Necropsical Diagnosis

ADRIAN STANCU
VETERINARY NECROPSIC
DIAGNOSIS
Scientific References:
Prof. Dr. Romeo Cristina
Prof. Dr. Marius Pentea
Prof. Dr. Valeria Grieco

FOREWORD
Necropsy and anatomopathology have a significant practical

character, helping to establish the cause of death and to specify the
etiological diagnosis of diseases, while having a special importance in
scientific research.
In current medical practice, the morphopathological examination
confirms or invalidates the clinical diagnosis. The results of
anatomopathological investigations may lead to correction of some failures
in therapy.
The anatomopathologist has to reconstitute, based on the findings of
necropsy, the whole evolution of the disease, the succession of lesions, the
cause of death and, finally, the etiological diagnosis.
Anamnetic data and clinical diagnosis are also important in
determining the cause of death.
The necropsy exam, together with the laboratory examination, make
it possible to clarify the disease etiopathogenesis and serve the correct
application of the therapy, basically it is the continuation and completion of
the clinical examination. For practitioners, necropsy makes it possible to
corroborate injuries with symptoms during life, establishing cause-to-effect
relationships.
Author
CONTEN
T
1. NECROPSY.............................................................................20
1.1. General notions..........................................................................20
1.2. General principles of necropsy..................................................21
1.3. Instrument used to perform necropsy........................................23
1.4. Labor protection rules during necropsy.....................................24
1.5. The general stages of necropsy.................................................25
1.5.1. Registration and anamnesis....................................................25
1.5.2. External corpse examination..................................................26
1.5.3. Skinning the corpse................................................................27
1.5.4. Opening of the big cavities.....................................................27
1.5.5. Evisceration of organs in the chest cavity..............................29
1.5.6. Evisceration of the abdominal organs....................................30
1.5.7. Opening the neurocranium and eviscerating the brain...........31
1.5.8. Opening nasal cavities............................................................31

1.5.9. Sectioning of muscles, bones and joints.................................31
1.5.10. Opening the spinal canal and marrow examination.............32
1.6. Postmortem changes…………………………………………48
1.6.1. The signs of death...................................................................32
1.6.2. Cadaveric changes..................................................................34
1.7. General plan for examination of organs and tissues..................41
1.8. General chest cavity examination..............................................45
1.9. Examination of the cervico-thoracic part..................................47
1.10. Examination the abdominal cavity..........................................52
1.11. Examination of the liver..........................................................54
1.12. Examination of the spleen.......................................................56
1.13. Examination of the pancreas...................................................57
1.14. Examination of the stomach....................................................58
1.15. Examination of the intestins....................................................59
1.16. Examination of the kidneys and urinary tract.........................60
1.17. Examination of the genitals.....................................................62
1.18. Examination of nasal and sinus cavities..................................63
1.19. Examination of the encephalus................................................64
1.20. Examination of the muscles....................................................65
1.21. Examination of the bones and joints.......................................65

1.22. General aspects of the abortion nephropsy..............................66
1.22.1. The technique of abortion necropsy.....................................67
1.22.2. Examination of the placenta.................................................71
1.23. Making the act of necropsy.....................................................73
1.24. Collection of samples for laboratory examinations.................78
1.24.1. Sampling for histopathological examination........................79
1.24.2. Fix the samples for histopathological examination..............81
1.24.3. Collection of samples for haematological and cytological

examinations.................................................................................................82
1.24.4. Collection of samples for the bacteriological examination. .83
1.24.5. Collection of samples for virosological examination...........85
1.24.6. Collection of samples to perform the mycological

examination..................................................................................................86
1.24.7. Collection of samples for parasitological examination........87
1.24.8. Taking samples to perform the toxicological examination. .88
1.24.9. Collection of samples for serological and biochemical

examination..................................................................................................88
1.24.10. Preparation and transport of samples to the laboratory......89
1.24.11. Rapid tests used during necropsy.......................................90
1.24.12. Collection of samples for smears.......................................93

1.24.13. Making smears...................................................................94
2. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN BIRDS DISEASES...................97
2.1. Examination of the exterior.......................................................98
2.1.2. The general appearance of the corpse....................................99
2.1.3. Examination of skin and feathers.........................................100
2.1.4. Skin lesions:.........................................................................100
2.1.5. Feathers lesions:...................................................................100
2.1.6. Lesions of the apparent mucosa...........................................101
2.1.7. Skinning and examination of subcutaneous connective tissue

....................................................................................................................101
2.1.8. Subcutaneous conjunctive tissue lesions:.............................102
2.2. Inside exam..............................................................................102
2.2.1. Opening and examination of the thoracoabdominal cavity..102
2.2.2. Lesions of the thoraco-abdominal cavity.............................103
2.2.3. Airbags lesions:....................................................................104
2.2.4. Opening and examination of the pericardial cavity..............104
2.2.5. Lesions of the pericardial cavity:.........................................105
2.2.6. Evisceration and examination of the heart...........................105
2.2.7. Heart lesions:........................................................................106
2.2.8. Evisceration and examination of the liver............................106

2.2.9. Lesions of the liver:..............................................................107
2.2.10. Evisceration and examination of the spleen.......................108
2.2.11. Lesions of the spleen:.........................................................108
2.2.12. Evisceration of the gastrointestinal tract............................109
2.2.13. Evisceration and examination of genitals...........................109
2.2.14. Lesions of the female genital apparatus:............................110
2.2.15. Lesions of the male genital apparatus:...............................111
2.2.16. Examination of the Fabricius burse....................................111
2.2.17. Lesions of the Fabricius burse............................................111
2.2.18. Evisceration and examination of the kidneys and suprarenal

glands.........................................................................................................112
2.2.19. Lesions of the kidneys........................................................113
2.2.20. Evisceration and examination of the lungs.........................113
2.2.21. Lesions of the lungs............................................................113
2.2.22. Examination of thyroid, parathyroid and thymus glands...114
2.2.23. Lesions of the thymus:.......................................................115
2.2.24. Examination of the bucal cavity.........................................116
2.2.25. Lesions of the bucal cavity:................................................116
2.2.26 Examination of the esophagus and the goose......................116
2.2.27. Lesions of the esophagus and goose:.................................116

2.2.28. Examination of the trachea.................................................118
2.2.29. Lesions of the trachea.........................................................118
2.2.30. Opening and examining the nasal cavities and the infraorbital
sinus............................................................................................................118
2.2.31. Opening of the cranial cavity, evisceration and examination

of the encephalus........................................................................................119
2.2.32. Lesions of the encephalus:.................................................119
2.2 33. Evisceration and examination of the eyeball......................120
2.2.34. Lesions of the eyeballs.......................................................120
2.2.35. Examination of the peripheral nervous system..................120
2.2.36. Lesions of the peripheral nervous system..........................121
2.2.37. Examination the locomotor apparatus................................121
2.2.38. Lesions of the locomotor apparatus:..................................121
2.2.39. Examination of the pancreas and digestive tract................122
2.2.40. Lesions of the pancreas:.....................................................123
2.2.41. Lesions of the digestive tract:.............................................123
3. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN SWINE DISEASES.................129
3.1. Exterior exam..........................................................................129
3.1.1. The general appearance of the corpse..................................131
3.1.2. Examination of the skin........................................................132

3.1.3. Lesions of the skin:...............................................................132
3.1.4. Dermatitis.............................................................................133
3.1.5. Examination of apparent mucouses.....................................134
3.1.6. Skinning and examination of subcutaneous conjunctive tissue

....................................................................................................................135
3.1.7. Lesions of the subcutaneous conjunctive tissue:..................135
3.2. Examination of the inside........................................................136
3.2.1. Opening and examination of the abdominal and peritoneal

cavity..........................................................................................................136
3.2.2. Lesions of the peritoneal cavity............................................137
3.2.3. Open and examinination the chest cavity and pleural cavities
....................................................................................................................137
3.2.4. Lesions of the chest cavity...................................................138
3.2.5. Opening and examination of the pericardial cavity..............138
3.2.6. Lesions of the pericardial cavity:.........................................139
3.2.7. Evisceration and examination of buccal-cervico-thoracic

organs.........................................................................................................139
3.2.8. Lesions of the buccal cavity.................................................140
3.2.9. Lesions of the pharynx.........................................................140
3.2.10. Lesions of the larynx..........................................................141
3.2.11. Lesions of the heart............................................................141

