amount of binder
is needed with higher filler content to make the same amount of
mastic for the lubrication of aggregates in the mix [29]. Hence, at
higher filler contents, a lesser amount of bitumen is needed to
compact mixes to the desirable air voids. Thus here fillers display
bitumen ‘‘extender” function in the mixes. This trend is in agree-
ment with that observed in the previous studies [3,18,29,56]. LS
is much finer filler than SD due to its lower fineness modulus
and D50 values. Hence it displayed a greater tendency to exhibit
bitumen extender function than SD. Also, LS has lower porosity
than SD as determined from his lower German filler value. Thus,
LS incorporated mixes had lower OBC than SD incorporated mixes.
The ratio of filler to effective binder ratio is shown in Table 3. At all
filler contents, LS mixes has higher ratio of filler to effective binder
ratio than conventional mixes due to their low OBC. However, at all
filler binder ratio, mixes delivered satisfactory stability and
durability.
VMA is the volume of inter-granular voids between aggregates
of compacted specimen, which includes air void and the bitumen
which is not absorbed by the aggregates. Similar to the OBC,
8 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781

Marshall Quotient (kN/mm)

Stone Dust Limestone Sludge 7
17
y = 0.022x2 + 0.080x + 2.878 y = -0.055x2 + 1.113x + 0.199
6 R² = 0.998 R² = 0.999
Marshall Stability (kN)

16 y = -0.114x2 + 2.247x + 5.499

R² = 0.999 5
15
4

14
3
y = -0.127x2 + 2.600x + 3.784
13 R² = 0.989
2
4% 5.50% 7% 8.50%
Filler Content
12
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
Filler Content (%)
Fig. 9. Variation of Marshall Quotient of mixes with filler contents.
Fig. 7. Variation of Marshall Stability of mixes with filler contents.

4.2.2. Rutting resistance

Higher Marshall quotient value signifies the higher rutting
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge resistance of the bituminous mix and vice versa. Marshall quotient
6.4
values of all mixes are specified in Fig. 9. There was a clear relation-
ship exists between Marshall quotient values were found to be
6 increased with the filler content. This trend is in agreement with
y = 0.021x2 - 0.472x + 7.791
the results obtained in previous studies [18,56]. In general, it is
OBC (%)

R² = 0.941

5.6
observed that mixes with lower VMA and AFT resulted in higher
Marshall quotient values and vice versa [20,19,21,35]. Since both
VMA and AFT of mixes decreased with filler contents, Marshall
5.2 y = 0.037x2 - 0.722x + 8.276 quotient values were also found to follow a similar trend.
R² = 0.977
LS mixes were found to have higher Marshall quotient values
than SD mixes. It is expected since LS mixes also had the lowest
4.8
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 VMA and AFT than SD mixes. Few recent studies have also
Filler Content (%) observed that the use of fine fillers results in the formation of bitu-
minous mixes with high stiffness [19,21,35]. Higher Marshall quo-
(a)
tient of LS mixes might also be due to its finer nature. Recent
studies have observed that the fine fillers have a greater potential
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
of distribution in bituminous mixes, which resulted in their higher
17.5
stiffness [19,20,43,46].
17
16.5
y = 0.022x2 - 0.801x + 19.89 4.2.3. Indirect tensile strength
16 R² = 0.997 Bituminous mix having a higher value of ITS has superior resis-
VMA (%)

15.5 tance to cracking. A trend between ITS values of mixes with filler
15
content is shown in Fig. 10. ITS values of all mixes were found to
be proportional to the filler content. It can be explained with the
14.5
y = 0.144x2 - 2.428x + 24.25 principle of composite mechanics. Understandably, the filler has
14 R² = 0.998 a higher strength than the binder. So, at higher filler content, an
13.5 increase in the portion of filler and a simultaneous decrease in bin-
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 der content in mastic will inevitably increase its strength and as
Filler Content (%) well as ITS of the bituminous mix [29]. LS incorporated mixes
(b) had higher ITS than SD mixes at all filler percentages due to its
finer nature. A few studies have observed that fine fillers uniformly
Fig. 8. (a). Variation of OBC of mixes with filler contents (b). Variation of VMA of
mixes with filler contents.
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
1100
y = -2.444x2 + 78.42x + 549.7
R² = 0.997
VMA of all mixes were also decreased with the increase in filler
content (Fig. 8(b)). SD mixes were found to have higher VMA than 900 y = 3.444x2 + 25.01x + 491.6
ITS (kPa)