3.2.12. Lesions of the lungs:...........................................................142
3.2.13. Lesions of the thymus.........................................................145
3.2.14. Lesions of the thyroid.........................................................145
3.2.15. Lesions of the parathyroids................................................145
3.2.16. Evisceration and examination of the spleen.......................145
3.2.17. Lesions of the spleen..........................................................146
3.2.18. Evisceration of the gastrointestinal tract............................146
3.2.19. Evisceration and examination of the liver, gall bladder and

liver lesions.................................................................................................147
3.2.20. Evisceration and examination of the suprarenal glands.....149
3.2.21. Lesions of the suprarenal gland..........................................149
3.2.22. Opening the pelvic cavity...................................................149
3.2.23. Evisceration and examination of the urogenital apparatus.150
2.3.24. Lesions of the urinary system.............................................150
3.2.25. Lesions of the female genital apparatus.............................152
3.2.26. Lesions of the male genital apparatus................................153
3.2.27. Opening of the cranial cavity, evisceration and examination

of the encephalus........................................................................................153
3.2.28. Lesions of the encephalus...................................................155

3.2.29. Opening of the rahidian canal, evisceration and examination
of the spinal marrow...................................................................................155
3.2.30. Opening and examination of the nasal cavities..................156
3.2.31. Lesions of the nasal and sinus cavity.................................156
3.2.32. Evisceration and examination of the eyeballs....................157
3.2.33. Examination the locomotor apparatus................................158
2.3.34. Lesions of the muscles.......................................................158
3.2.35. Examination and lesions of the joints.................................159
3.2.36. Lesions of the joints...........................................................159
3.2.37. Examination and lesions of the bones................................160
3.3.38. Lesions of the bones...........................................................161
3.2.39. Examination of the pancreas..............................................161
3.2.40. Lesions of the pancreas......................................................161
3.2.41. Examination of the gastrointestinal tract............................162
3.2.42. Lesions of the stomach.......................................................162
3.2.43. Lesions of the intestine.......................................................163
4. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS BY BOVINES..............................169
4.1. External exam..........................................................................169
4.1.1. General appearance of the corpse.........................................171
4.1.2. Skinning of the corpse..........................................................171

4.1.3. Lesions of the skin................................................................172
4.1.4. Lesions of the limb extremities:...........................................176
4.2. Internal exam...........................................................................179
4.2.1. Opening the abdominal cavity..............................................179
4.2.2. Lesions of the abdominal cavity...........................................180
4.2.3. Evisceration and examination of abdominal organs.............182
4.2.4. Lesions of the spleen............................................................183
4.2.5. The lesions of the rumen......................................................186
4.2.6. Lesions of the abomasum.....................................................188
4.2.7. Evisceration and examination of the liver............................189
4.2.8. Lesions of the liver...............................................................190
4.2.9. Evisceration and examination of organs in the chest cavity 192
4.2.10. Lesions of the chest cavity.................................................193
4.2.11.Examination of the tongue..........................................194
4.2.12. The actinobacillary glossitis......................................194
4.2.13. Examination of the larynx..................................................194
4.2.14. Laringotracheitis.................................................................195
4.2.15. Examination of the esophagus............................................195
4.2.16. Lesions of the esophagus....................................................196
4.2.17. Examination of the lungs....................................................196

4.2.18. Lesions of the lungs............................................................197
4.2.19. Examination of the heart....................................................198
4.2.21. Evisceration and examination of genito-urinary organs.....202
4.2.22. Lesions of the kidneys........................................................203
4.2.23. Lesions of the bladder........................................................205
4.2.24. The uterus is examined from the vagina;....................207
4.2.25. Circulatory disorders of the uterus.....................................207
4.2.26. Examination of the male genital apparatus ............209
4.2.28. Examination of the central nervous system........................211
4.2.29. Lesions of tht central nervous system................................212
4.2.30. Exam of the locomotor apparatus.......................................213
4.2.31. Lesions of the muscle.........................................................214
4.2.32. Lesions of the joints...........................................................215
5. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN OVINE DISEASES.................217
5.1. The external examination is similar to that of cattle...............217

5.1.2. Lesions of the skin, mucous membranes, subcutaneous
connective tissue, external lymph nodes and mammary gland..................218
5.2. Lesions of the large cavity.......................................................223
5.2.1. Lesions of the heart..............................................................224
5.2.2. Lesions of the respiratory apparatus.....................................225
5.2.3. Lesions of the liver and bladder...........................................226
5.2.4. The bladder lesions are represented by:........................228
5.2.5. Lesions of the spleen............................................................229
5.2.6. Lesions of the digestive tract................................................230
5.2.7. Lesions of the urinary system...............................................232
5.2.8. Lesions of the female genital apparatus..............................234
5.2.9. Lesions of the male genital apparatus..................................235
5.2.10. Lesions of the central nervous system................................236
5.2.11. Lesions of the locomotor apparatus....................................237
6. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN HORSES..................................243
6.1. External corpse examination...................................................243
6.1.1. External lesions....................................................................245
6.1.2. Lesions of the skin................................................................247
6.1.3. Mucosal lesions....................................................................250

6.2 Opening and examination of the abdominal cavity..................253
6.2.1. Lesions of the abdominal cavity...........................................255
6.2.2. Opening the chest cavity......................................................256
6.2.3. Opening the pericardial bag.................................................257
6.2.4. Evisceration and examination of cervico-thoracic organs. . .259
6.2.5. Lesions in the chest cavity....................................................261
6.2.6. Evisceration and examination of abdominal cavity organs..264
6.2.7. Lesions of the digestive system............................................267
6.2.8. Lesions of the liver...............................................................272
6.2.9. Evisceration and examination of the kidneys and

suprarenal glands....................................................................................274
6.2.10. Lesions of the urinary system.............................................275
6.2.11. Examination of abdominal cavity organs...........................277
6.2.13. Evisceration and examination of genital and urinary organs

....................................................................................................................281
6.2.15. Lesions of the female genital apparatus.............................285
6.2.16. Evisceration and examination of the nervous system........291
6.2.17. Lesions of the nervous system............................................291

6.2.18. Examination of nasal cavities and sinuses.........................293
6.2.19. Spinal column and spinal cord examination…………..310
6.2.20. Examination of the locomotor apparatus............................296
6.2.21. Lesions of the locomotor apparatus....................................297
6.2.22. Lesions of the joint.............................................................299
7. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN DOGS......................................303
7.1. Cosmetic necropsy..................................................................303
7.1.1. External exam.......................................................................306
7.1.3. Lesions of the skin, aparent mucosa , subcutaneous connective

tissue, external lymphonodes and mammary gland....................................308
7.1.4. Lesions of the bucal cavity...................................................310
7.1.5. Lesions of the eyeballs.........................................................312
7.1.6. Lesions of the nasal cavity...................................................312
7.1.7. Lesions of the lymphonodes and mammary glands............313
7.1.9. Opening and examining the abdominal cavity.....................317
7.1.10. Lesions of the abdominal cavity.........................................317
7.1.11. Opening and examining the chest cavity............................319

7.1.12. Evisceration of organs in the chest cavity..........................320
7.1.13. Opening and examining the organs of the pelvic cavity....321
7.1.14. Lesions of the urinary and genital apparatus......................323
7.1.15. Evisceration of digestive organs.........................................324
7.1.16. Examination of the heart....................................................325
1.7.18. Examination of the respiratory apparatus...........................329
7.1.19. Lesions of the respiratory apparatus...................................329
7.1.20. Examination of liver and pancreas.....................................332
7.1.21. Lesions of the liver and bladder.........................................332
7.1.22. Examination of the spleen..................................................335
7.1.24 Examination of epiplone and mesenter...............................336
7.1.25. Examination of the gastrointestinal tract............................337
7.1.26. Lesions of the digestive system..........................................338
7.1.27. Examination of joints.........................................................340
7.1.28. Evisceration and examination of the brain.........................342
7.1.29.Lesions of the nervous system.............................................343
7.1.30. Opening of the nasal and sinus cavities..............................343
7.1.31. Evisceration of the spinal marrow......................................344

7.1.32. Examination of peripheral nerves.......................................346
8. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN CATS DISEASES...................348
8.1. The external exam is similar to carnivore...............................348
8.1.2. Lesions of the skin, apparent mucousas, subcutaneous

conjunctive tissue.......................................................................................349
8.2. Lesions of the large cavities....................................................350
8.2.1. Lesions of the respiratory apparatus.....................................351
8.2.2. Lesions of the digestive apparatus and liver........................353
8.2.3. Lesions of the excretory and genital apparatus....................354
8.2.4. Lesions of the nervous system..............................................356
BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................357
1. NECROPSY
1.1. General notions
The term necropsy comes from the greek language (nekros = death,
opsis = view) and involves a series of manipulations to investigate a corpse
in order to highlight the lesions of various tissues and organs to determine
the cause of death and the diagnosis of nosology or disease (gr. nosos =
disease). With tissue necropsy, tissue samples are taken to perform
additional examinations, such as cytological, histopathological,
bacteriological, parasitological, virological, toxicological and biochemical
examinations, which help diagnose the diagnosis (3, 6).
Necropsy is based on general rules in both mammals and birds, with

species specificity. Regardless of the species, necropsy follows some
mandatory steps, such as: recording of the corpse, anamnesis, general
external examination, opening of the body, evisceration and examination of
organs and tissues, and sampling for special examinations. After the
macroscopic examination, a morphopathological diagnosis will be made
for each tissue and organ, and on their basis the morphopathological
picture will be synthesized. The morphopathological picture is often
sufficient to determine the cause of death but the specification of the
nosologic diagnosis requires additional laboratory examinations
20
(microbiological, toxicological, etc.), unless there is a specific
morphological or pathognomonic picture for certain diseases.(3, 6)
1.2. General principles of necropsy
Necropsy should be done as soon as possible after the death of the

animal to avoid the installation of cadavers and to catch certain pathogens
or toxic substances that quickly disappear from the corpse.
If immediate examination is not possible, the body must be cooled
as quickly as possible in a refrigerator or freezer.
Carriage of necropsy bodies should be rapid and ensure good
isolation of corpses to prevent the spread of possible germs. Transport is
made in plastic bags or waterproof crates, in isolated vehicles, specially
designed for this purpose, with a waterproof, easily disinfected floor. In the
case of vehicles used for the transport of large carcasses, the floor shall be
covered with plastic sheets.
Necropsy will be done by or under the supervision of the doctor. It is
forbidden to make necropsy in shelters, stables, halls, pastures and generally
in places where the animals are present or have access. It is also
contraindicated to make necropsy in places that are not specifically
designed for this purpose. Under strictly necessary conditions, necropsy can
be done in spaces that are not specially arranged, provided that leakage of
liquid from the corpse is avoided and can be disinfected.
21
In the farms, necropsy can be done in external, uncovered, specially
arranged areas, represented by concrete platforms or even directly on the
ground, provided that these areas are enclosed with a fenced mesh fence at
about 50 cm to prevent access of domestic animals and wild.
There are some requirements for choosing the place of necropsy. It
must be adequately lit, have running water, ventilation, own sewage, a cold
room for corpses, and conditions that reduce the chances of environmental
contamination. Animals that have died from transmissible diseases will only
be examined in the laboratory. Clinical diagnosis suggests the site of
necropsy, for example a presumptive clinical diagnosis of anthrax will never
allow for necropsy due to the very high risk of contamination.
Normally, necropsy is carried out within special prosecution services
with adequate spaces and facilities.
Necropsy must be carried out near the place where the destruction
by incineration of the bodies or the freezing of debris can be carried out for
further incineration or further processing.
The best method of destroying corpses remains incineration in
crematoriums. Incineration underground, in the absence of cremation, is
more difficult due to the time required and the large amount of fuel required
to convert the high volume of meat and bone into ashes.
Carrying out the necropsy requires precise knowledge of the
technique, with the peculiarities of the species. Sequence and how to
perform sections, organ and tissue dislocations, how they are examined are
determined for each species. Respecting these, in addition to the diligence
22
and high level of professional training of the doctor, ensures the consistency
of the results obtained. (3, 6, 30, 31)
1.3. Instrument used to perform necropsy
Apparatus made of materials resistant to water and various

disinfectants is used for the necropsy.
Knives, saws, chisels, scissors of different sizes and shapes are used,
scalpel with or without disposable blades for sections made in the case of
small animal necropsy. Thin blade knives are used for cutting the
encephalus. Electric saws can be fixed, vertical, used to open the skull,
spinal canal and long bones, or they can be portable blades with
interchangeable blades for cutting different types of tissues. The chisels are
used to cut bones. Scissors are used to cut the walls of tubular organs (eg
intestines, trachea), abdominal walls (small animals) and fine anatomical
formations (eg nerves, meshes). There are special scissors for certain tissues
such as enterotomas or costumas. Small animals use almost scissors and
fine scalpel. As an auxiliary instrumentation, various anatomical pins,
buttocks and grooved probes, spacers etc. can be used.
To measure the dimensions of the organs and pathological
formations, linear and roulette measurements are used to measure the
volume of pathological liquids using graduated cylinders in glass and for
weighing a weighing scale is used.
23
For collecting samples for the histopathological examination, glass
or plastic vessels with a lid are used to prevent the evaporators of the
fixators. Liquid samples for microbiological examinations use buffers,
syringes, pipettes and sterile tubes, and virological, toxicological and
biochemical exams use plastic bags and boxes.
During the necropsy, blades and histological lamellae are used for
any fingerprints and direct preparations.
For the examination of discrete lesions, front or leg cuffs can be
used. (3, 6)
1.4. Labor protection rules during necropsy
During the necropsy, the veterinary staff is exposed to a number of

risks regarding the possibility of contamination with different pathogenic
germs from corpses or other pathological materials examined and the risks
associated with the equipment, instruments and substances used.
The equipment will consist of a single piece gown, raincoat, rubber
boots, waterproof rubber apron or polyvinyl, cap, latex or polyvinyl gloves,
mask, even protective goggles when suspected a transmissible disease.
Particular attention should be paid to areas with bone fractures
resulting from the breakage or tearing, dentition and claw of the corpses that
can pinch or cut the protective gloves and the skin of the necropsy.
Segmentation or puncture of abdominal wall, abdominal cavity gases, walls
of purulent, necrotic, or parasitic wall walls exposed to contamination
24
(cutaneous, conjunctival, nasal, or buccal) of participants in necropsy by
liquids that can be expelled.
If an accident has occurred, the necropsy is interrupted, the wound
or the contaminated area is washed, aseptic and panched. Depending on the
situation, betadine, hydrogen peroxide is used for the aseptication of skin
wounds, and antibiotic staining is used for the aseptication of conjunvtival
mucosa. (3, 6, 30, 31)
1.5. The general stages of necropsy
1.5.1. Registration and anamnesis
Carrying out any necropsy begins with the corpse or cadavers

recording in the necropsy registry. It must be completed with identification
data of the cadaver (species, breed, age, sex, matrix number / ear tag, if
applicable). Data on owner and data on livestock and / or deceased livestock
history (unit uniformity, previous diseases, vaccinations, feed, maintenance,
microclimate conditions, production level, clinical signs in chronological
order, morbidity, mortality , treatments and their effectiveness, etc.).
Frequently the bodies are presented by the breeder or caretaker of a
prosecution service belonging to county veterinary laboratories or
veterinary medicine departments. In this case, the physician should only
rely on the person who accompanies the corpses, or on the dates specified in
25
the accompanying note issued by the district or farm doctor. (1, 3, 6, 29, 30,
31)
1.5.2. External corpse examination
Signs of death, constitution, development, maintenance status,

appearance of the skin can be noticed since the general inspection of the
body. The external examination continues with the inspection and palpation
of all body regions. Apparent, oral, buccal, nasal, conjunctival, rectal,
vaginal or preputial mucosa are examined, color, integrity, pathological
deposits, tissue plots being examined. The mobility of the
temporomandibular joint, the occipitothoid joints and the limb joints
indicate the presence or absence of rigidity. Examining eyeballs, external
ear and particular skin tissues (horns, beaks, crests, beards). The anterior
and posterior members are examined from the point of view of the aplombs,
the appearance of the joints, hooves or claws. The thorax and abdomen will
be appreciated as a proportion of volumes and symmetry. The female will
examine the mammary gland and will appreciate its shape, consistency,
homogeneity, physiological status and eventual lesions. Male genital
organs, penis, foreskin and testicles are examined in males. The
examination of the skin follows the general appearance of hair or feathers,
possible skin parasites, suppleness and integrity, scarring, inflammation,
26
tissue pleats as well as the appearance of attachments (eg, perianal glands in
dogs). (3, 6, 29, 30)
1.5.3. Skinning the corpse
It provides a series of data on the state of fat loading and hydration