LS mixes, which might be due to higher porosity of SD. The voids R² = 0.99

filled with bitumen can be simply defined as the percentage of

VMA filled with bitumen. The value of voids filled with bitumen
700
of all mixes was also found to be within specification limits. AFT
is the average apparent thickness of bitumen film around the
aggregate particles that affect the performance of mixes against
500
rutting and moisture susceptibility. As expected, AFT of all mixes 4 5.5 7 8.5
decreases with the increase in filler content due to a decrease in Filler Content (%)
OBC and voids filled with bitumen. LS mixes were found to have
lower AFT than SD mixes. Fig. 10. Variation of indirect tensile strength of mixes with filler contents.
 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781 9

distribute in the mix and forms an integrated structure, which 105

improved the ITS of the mixes [20,19,42].

Bitumen Coverage (%)

y = -0.444x2 + 3.955x + 91.38
R² = 0.993
y = -0.333x2 + 2.233x + 96.75
100 R² = 0.947
4.2.4. Moisture susceptibility
Bituminous mixes having high values of tensile strength ratio
95
have superior resistance against moisture. Fig. 11 showed the ten-
sile strength ratio values of all mixes. As per Indian specification,
all bituminous mixes should have a minimum tensile strength 90
ratio of 80% [41], and all mixes satisfied this criterion. This is due
to the presence of dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and calcite (CaCO3) in 85
the composition of SD and LS, which enhance adhesion in between 4% 5.50% 7% 8.50%
bitumen and filler and form a stronger bond even in the presence Filler Content
of water [52]. LS mixes have a relatively lower tensile strength Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
ratio value due to relatively higher active clay content in the com- (b)
position of LS. It may also be due to the relatively lower AFT value
of LS mixes than SD mixes. Similarly, TSR values of all mixes Fig. 12b. Variation of bitumen coverage of mixes with filler contents.

decreased with the increase in filler content. This was attributed

to the decrease in OBC and AFT of the mixes with the increase in
filler content. The observed results are similar to the results
observed in previous studies [18,29,56].
4.2.5. Active and passive adhesion
Fig. 12a and Fig. 12b displayed active and passive adhesion val-
ues of all mixes. Mixes having better active adhesion takes lower
mixing times to get 100% bitumen coating during the mixing pro-
cess. In both mixes, active adhesion reduced with the increase in
filler content. However, LS mixes had the relatively higher mixing
time than SD mixes at all filler contents. Hence, they might con-
sume relatively higher amounts of energy during the mixing at
field than SD mixes. Bituminous mixes with lower mixing time
and retained bitumen coverage have better active and passive
adhesion, respectively. Bituminous mixes having better passive
100
Tensile Strength Ratio (%)
adhesion displays higher bitumen coverage. Similar to the active
adhesion, lowering of passive adhesion was seen with the filler
content. Trends of active and passive adhesion were similar to
TSR values, where SD mixes displayed superior active than LS
mixes respectively. The higher alkaline nature of SD may be
responsible for their good adhesion with bitumen. Other than that
the higher OBC of SD mixes might also be a responsible factor for
their superior active and passive adhesion than LS mixes.
4.2.6. Resilient modulus
Result of Mr analysis at 10% stress level is shown in Fig. 13. For
both types of mixes, a clear inverse trend was observed between
the Mr values and filler contents. It was expected since OBC in both
mixes decreased with the increase in the filler content. Several
studies [3,2,28] have also established that the Mr of bituminous
mixes increases with the decrease in binder content. Mixes con-

taining LS also had higher Mr values than SD mixes for each filler
y = -0.302x2 + 1.781x + 92.10
contents. It might be due to the lower optimum binder contents
95 R² = 0.987 of LS mixes as well as due to the finer nature of LS particles. In gen-
y = -0.033x2 - 1.886x + 102.1
eral, it is believed that the use of finer fillers in the bituminous
R² = 0.986 mixes resulting in their higher stiffness [4,38,42]. Since LS has finer
90
particles than SD as observed from their lower FM and D50values,
the higher Mr values of their mixes were justified by the previous
85 studies. It can be said that LS mixes have superior load distribution
capabilities than conventional mixes. Hence, flexible pavements
80 which use LS mixes in their surface layer may support similar traf-
4% 5.50% 7% 8.50%
fic loading that of conventional SD mixes at a relatively lower layer
Filler Content thickness.
Limestone Sludge Stone Dust
4.2.7. Fatigue life
Fig. 11. Variation of tensile strength ratio of mixes with filler contents.
Result of fatigue live analysis at 40% stress level is shown in
Fig. 14. Fatigue lives of stone dust and limestone sludge
130
y = 1.666x2 - 11.3x + 101.0 6000 y = -28.88x2 + 735.3x + 1177.
120
Resilient Modulus (MPa)
Mixing TIme (Sec)

R² = 0.994 R² = 0.998
y = 34.88x2 + 21.75x + 2341.
110 5000 R² = 0.986
y = 0.592x2 - 2.163x + 83.20
R² = 0.999 4000
100
3000
90
2000
80
1000
70
4% 5.50% 7% 8.50%
0
Filler Content 4 5.5 7 8.5
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge Filler Content (%)
(a) Stone Dust Limestone Sludge

Fig. 12a. Variation of mixing time of mixes with filler contents Fig. 13. Variation of resilient modulus of mixes with filler contents.
10 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781

Cantabro Loss (dry) (%)

7000 y = -293.33x2 + 4160.3x - 8551.8 8
R² = 0.9031
y = 0.3089x2 - 3.7744x + 14.991 y = 0.3089x2 - 3.1184x + 10.556
Fatigue Life (cycles)

6000 y = -209.11x2 + 3410.8x - 7913.1 R² = 0.9178 R² = 0.9565

R² = 0.9725 6
5000
4000 4
3000
2000 2

1000
0
0 4 5.5 7 8.5
4 5.5 7 8.5
Filler Content (%)
Filler Content (%)
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
(a)
Fig. 14. Variation of fatigue lives of mixes with filler contents.
Fig. 15a. Variation of Cantabro loss (dry) of mixes with filler contents

incorporated mixes increased up to 7% filler content. Fatigue fail-

Cantabro Loss (wet) (%)

ure in bituminous mixes is a three-stage process which includes:
crack initiation (development of microcracks), crack propagation
(development of macrocracks from the microcracks), disintegra-
tion (catastrophic failure of the material due to unstable crack
growth) [34,57]. The increase in fatigue lives of bituminous mixes
with the increase in filler content can be explained by the ‘‘crack
pinning” behavior of the filler. Crack pinning is the formal term
given for the mechanism which suggested that the inclusions (in
this case, filler) in a multiphase composite material (in this case,
bitumen filler mastic) have an interaction which leads to slowing
down of the growth of microcracks [26,57,59,60]. It can be said
that the filler particles in the mastic act as barriers that deflect
the crack propagation (crack pinning) and thus enhance the fatigue
lives of the mixes. The superior performance of LS mixes might be
attributed to its lower specific gravity and fine particle size. LS has
lower specific gravity than SD, and hence it occupied larger volume
in the bituminous mixes at a similar weight. LS mixes also have
lower OBC than stone dust mixes, hence a higher volume of LS
acted as the barrier in the lower amount of bitumen, thus deflected
the larger number of cracks and prolonged the fatigue lives. Previ-
ous studies have observed that mixes with higher binder contents
led to lower stiffness which, resulted in larger strains and lowers
fatigue lives [57]. It might be the reason behind the lower fatigue
lives of SD mixes.
Finer LS particles also have a greater potential for uniform dis-
tribution and forming an integrated structure in the bituminous
mix, which might have increased the fatigue life of the mixes
[42]. The fatigue lives of both mixes increased up to 7.0% filler con-
tent, and then a marginal drop is observed. Previous studies [47,58]
have suggested that the fatigue life of bituminous mixes increase
with the increase in the stiffness of the mix, when testing is con-