of subcutaneous tissue and the corpse in general and highlights superficial,
subcutaneous lymph nodes, circulatory disorders, inflammation, tumors,
subcutaneous connective tissue and musculature dystrophies.
The skinning of the corpse is made after the incision of the skin on
the ventral side, starting from the mandibular symphysis, then progressing
with the incision on the ventral side of the neck and chest, then in the
direction of the abdominal white line to the groin area. Umbilical and
external genital organs are circumvented by lateral incisions. Then there are
circular sections at the level of the mouth of the mouth and the limbs in the
metacarpal and metatarsal areas. (3, 6, 29, 30)
27
1.5.4. Opening of the big cavities
The internal examination of the corpse begins with the opening and
examination of the serous cavities (abdominal cavity, chest cavity and
pericardial cavity).
Opening the abdominal cavity.
Start with a buttonhole next to the xifoidian appendix. Then
continue with cutting the abdominal wall along the white line to the pubic
area, bypassing the navel and external genitals. Segmentation is done
carefully, protecting the internal organs with the fingers inserted into the
abdominal cavity. Continue with cutting the lateral abdominal walls, from
the sternum to the flank, on the hypocondrial line.
The general examination of the abdominal cavity is aimed at
highlighting the topographic changes of the organs, the shape, the size, the
integrity, the proportion and the relations between the organs, the
proliferative processes, the parasites, the appearance of the surface of the
peritoneum, etc.
In the abdomen we also look at the aspect of the diaphragm, which
in the case of accumulations of fluid in the pleural cavity or in the case of
the pneumothorax, the diaphragm is convex to the abdominal cavity. (3, 6,
29, 30)
28
Opening the chest cavity.
It can be done through several methods. A method is done by
cutting the condro-ribbed joints on the right side of the chest box, in order
not to cut the pericardium and the cord, following the lateral forcing of the
costal walls. Another method is achieved by completely sewing the
diaphragm insert to the costal walls. The result of this method is the cutting
of the costovertebral joints by removing the entire ensemble formed by the
sternum and the costal walls or by cutting the ribs halfway between the
sternum and the spine.
The general examination of the thoracic cavity is aimed at
highlighting the possible pleural and pericardial collections, the integrity
and transparency of the pleura and the pericardial sac, the general
appearance of the pulmonary, heart, esophagus and mediastinum.
Opening of the pericardial cavity.

It is done by cutting the pericardial sac with scissors starting from
the top of the cord with two sections in the "V" that will go to the base of
the cord. In case of accumulations of inflammatory fluids in this cavity,
cytologic and microbiological fluid will be harvested before opening.
Another possibility is the opening of the pericardial sac with sterile scissors
and the collection of pathological material on sterile pads. (3, 6, 29, 30)
29
1.5.5. Evisceration of organs in the chest cavity
The organs in the chest cavity are eviscerated with the tongue,
pharynx, esophagus, larynx and trachea. For the evisceration of the tongue,
the muscles of the tongue are cut along the branches of the mandible. The
tongue is eviscerated, then the soft palate, the hioid bone is cut and the
tongue, the throat, the lung, and the throat are thrown in one piece together
with the pharynx, larynx, esophagus, trachea. In large animals, in order to
extract the thoracic organs, the esophagus, the aorta and the posterior vein
vein will be ligated near the diaphragm and their sectioning will be made
between these ligaments. (3, 6, 29, 30)
1.5.6. Evisceration of the abdominal organs
Evisceration of the abdominal digestive organs can be done in a

single block, especially in small animals, followed by separation on organs
and intestinal segments or separate evisceration. There are differences in the
order of evisceration of organs, differences in species, waist, positioning of
the corpse at necropsy, generally, the spleen is first eviscerated by cutting
the mesh with a scissor, then the liver.
It follows the evisceration of the stomach together with the
duodenum and the pancreas. In middle and large animals or in the case of
30
suspicion of oral intoxication, ligaments are placed on the esophagus and
duodenum to prevent leakage. The small and thick intestine is eviscerated
together or separately by cutting the ileum and the rectum.
For evisceration of the urinary and genital apparatus the basin is cut
at the level of the Ischiapubian symphysis. The genital apparatus is
extracted in one piece together or separated from the urine. (3, 6, 29, 30)
1.5.7. Opening the neurocranium and eviscerating the brain
After the occipital-atloid articulation is cut, three sections are

performed by means of a saw. The first section is transverse to the frontal
bone. The other two sections are symmetrical, on both sides of the
neurocranium, joining the external angle of the eye with the occipital hole.
After removal of the cap, the duramater is cut, and the brain is eviscerated.
With a scissors, the olfactory lobes, the optic nerves, the pituitary stem, and
the spinal cord nerve roots are cut down so that the brain bends backward
and will be eviscerated. The pituitary emerges in the turkish saddle. (3, 6,
29, 30)
31
1.5.8. Opening nasal cavities
For the opening of the nasal cavities, a vertical cross-section will be

performed before the eyeballs and a horizontal longitudinal section on the
floor of the nasal cavity. Depending on the species, sections are made to
open the sinuses. (3, 6, 29, 30)
1.5.9. Sectioning of muscles, bones and joints
The muscles are sectioned longitudinally on each group. The joints,

r-joint capsules, are cut with a sterile scalpel in the presence of swelling for
cytological and microbiological examinations. After opening, the
appearance of synovial fluid and joint surfaces is examined.
The bones are examined from the point of view of form, resistance
to sectioning, appearance of cartilage growth in young animals, appearance
of bone marrow. Sectioning is generally longitudinal or transversal if the
sectioning is for haematogenetic harvesting for histopathological
examination. (3, 6, 29, 30)
1.5.10. Opening the spinal canal and marrow examination
For the highlighting, examination and harvesting of medullary

specimens, the bilateral spinal arches are cut using a circular electric chisel
32
or saw. This technique allows for a good macroscopic examination over the
entire length of the spinal cord.
If only the examination and harvesting of short bone marrow
segments are used, the intervertebral joints can be cut and the vertebrae
segments extracted from the vertebrae by tractionaing of the duramater with
a forceps. (3, 6, 29, 30)
1.6. Postmortem changes
1.6.1. The signs of death
The signs of death are the lack of perception of the vital functions of
an animal in its clinical examination.
At inspection, the loss of the bi- or patrolled position and immobility
of the animal is observed. The body is in lateral decubitus, the musculature
is flaccid, the mandible is slightly fallen, the eyelids open.
Clinical examination reveals lack of reflexes. The absence of
reflexes, elasticity and skin sensitivity, the absence of palpebral and
pupillary reflexes are major signs of biological death. The immobility and
absence of muscle tone is appreciated by lifting a member that is then
dropped. The lack of resistance or minimal muscle contraction of the
muscularity of the respective member indicates the loss of muscle tone, the
cessation of cardiac activity is a major sign of death, and can be assessed
33
based on the absence of the pulse (internal jaw artery in large animal and
femoral or radial artery in small animals), loss of blood pressure (palpation),
lack of heartbeat (listening) and electrocardiography (ECG). Stopping
breathing is another sign and can be appreciated by inspection (absence of
chest and abdominal movements), placement of a mirror in front of the
nostrils and / or the mouth (lack of steam indicating the absence of breath)
and listening.
All these signs are indicative of the appreciation of biological death.
Until the occurrence of cadaveric signs, it is possible to investigate the
cerebral activity using the electroencephalogram to assess the certainty of
biological death. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.6.2. Cadaveric changes
Cadaveric changes are influenced by internal factors, the state of the

body at the time of death, and external factors, the environmental conditions
of the body (temperature, humidity, air currents, etc.).
Knowing cadaveric changes is important to determine the time
elapsed since the death of the animal. Thus, cadaveric changes give
information on the moment of death (the time interval between the moment
of death and the moment of examination). Cadaveric changes also give
precious information on the position of the animal at the time of death and
34
the corpse in the first hours after death, the place where death occurred and
even the cause of death. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
a) Early cadaveric changes