ducted in controlled stress mode. In this study, the testing was
conducted in controlled stress mode and the stiffness of both
mixes was found to increase with the filler content (Fig. 13). Hence,
the fatigue life was found to increase with the filler content
[47,58,57].
4.2.8. Ravelling resistance
For all mixes, Cantabro weight losses measured after wet condi-
tioning are higher than dry conditioning, which indicated the loss
of adhesion after conditioning of mixes in water (Fig. 15a). LS
mixes suffered marginally higher losses after wet conditioning
than SD mixes Fig. 15b. This may be due to lower bitumen film
thickness of LS mixes or due to superior filler bitumen adhesion
in SD mixes caused by high dolomite composition in SD.
There is no well-defined trend for the dry Cantabro loss in the
mixes. However, it seemed that in a dry state, losses decreased
with an increase in filler content up to a limit and then marginal
12
y = 0.01x2 + 0.2983x + 3.8792 y = 0.0222x2 + 0.1996x + 4.6022
R² = 0.9985 R² = 0.948
8
4
0
4 5.5 7 8.5
Filler Content (%)
Stone Dust Limestone Sludge
(b)
Fig. 15b. Variation of Cantabro loss (wet) of mixes with filler contents.
decline is observed at higher filler content (Fig. 15b). The decrease
in Cantabro loss may be due to the stiffening of mastic with the
addition of the filler in the mixes which might have increased
the cohesion of mix. However, at higher filler contents, excessive
stiffening and lower adhesion might have increased the losses.
Interestingly, LS mixes displayed lower losses at lower filler con-
tents (4 and 5.5%) than SD mixes. Hence, it can be inferred that
both mixes displayed satisfactory resistance against ravelling in
both wet and dry conditions.
4.2.9. Cost analysis
The economic benefit for utilizing limestone as filler was
assessed after comparing the material cost required for the produc-
tion of 1 m3 of all 8 types of bituminous concrete mixes. The quan-
tities of materials were estimated as per mix design used in the
study. The current unit cost of different ingredients (coarse aggre-
gates, fine aggregates, stone dust (SD), and bitumen) for the pro-
duction of the bituminous concrete mix as per Central Public
Works Department, India [17] is displayed in Table 4. Being the
waste material, LS is freely available except for its transportation
cost. It was assumed that the transportation cost incurred in trans-
ferring conventional SD from its quarries to the production site of
the bituminous mix is equal to that of transferring LS from the dis-
posal site to the production site. LS used in this study needed no
processing since it was already found to be fine in nature, and
almost all of it passed through 75 mm sieve. The processing (labour)
cost of LS in the worst scenario can be taken as 0.5% of the total
cost needed to produce 1 m3 of bituminous concrete.
The results of the economic analysis clearly show that the mixes
containing LS are economical in comparison to standard mixes at
all filler contents. The lesser amount of bitumen consumption by
 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781 11