Cooling of the corpse (algor mortis) is a process that arises from
stopping the circulation, metabolism and the loss of caloric energy in the
environment. Cooling is judged by thermometry. Cooling is performed at an
average speed of 0.7 - 1 degrees Celsius per hour in the first hours, then by
about 2 degrees Celsius per hour. There are large variations in the cooling
rate of the corpse, environmental variations (ambient temperature, air
currents) and the corpse. The animal's weight, the degree of body wrapping
with hair, wool or feathers, the thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer are
factors that greatly influence the cooling rate of the corpse and should be
taken into account when estimating the time elapsed since death.
Small and medium sized animal bodies begin to cool after an hour in
winter and 2 hours in summer. Large body corpses begin to cool after 2-3
hours in winter and 4 hours in summer.
Dead ruminants in summer, due to intense fermentation processes in
the pastom, as well as dead horses following intestinal torsion, cool very
slowly.
Cadaveric dehydration is premature in the cornea that becomes
semi-transparent, even opaque. Cadaveric dehydration can be generalized,
naturally occurring. Such a situation can occur in small animal carcasses
with low abdominal mass, possibly starved and thirsty before death,
35
naturally mummified under conditions of good ventilation and relatively
low temperature, or when buried in sandy soils.
Cadaveric hypostasis is the accumulation of blood, after death, in
the tissues and organs, by virtue of gravity. Cadaveric hypostasis is
characterized by the appearance of so-called dead spots or cadaveric
lividities. Cadaveric spots occur after a few hours (3-5) hours after death
and are well expressed after about 24 hours. Cadaveric spots provide data
on the reality and date of death as well as the position of the animal. Skin
lividity can only be observed in depigmented areas and indicates the
position of the body within the first 2-5 hours after death. In animals with
pigmented skin, the cadaveric spots can be observed after skinning.
In the initial stages, the cadaveric spots are red, red-brown, are
unreliable, imprecisely delimited and disappear under pressure (vitropress).
In advanced phases, cadaveric spots diffuse, and become brown-gray, then
greenish due to hemoglobin decomposition.
Cadaveric hypostasis is also evident in internal organs and should
not be confused with agonist or pre-agonist lesions (eg congestion).
Decreased organs will be more loaded with blood so that they will be more
intense in red-sour cherry than organs located in the upper parts of the body.
Cadaveric rigidity (rigor mortis) is the consequence of a sustained
contraction of smooth, myocardial and striated muscles. In the body
examination, a joint stiffening and a strengthening of the muscular masses
are observed. The phenomenon occurs as a result of acidification of the
36
body and muscle tissue acidification following the decomposition of ATP
and the increase in viscosity of actomiozin.
Initially, smooth muscles, such as seminal vesicles, bladder, rectum,
with consequent elimination of sperm, urine and faeces, enter the stiffness.
Installing myocardial rigidity is done after approximately 30 minutes in the
left ventricle. At the same time, the stiffness of the smooth muscles, with
the installation, the rigidity of the muscles of the testicular bags, the uterus,
the stomach and the intestines.
In the skeletal muscles, the installation of cadaveric stiffness is
achieved progressively, cranio-caudally, beginning with the muscles of the
head (masseters) and ending with the muscles of the posterior train and tail;
the disappearance of rigidity (resolution) is carried out in a sense sense
(Nysten law). Resolution is indicated by autolysis and alkalization of the
musculature.
Generally, in the skeletal muscles, cadaveric rigidity occurs after
about 3 hours (head region), generalized after about 12 hours and lasting up
to about 24 hours. The resolution is complete after about 30-40 hours after
death.
Depending on several factors, there are large variations in the
duration of these installation periods and the rigidity resolution. Higher
ambient temperature favors the acceleration of stiffness phases. In the case
of tetanus, the cadaveric stiffness follows directly the tonic contractions that
precede death. Animals that have had intense muscular effort before dying
fall into stiffness immediately after death because of the high levels of lactic
37
acid. The cataleptic rigidity, similar to the deception in physiology, is
expressed by generalized and opistotonous rigidity, installed with death,
especially in lesions of the cerebral trunk.
Cadaveric autolysis occurs under the action of cellular enzymes.
The phenomenon leads to cellular and tissue disintegration and creates
histopathological diagnosis problems in relation to dystrophies. In the
pancreas, autolysis is very rapid as a result of the activation of its own lytic
enzymes and resembles necrosis. The medulla of the adrenal, the brain, the
gastric mucosa, the kidney medulla, the spleen quickly enters the autolysis.
The parenchymal organs become mature, gray, friable and the mucous
(gastric, rabbit, ruminant) rupture into the flap.
Blood coagulation takes place 30-60 minutes after death and results
in the so-called cruciferic events. Blood coagulation is delayed or even
stopped by antimalar hypoxia, septicemia, hydraemic states, and
hypocalcemia. The cruoric coagulum is homogeneously red in color,
adheres to the vascular wall, has a smooth surface, is elastic and has the
shape of vascular rumen. The cruoric coagulum must be differentiated from
the thrombus that is dense, brittle, adheres to the vascular wall in some
areas, is rough and the color is white to yellowish (fibrinous fibrous, fibro-
leukocyte), red-dwarf (a hemolytic-dominated thrombus) , non-
homogeneous, alternating the red-black areas with the white-yellow areas
(mixed thrombus). The cruoric coagulum may have a non-homogeneous
color due to the sedimentation of the red blood cells before coagulation.
This is normal in some species (eg horse), but in other species it indicates an
38
increase in sedimentation rate of red blood cells (eg anemia,
hypoalbuminemia) or delayed coagulation.
Postmortal haemolysis leads to the impregnation of vascular walls
and tissues with hemoglobin, called hematolithic imbibition.
The color of the vascular walls changes from white or pale yellow to
pale pale, homogeneous. In a more advanced stage, pale red halos are
formed around the arterioles and venules. In late stages, the tissues in total
take a diffuse red color, more obvious in the dark (fat, fibrous connective
tissue, intestinal and gastric wall, pleura, peritoneum). Normal or
pathological fluids in the corpus serum cavities acquire a red color, leading
to confusion with bleeding or haemorrhagic inflammation. The initial red
color then becomes brown-red, gray, greenish or black by the formation of
methemoglobin. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
b) Late cadaveric changes

Putrefaction is a bacterial lithic phenomenon, with a predominantly
centrifugal evolution, starting from the digestive tract (intestinal bacteria
multiplication) and less centripetal (under the influence of external bodies
that invade the body).
Putrefaction starts with a gaseous phase and continues with a liquid
phase that leads to the progressive melting of tissues relative to their
resistance until complete decomposition. Antibiotic treatments lead to
delays in the process of rotting. Bacterial, septicemic infections (eg anthrax)
hurry the rotting phenomenon. Putrefaction is delayed, limited or even
39
stopped by the phenomena of cadaveric dehydration that can go down to
mummification.
Putrefaction favors emphysema (accumulation of bacterial
fermentation gases in tissues) and cadaveric tympanic (accumulation of
fermentation gases in the digestive tract) resulting in abdominal distension
and cadaveric rectal prolapse.
The state of cadaveric changes allows for a rough estimate of the
moment of death, with a few hours' error. In this sense, Vibert's picture of
human legal medicine may also be used in animals, taking into account the
differences in the size of the bodies belonging to the different species (Table
1). Interpreting multiple cadaveric changes decreases the margin of error in
determining the date of death of the animal. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
40
Table 1
C The appearance of the corpse Time

rrt. elapsed since
no death
1 Hot, supple body, rigidity installed < 6 hours
only on the temporomandibular and
cervical joints, without lividity, beginning
with corneal opacification;
2 Cold corps, stiffness includes < 12 hours
anterior limbs, extensive livides that
disappear to vitropress;
3 Cold body, full stiffness, lividities 12-24
do not disappear in vitropress hours
4 Body in resolution, abdominal > 36 hours
green patch;
(after Cătoi 2003)
c) Conservative cadaveric changes