Table 4
Comparison of costs of various mixes.

Material CPWD Rates Quantity in 1 m3 of bituminous concrete mix produced

SD (4%) SD (5.5%) SD (7%) SD (8.5%) LS (4%) LS (5.5%) LS (7%) LS (8.5%)
Coarse Aggregate (m3) INR 1350/m3 0.316 0.318 0.322 0.322 0.316 0.321 0.325 0.325
Fine Aggregate (m3) INR 1350/m3 0.496 0.486 0.482 0.469 0.495 0.491 0.486 0.474
Stone Dust (m3) INR 1400/m3 0.034 0.048 0.061 0.075 0 0 0 0
Limestone Sludge (m3) 0 0 0 0 0 0.035 0.049 0.063 0.077
Bitumen (kg) INR 39.57/kg 153.68 147.90 135.25 133.73 148.20 138.26 118.04 123.18
Cost in (INR/m3) 7250 7029 6547 6488 6991 6593 6083 5978
0.5% for Processing (INR/m3) 0 0 0 0 35 33 30 30
Total Cost (INR/m3) 7250 7029 6547 6488 7026 6626 6113 6008
Percentage saving in cost with respect to 0 3.05 9.70 10.51 3.09 8.61 15.69 17.63
SD (4%) mix (%)

LS mixes is the major responsible parameter for the saving. Cost
comparison of all mixes with respect to SD mixes having 4% filler
(SD (4%)) is done, and it is observed that cost of the mixes reduced
with the increase in filler content. The total cost in producing 1 m3
of SD (8.5%) and LS (8.5%) mix is about 11% and 18% lower than SD
(4%) mix, respectively. It should also be noted that besides these
monetary benefits, utilization of LS as a filler can save a consider-
able amount of precious land that was used for its dumping and
also have numerous environmental benefits.
4.2.10. Environmental analysis
A large amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) are emitted during
the production and transport of materials for the construction,
maintenance, and rehabilitation of pavements [16]. The environ-
mental benefit for utilizing limestone as filler was assessed after
comparing the GHG emission occurred during the production of
ingredients required to make 1 tonne of bituminous concrete
mixes. GHG emission during the transportation and construction
process for all mixes was assumed to be same. The quantities of
materials were estimated as per mix design conducted in the
study. The greenhouse gas emission is usually measured in kilo-
grams of CO2 equivalent. The standard amount of emission by
the various ingredients (coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, stone
dust (SD) and bitumen) as shown in Table 5 was taken from the
previous studies on the subject matter [61,65]. LS is a waste pro-
duct produced during the cutting and polishing of stone slabs,
therefore the CO2 equivalent for LS production is allotted with zero
value in this study.
The comparison of GHG emission clearly stated that the mixes
containing LS are much environment-friendly than the standard
mixes at all filler contents. It can be seen bitumen emit a much
higher amount of GHG in comparison to aggregates. Hence, a lesser
amount of bitumen consumption by LS mixes leads to their lower
GHG emissions. Comparison of GHG emission of all mixes with
respect to SD mixes having 4% filler (SD (4%)) is done and it is
observed that GHG emission in both mixes reduced with the
increase in filler content. The total GHG emission in producing 1
tonne of SD (8.5%) and LS (8.5%) mix is about 13% and 20% lower
than SD (4%) mix respectively. Leaching of heavy metals from the
hazardous wastes to the groundwater level can cause serious envi-
ronmental and health consequences. Some researchers have con-
ducted the leaching analysis of the bituminous mixes containing
industrial wastes fillers (coal waste, copper tailing etc.), using the
procedures like toxicity characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP)
to assess the chemical stability of heavy metals in the wastes
[46,47]. However, it is worth noting that the LS is not classified
as hazardous waste and is obtained from the natural limestone.
As observed from its mineralogical analysis, it mostly consisted
of calcium and silica-based minerals, so TCLP analysis was not con-
ducted in this study.
After the analysis, it can be said that the utilization of LS as fil-
lers has great advantages like the production of low-cost mixes,
saving the natural aggregates, lowering of GHG emission and the
formation of strong and durable mixes. The current strategy to
manage waste LS is to openly discharge it in landfills, rather than
utilizing it as a by-product. This unorganized dumping of LS on fer-
tile land or along roadside causes severe degradation of land,
blockage of the natural drainage, create health issues (vision, bron-
chial and skin disorders) in nearby residents due to airborne LS
dust and damages the aesthetics of the region’s landscape
[53,54]. All these problems can automatically be resolved if LS be
utilized as filler in bituminous concrete mixes.
4.3. Optimum filler content
According to the calculations made as per Eq. 5, the optimum
filler contents for LS and SD mixes were obtained as (6.45%) and
(6.59%) respectively. Taking the assumption that the properties of
both mixes vary as per the trend suggested in their trend lines, cal-
culation of various properties of the bituminous mixes expected at
optimum filler contents can be done (Table 6). At their optimum
filler content, bitumen consumption of LS mixes was about 8%
lower than conventional SD mixes. Since bitumen is the most
expensive ingredient in the mix, the lower consumption of the

Table 5
Comparison of greenhouse gas emission of various mixes.

Material kgCO2 equivalent/kg Quantity in 1 tonne of bituminous concrete mix produced