Conservative cadaveric processes consist of phenomena that
partially maintain the corps conformation and structure, stopping some of
the cadaveric changes, especially putrefaction.
Natural mummification consists in advanced dehydration of the
body exposed to low humidity and low temperature microclimatic
conditions.
41
Fat saponification takes place after the maceration of the skin of
corpses located in clay soils or in water under the influence of mineral salts.
Freezing stops almost all cadaveric changes and is the most
effective post-mortem conservative phenomenon. Freezing can be
artificially made for body storage or can be a natural phenomenon during
periods of negative temperatures.
Calcification of organisms can be achieved in volcanic ash or
sedimentary rocks.
These conservative processes make it possible to investigate
multidisciplinary corpses of animals that lived thousands or tens of
thousands of years before. Necropsy complemented by laboratory analysis
(histopathological, radiological, genetic, biochemical, microbiological,
botanical, pedological, etc.) can reconstruct the morphophysiology and
pathology of the examined animal as well as the environment in which it
lived. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.7. General plan for examination of organs and tissues
Examinations of tissues and organs begin when they are highlighted

and eviscerated from the body. The ratio and proportion of organs,
adhesions, topographic changes, dislocations, transpositions, fusions,
malformations, etc. can be appreciated. Also, the physical characters of each
organ can be appreciated.
42
Detailed examination of organs is done after evisceration and is
performed by inspection, palpation, measurement, weighing, sectioning or
special tests.
The inspection aims at highlighting pathological changes in the
degree of development, color, shape, size, edges and organ surface.
The color of the organs is dependent on the amount of the pigment
itself, the accumulation or pathological decrease of endogenous or
exogenous pigments, as well as the state of circulation, especially blood.
The color of the organ is influenced by the thickness and
transparency of the capsule. Color appreciation is done taking into account
the normal organ color.
The red-cherry color indicates an increase in the amount of venous
blood (passive congestion) in a tissue or organ, the tissue is enlarged in
volume and the section shows an increased amount of dark red cherry
blood. Increase in volume is due to increased blood volume and the
presence of edema.
The red-hot color indicates the increase in the amount of arterial
blood (active congestion) that occurs in the hyperactivity of some tissues
but most often accompanies an acute inflammation.
A pale appearance indicates low blood count, local anemia
(ischemia) or general anemia. The necrotic areas also have a light, grayish-
white or yellow-white color.
The white-gray color occurs in atrophy and fibrosis due to the
decrease in the proportion of parenchymal cells and the conjunctiva stroma.
43
In atrophy the organ is reduced in volume and in fibrosis the organ retains
its volume or is increased in volume.
The yellowing of all tissues is secondary to bilirubin impregnation
(jaundice) but carotenoid pigments can also give yellow to tissues when
ingested in increased amounts. Luteinizing tumors can impregnate the
tissues with lutein, also resulting in yellow coloration.
The brown color may be the appearance of hemosiderosis, iatrogenic
siderosis, atrophy and senility (lipofuscinosis), or the accumulation of
ceroids following the oxidation of fatty acids.
The shape of the organ is dependent on the species, organ
development, and the presence of some lesions. The shape and dimensions
of an organ correlate with the appearance of the organ surface. An enlarged
body has rounded edges, the capsule is stretched, and the organ is excised
by cutting, that is, the edges of the section are removed. A diminished,
atrophied organ with sharp edges, the capsule is ratted, thickened, opaque,
and the stroma section is more obvious than normal.
The appearance of the surface of the organ, of the serous or the
capsule will be assessed by appreciation of integrity, thickness,
transparency, smoothness, gloss, elasticity, eventual adherence, retraction,
pathological deposits. Exposure of organs to environmental factors, such as
atmospheric air, light, flowing water, alters the physical characters of the
capsules and sera, giving the opaque mate. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
Palpation of organs aims to highlight consistency changes. This is
specific to tissues and organs, with differences from species to species and
44
age. Major differences in the consistency of tissues occur during the
evolution of pathological processes.
Consistency is judged by superficial palpation when appreciation of
changes in surface roughness and deep palpation that may surprise
parenchymal areas or deep pathological pathways, sometimes unseen in
organ inspection. Consistency changes may be general across the organ, or
may be focal.
To indicate change in consistency, terms such as: high consistency
for fibrous tissue, fleshy consistency for medium fibrosis, harsh consistency
for mineralized or ossified tissues, pasty consistency for edema tissues,
elastic consistency for turgious tissues, capsule under tension, conspicuous
consistency in the pulmonary emphysema, friable consistency for easily
crushing tissues.
Increased consistency occurs in clotting necroses, productive
inflammations, fibroses, abdominal stromal tumor processes, atrophies by
condensation of the stroma and in the digestion of soft tissues. Decrease in
consistency occurs in liquefaction necroses, gangrene, exsudative
inflammation, intense cellular processes and weakly developed stromal
tissue in autolysis and rotting. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
Segmentation of organs requires the production of standard,
mandatory sections, specific to each organ and tissue, as well as additional
sections where inspection or palpation indicates changes.
45
Segmentation behavior is an important aspect in tissue testing and is
dependent on the amount of collagen fibers, potential mineralization and /
or ossification.
Like the surface of the organs, the surface of the sections is
appreciated in terms of color, gloss, appearance at superficial and deep
palpation, hydration status, quantity and character of leaked liquids. The
appearance of parenchyma, its ratio to the conjunctiva stroma, the
appearance of the blood vessels, the state of circulation in general can be
appreciated. After sectioning we can appreciate certain particular aspects of
tissues. For example, a liver with fatty dystrophy is yellow in color, is very
brittle, and on the surface, on superficial palpation, is greasy. In the case of
amyloidosis, the sensation of palpation wax appears.
In the case of cavity organs, the thickness and consistency of the
wall are appreciated and the appearance and consistency of the contents are
appreciated after opening. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.8. General chest cavity examination
The general examination of the cavity is done during the opening of

the cervix and follows the aspect of the pleural sheets in terms of gloss,
transparency, circulatory status, eventual pathological deposits, aspect and
relations of the thoracic organs, aspect and integrity of diaphragm,
appearance and integrity of large vessels, lymph nodes, thymus where
appropriate, the appearance of the costal walls.
46
Hydrothorax occurs in heart failure, hypoproteinemia of renal,
hepatic, enteropathic or nutritional nature. Hydrothorax can also be a
disease-specific disease such as porcine mumps disease (dietetic
microangiopathy) or ANTU intoxication. Liquid, translucent, is clear,
colorless or slightly yellowish, uncoagulant. In chronic forms, the pleura
becomes opaque, with papillary growths that can break, giving a sanguine
appearance to transsudate.
Chilothorax is the accumulation of white, whitish white liquid and
lipid-rich lipid. Differentiation to exudates with similar characters can also
be made cytologically by highlighting lipid content (lipid extraction,
coloring with lipid dyes). Chilothorax is favored by trauma during which
lymphatic vessels break.
Hemothorax is caused by rupture of vascular walls by trauma,
erosions produced by inflammatory alterations (eg, tuberculosis in dogs) or
tumors. Sometimes intense vascularized, fragile tumors are the cause of
hemothorax (eg, hemangiomas, hemangiosarcomas, mesotheliomas).
Pleurits are the most commonly associated or secondary to
pneumonia and polyserositis. More rarely, they are the result of the spread
of inflammation from other organs or perforation of the pleura (from the
outside, esophagus, abdominal cavity). Pleurbitus can appear as a lesion
associated with sepsis infections or specific diseases such as Haemophilus
spp. In pigs, Mycoplasma spp. In pigs and goats, Chlamydia in ruminants or
infectious peritonitis virus in the cat.
47
The accumulation of a large amount of purulent exudate is called
piothorax.
The horse piothorax is secondary to diffuse purulent pneumonia or
pulmonary abscess. The most common of such lesions are streptococci,
rarely Pasteurella spp., Staphylococcus spp. or Bacteroides spp.
By dog, the piothorax can evolve without pneumonia, the purulent
exudate being frequently sanguine. Bacteria of the genera Actinomyces,
Nocardia and Bacteroides are frequently isolated. The cat is frequently
involved in Pasteurella spp.
Primary pleural tumors are rare, most of them induced by asbestos.
(3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.9. Examination of the cervico-thoracic part
The tongue exam targets the integrity of the organ, deep palpation
and longitudinal sectioning. Lung ulcers, diphtheroidal inflammation,
granulomatous, rare tumors may occur.
The examination of the pharynx is done after the longitudinal
section of the soft palate. Thus, it is possible to highlight the areas of tonsils,
epiglottis and the origin of the esophagus.
The examination of the esophagus is made after the longitudinal
opening over the entire length and follows the integrity and appearance of
the mucosa, eventual foreign bodies, inflammatory lesions, ulcers and
48
necroses, dystrophies (paracheratosis), lumen uniformity, muscular
appearance, etc.
The examination of the larynx and trachea is done by longitudinal
sectioning of the dorsal wall of the larynx and of the trachea to the level of
the bronchi. Highlighting of abnormal inflammation and content is easy at
this level.
Pulmonary examination begins with superficial and deep palpation
and deep palpation of the lobes, then longitudinal section of the pulmonary
arteries. Follow the opening of the bronchi with a scissors. The opening of
the bronchi is done by dividing the pulmonary parenchyma as much as
possible. Then a longitudinal section is made on the back of the lung, from
the tip of the apical lobe to the extremity of the diaphragmatic lobe. The
section will pass through the main bronchus and the pulmonary artery.
Segmentation of the cranial lobes is done through a oblique incision from
the first section to the top of the lobes. There is also a section on the ventral
face to open the ventral lobe. The color, consistency, quantity and quality of
bronchial secretions will be appreciated.
The tracheobronchial and mediastinal lymphonodes are examined
for volume, appearance, consistency, color and appearance on the section.
In order to assess the degree of pulmonary air load, the hydrostatic
docimasis test is performed. The sample is harvested from areas where the
color and consistency of the lungs are altered. It is important that small
parts, homogeneous in appearance, are harvested for docimazia. The
harvested samples are placed in a glass of water and their behavior is
49
monitored. The presence of air in normal or increased quantity
(emphysema, putrefaction) causes portions to float - negative docimasia; if
air is absent from the pulmonary alveoli (congenital, acquired
atherosclerosis, bronchopneumonia, tumors) the fragments fall to the
bottom of the water - positive docimasia; when there is little air in the
alveoli (pulmonary edema, passive pulmonary congestion) the fragments
float but below the surface of the water - docimasia between two waters.
Inflammatory edema will be accompanied by active congestion (red light
on) and lymph node response, cardiogenic swelling will be accompanied by
heart damage and the color of the lung will be dark red.
Atelectasis outbreaks have the appearance of the fetal lung (flesh on
palpation, positive docimasia) but the color is red cherry, viola due to
congestion. The acquired atelectasis is most often produced by the
obstruction of the airway (obstructive type), followed by the resorption of
the alveolar air. The cause of bronchial obstruction is often evident,
exsudate, parasites, exogenous aspirate materials, granulomas, tumors, etc.
Generally, macroscopic aspects are those of congenital atherosclerosis plus
those of the primary lesion. The compressive type of atelectasis is produced
by the lesions that occupy a certain volume of the chest cavity at the
expense of the pulmonary. The hypothalamus pulmonary is found in
animals that are long in decubitus and the diagnosis is based on the
persistence of the costal prints.
The pulmonary emphysema has two major forms, namely alveolar
emphysema and interstitial emphysema. The affected areas are more bulky
50
than the rest of the parenchyma, fluffy, pinkish-white with negative
docimasia. Small vesicles filled with air can be seen with the naked eye.
When the emphysema affects all of the lung, it continues to fill the chest
cavity once it is opened. Interstitial emphysema is produced by the massive
accumulation of air in the interlobular septum, under the pleura and
perivascular, forming large spaces filled with air.
Acute bronchitis includes bloody, purulent, ulcerative and
fibrinocrotic inflammation. Severe necrotic bronchitis is encountered when
aspirating foreign bodies and associated with gangrene pneumonia. Chronic
bronchitis is associated with excess mucus or mucopurulent exudate,
mucosal thickening, bronchiectasis, peribronchial pulmonary atelectasis and
cardiac dilation. Pneumonia, with its ethiopathogenetic and morphological
aspects, is presented in respiratory diseases with each species. (3, 6, 10, 21,
29, 30)
Examination of the heart and arteries
The left and right cords open separately. In small and medium sized
animals, the heart will be kept in the left hand during the cutting, and in
large animals, the cord will be seated on the necropsy. The left ventricle
opens through a section that starts at the base of the auricle and continues to
the apex on the most convex side. Then insert the blade with the blade
51
outwards into the auric and cut the wall. Atrial, ventricular cavity and left
atrioventricular valves (bicuspid or mitral) are highlighted.
The opening of the right cord is carried out using the same
technique, with the opening of the arterial pulmonary artery dividing the
cardiac wall to the right.
The volume of the cardiac cavities, the cavity ratio and the cavity
ratio and thickness of the myocardium are examined.
The myocardial exam looks for its color, consistency and thickness.
Endocardial examination refers to color, thickness, surface appearance and
transparency. Valve examines the size, integrity, thickness, transparency,
surface, edges, and crown appearance.
Particular importance should be given to the detection of possible
malformations and fetal persistence. Of these, the persistent arterial canal,
the interatrial orifice and the interventricular opening are the most common.
Fallot's tetralogy is a complex condition, consisting of ventricular septal
defect, pulmonary stenosis, dextropositionaiting of the aorta, and ventricular
compensatory hypertrophy. Pulmonary and aortic stenosis are common in
dogs, with supravalvular, valvular and subvalvular localization.
There may be: persistence of the right aortic arch, associated with
esophageal dilation in the cervical region, double aortic arch, which is a
variant of the previous lesion, congenital aortic or pulmonary aneurysm, and
arterial truncated transposition.
52
Heart lesions are described within each species.
The thoracic aorta and carotids evolve with the cervico-thoracic
organs. Pulmonary arteries are examined within the lung through the
longitudinal opening.
The examination of the arteries follows the external contour, the
diameter and the uniformity, the internal aspect, the parasites, the
arteriosclerotic plaques, the mineralization, the aneurysms, etc.
At the level of the cardiovascular system can be found
mineralization processes. In this case, the arteries will display the irregular
internal surface with the appearance of plates of different dimensions,
individualized or confluent, in some cases the artery having the appearance
of a rigid tube and an irregular internal surface. Deposits of calcium salts
are tough, brittle, bleached. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.10. Examination the abdominal cavity
The abdominal cavity examines possible topographical changes of

the organs, shape, size, integrity, eventual proliferative processes, presence
of parasites, peritoneal surface appearance, integrity of abdominal walls,
etc.
External hernias are easily diagnosed when the abdominal organs are
highlighted through the hernia ring. Congenital transdiaphragmatic
hemorrhage is rare and occurs most commonly in the dog. The edges of the
diaphragm are smooth and through the orifice the abdominal organs,
53
stomach, spleen, liver, small intestine, epiplon pass into the chest cavity.
Acquired transdiafragmatic blood pressure occurs after trauma.
Gastric content, following gastric rupture, is most commonly found
in the horse.
In the event of a rupture of the digestive tract, the peritoneal cavity
examination allows for the observation of the digested digested contents, the
fibrinous exudate peritonitis, which contains fragments of the contents that
have been poured and the site of rupture.
Hemoperitoneum is more often the result of traumatic rupture of a
parenchymatous organ (liver, spleen). Other causes may include
anticoagulant rashes poisoning, manual ablation of the yellow body in
cattle, breakage of tumors, hepatic rupture with diffuse necrosis.
Ascites is commonly found and can be produced by lowering the
peritoneal fluid resorption or overproduction of peritoneal fluid.
Reduction of peritoneal fluid resorption occurs due to slowing of
lymph drainage in metastatic tumors at peritoneal level.
Overproduction of peritoneal fluid is correlated with the hydrostatic
pressure of hepatic and portal circulation. A particular case is lymphatic
ascites, characterized by the presence of milky liquid in the abdominal
cavity due to breakage of the chest. Hepatic ascites are accompanied by
hepatic edema and occur in hepatic cirrhosis, cholangiohepatits with severe
portal fibrosis (eg chronic fasciolosis), diffuse neoplasms, etc.
Another cause of ascites is hypoproteinemia of hepatic origin
(chronic liver failure induced by cirrhosis, atrophy, tumors, severe
54
dystrophies), chronic (undernutrition), chronic protein loss (chronic
enteropathy, chronic glomerulopathy, chronic bleeding).
Peritonitis may be serous, fibrous, purulent, hemorrhagic,
granulomatous and fibrous. Specific peritonitis is associated with other
lesions, and will be presented within each species. It may appear secondary
to perforated lesions in the abdominal wall, umbilical infections in newborn
animals or abdominal cavity (uterus, ureter, bladder, digestive tract).
Chemical peritonites may be the result of the action of exogenous
substances. For example, talc, accidentally in the abdominal cavity during
surgery, causes granulomatous peritonitis. More common are endogenous
chemical peritonins produced by pancreatic enzymes and bile. Biliary
peritonitis is readily recognizable by the characteristic color.
Primary peritoneal tumors, as well as pleural and pericardial tumors,
are relatively rare. Mesenteric liposomes, common in the horse, less
common in dogs, may be of a large size, and pediculous ones may be
associated with strangulation and infarction of intestinal anesthesia. The
secondary tumors most commonly encountered are melanomas, with
perineal origin in the horse (readily recognizable on the basis of black
color), transient carcinomas in enzootic hematuria of cows, and rectal
adenocarcinoma in dogs. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
55
1.11. Examination of the liver
The liver examination begins with the organ inspection, assessing