SD (4%) SD (5.5%) SD (7%) SD (8.5%) LS (4%) LS (5.5%) LS (7%) LS (8.5%)
Coarse Aggregate (kg) 0.0026 356.44 357.39 359.48 359.71 357.35 358.98 361.08 361.42
Fine Aggregate (kg) 0.0026 544.04 531.38 520.30 506.43 545.43 533.76 522.61 508.84
Stone Dust (kg) 0.0026 37.52 51.73 66.22 80.46 0 0 0 0
Limestone Sludge (kg) 0 0 0 0 0 37.62 51.96 66.51 80.84
Bitumen (kg) 0.426 62.00 59.50 54.00 53.40 59.60 55.30 49.80 48.90
Total Emission (kgCO2 equivalent/tonne) 28.85 27.79 25.46 25.21 27.74 25.88 23.51 23.09
Percentage saving in total emission with respect 0 3.67 11.75 12.62 3.85 10.29 18.51 19.97
to SD (4%) mix (%)
12 J. Choudhary et al. / Construction and Building Materials 239 (2020) 117781
Table 6
Various properties of bituminous mixes at their optimum filler contents.
Property of Mix Type of Mix
SD
Optimum Filler Content (%) 6.59
Optimum Binder Content (%) 5.59
Marshall Stability (kN) 15.40
Tensile Strength Ratio (%) 90.72
Indirect Tensile Strength (kPa) 806
Marshall Quotient (kN/mm) 4.36
Mixing Time (sec) 95
Retained Bitumen Coverage (%) 98.16
Resilient Modulus (MPa) 3999
Fatigue Lives (cycles) 5483
Cantabro Loss (dry) (%) 3.53
Cantabro Loss (wet) (%) 6.28
bitumen may lower the cost of the produced mix. Other than that
lower consumption of the bitumen might also reduce the green-
house gas emission and the carbon footprint of the bituminous
mix. In comparison to the conventional mixes, LS mixes at their
optimum filler contents are also expected to display relatively
higher Marshall quotient (improvement by 16.74%), higher indirect
strength (improvement by 18.36%), and marginally lower dry Can-
tabro loss (decline by 6.80%). The major reasons attributed to this
performance might be the lower porosity and finer nature of LS.
However, LS mixes are also expected to show marginally lower val-
ues of Marshall stability (decline by 0.97%), tensile strength ratio
(decline by 2.38%), and higher wet Cantabro loss (increase by
8.44%) than conventional mixes prepared at optimum filler con-
tent. This behavior might be due to the relatively higher active clay
content as well as relatively less hydrophobic nature of LS in com-
parison to SD. Finally, LS mixes are also expected to display about
18% higher resilient modulus values than conventional mixes.
Higher resilient modulus signifies the better load distribution
capability of pavement layers; hence pavement surface layers
made with LS mixes are expected to support similar volume of traf-
fic at relatively lower layer thickness than SD mixes. This may not
only save considerable amount of non renewable resources like
aggregates and bitumen, but also result in lowering of labour cost
and effort for their construction.
5. Conclusions
This effectiveness of recycling LS as filler in the bituminous con-
crete mix was explored in this study. Firstly, bituminous concrete
mixes having LS and SD were designed at four different filler con-
tents (4.0, 5.5, 7.0, and 8.5%). Subsequently, the performance of all
mixes prepared at their OBC was assessed through a series of lab-
oratory investigations. Finally, the analysis of cost and environ-
mental viability of mixes was done. Based on the analysis the
following conclusions can be drawn.

LS displayed positive traits of good filler due to its fine nature,
low active clay content, and hydrophobic nature. They also
ensure a good bond with bitumen in the presence of water
due to the high amount of calcite in it.

LS incorporated mixes also delivered Marshall and volumetric
properties equivalent/superior to the SD mixes at relatively
lower OBC. Marshall stability of mixes increased with the
increase in filler content. While OBC of all mixes decreased with
the increase in filler content.

Cracking and rutting resistance of all bituminous mixes
increased with the increase in filler content. LS mixes displayed
superior cracking and rutting resistances due to the fine nature
of LS, as well as due to low VMA and AFT of its mixes.
Various properties of LS mixes in comparison to
SD mixes at an optimum filler content
LS
6.45
5.16 Decrease in OBC by 7.69%
15.25 Decrease in stability by 0.97%
88.56 Decrease in TSR by 2.38%
954 Increase in ITS by 18.36%
5.09 Increase in MQ by 16.74%
97 Increase in mixing time by 2.11%
97.29 A decrease in bitumen coverage by 0.89%
4718 Increase in Mr by 17.98%
6079 Increase in FL by 11.23%
3.29 A decrease in a loss of 6.80%
6.81 Increase in the loss by 8.44%

All LS mixes displayed good adhesion and satisfactory perfor-
mance against moisture resistance. Overall, TSR values of all
mixes decreased with an increase in filler contents due to the
gradual decrease in AFT. SD mixes displayed better adhesion
and superior performance against moisture at all filler contents
due to lower AFT, lower active clay content and alkaline nature
of SD.

LS mixes also displayed superior load distribution characteris-
tics, and higher fatigue lives at all filler contents than SD mixes
due to the finer nature and cracking pinning behavior of LS.

Utilization of LS as filler also resulted in lowering of material
cost and GHG emissions up to 18% and 20% respectively.
In conclusion, it can be said that the systematical utilization of
LS in place of conventional SD as filler in the bituminous mix not
only could be an effective solution for the safe disposal of large
quantities of produced waste and ensure sustainable construction
practices but also can produce superior performing mixes in a
much economical manner.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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