the shape, size, color, consistency, appearance of the liver capsule,
extrahepatic bile ducts, bile duct and lymph nodes.
Hepatic rupture has more traumatic causes and leads to
hemoperitoneum; hepatic diseases such as acute hepatitis, amyloidosis,
steatosis, acute congestion, diffuse neoplasms (malignant lymphoma) favor
spontaneous hepatic rupture.
Frequently encountered pathogenic liver pigment changes include
hemosiderosis, which prints a dark brown color (eg, hemolysis, copper
deficiency anemia), stinging jaundice with a black color, and
hemochromatosis associated with enlarged, brown, finely nodular liver to
ruminants due to increased iron in water or feed.
Mandatory sections are performed on the visceral face, transversely
in the direction of the bile ducts, but sections can be made wherever lesions
are present. The section examines parenchyma, bile ducts and blood vessels.
The cholecist opens to observe the color, consistency and quantity of the
bile, the presence of possible parasites, calculus, and the appearance of the
mucosa.
Clear lobular pattern in species other than pigs older than two
months is a pathological aspect. Among the pathological entities that
highlight lobulation can be mentioned hepatic lobe necrosis, subacute and
chronic hepatic stasis, edema, fibrosis and interstitial inflammation.
56
Passive congestion can easily be assessed regardless of the
evolutionary stage. In the acute, initial stages, the liver is enlarged, red-sour,
rounded, and cuts across the section. Subsequently, due to perilobular
steatosis, the periphery of the lobules is yellow and the center is red,
characteristic, cherry. Aspects similarly occur in other situations such as
perilobular steatosis, hypoxic perilobular diffuse hepatic necrosis (eg severe
acute post-haemorrhagic anemia), toxic, metabolic or infectious (eg rabbit
hemorrhagic disease). In the chronic phases of the blood stasis fibrosis
occurs, the liver being enlarged, dense, gray, with the nodular surface,
sometimes covered with a dense fibrin film. Concomitantly, lesions that
have induced hepatic stagnation, more commonly cardiac, valvular,
myocardial or pericardial lesions, and blood stasis in other organs in the
large circulation will be diagnosed.
The portal stage can be appreciated by dilatation of the portal vein
and mesenteric veins.
Hepatic teleangiectasia occurs in cows, with no significant
significance, as milky or larger areas of well-defined closed red. The section
appears as cavity-filled cavities. Teleangiectasia also occurs in old cats,
especially subcapsular.
The bile stasis can be produced by stones, parasites (fascioli,
ascarids), tumors and abscesses of neighboring tissues, bile duodenal
tumors, duodenitis
57
Breakage of bile ducts accompanies, rupture of the liver and leads to
chronic irritative biliary peritonitis; complications with intestinal bacteria
lead to the occurrence of fatal peritonitis. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.12. Examination of the spleen
The spleen exam is of interest: shape, volume, weight, appearance,

consistency and appearance of the spleen capsule. Congenital or acquired
abnormalities may be observed during the inspection. A longitudinal section
is performed that concerns the entire length and thickness of the organ.
The quantitative ratio of red pulp to stroma is appreciated. In
cahexia, the spleen is atrophied and the section shows that the very well-
documented conjunctival stroma, and the red pulp is much reduced. In
septicemic infectious diseases, the spleen is enlarged, turgescent, on the
section reverses the predominance of the red pulp.
The macroscopic elevation of the white pulp is considered
pathological, occurring in salmonellosis, the lesion being called hyperplastic
splenic, in the case of tumorous hyperplasia during the course of lymphoma
evolution or in splenic amyloidosis.
Passive splenic congestion is most often the result of straight heart
failure, the spleen being able to seaside several times; a large amount of
blood drains out on the section if clotting has not occurred, and the spleen
volume gradually decreases. Red cancers may occur in the spleen
parenchyma in swine fever.
58
In dogs and cats, the spleen is the site of primary tumors
(lymphomas, hemangiosarcomas) or secondary tumors. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.13. Examination of the pancreas
The examination of the pancreas is done after the opening of the

abdominal cavity without the detachment of the duodenum because it is
better to appreciate the state of the blood, lymphatic and organ relations
with the lymph nodes, the mesenter, the abdominal fat and the adjacent
organs.
Hypoplasia of the pancreas is associated with advanced cachexic
corps due to exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, dilated abdomen due to
intestinal overload, volvulus, torsion, abscess of abdominal fat.
Pancreatic atrophy may be primary or secondary to other pancreatic
lesions. Pancreas lipomatosis is commonly reported in cats and is associated
with obesity. Pancreatic sclerosis occurs following dystrophic processes due
to ischemic or chronic passive congestion and chronic inflammatory
processes.
Inflammatory lesions are acute, necrotic or hemorrhagic-necrotic
pancreatitis encountered more frequently in the dog. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
59
1.14. Examination of the stomach
Examine the integrity of the stomach walls, especially if the

digestive contents are present in the abdominal cavity.
The stomach is opened after it has been previously detached,
together with the duodenum and the pancreas, from the rest of the digestive
tract. Opening the stomach is done from the level of the cardio to the chest
level, continuing with the duodenum. The gastric wall will be sectioned on
the small curve, facilitating the preservation of gastric contents on the large
curve for a better examination of the mucosal surface or between the small
and the large curvature.
The examination of the walls follows the possible edema of the
submucosa (eg swine edema disease), haemorrhages, the emphysema
(bradsot in the sheep), the integrity and appearance of the mucosa to
highlight possible parasites, erosions, ulcers, inflammations etc.
Examination of the gastric contents will appreciate the nature,
quantity, consistency, smell and pH as well as the presence of any foreign
bodies. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.15. Examination of the intestins
Mesenteric lymphonodes, mesenteric vessels (arteries, veins,

lymphatic vessels) and mesenter will be examined, after which the small
60
intestine will be separated from the large intestine. Intestine inspection
follows the appearance of serous, transparency, consistency, color of the
intestinal wall, appearance of lymphatic and blood vessels below serum.
Most intestinal lesions only affect certain segments of the intestine
or have focal disposition, making them easily localized. Topographic
changes of the intestines followed by infarction are readily detectable due to
the red-sour, blackish-brown color and the intestinal wall edema.
Separation of the small intestine from the thick one is accomplished
by cutting the ileum. Cutting the mesenter is done near the insertion on the
intestine. The small intestine extends to the necropsy mass and opens
longitudinally along the entire length of the mesenter insertion line.
Examination of the large intestine is similar to that of the small
intestine. Each part is opened longitudinally and the exam will also be
interested in ileocecal valves and lymphoid lymph formations.
The intestinal mucosa is examined for thickness, gloss, color,
consistency, roughness and possible lesions. Intestinal lesions are described
in each individual species. From the lesion areas, rashes will be used to
make direct microscopic preparations and fingerprints that will stain
panoptically for the cytological exam. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.16. Examination of the kidneys and urinary tract
The weight, volume, shape, appearance of the capsular surface and

consistency will be appreciated, using the comparison of the two kidneys.
61
The sectioning is done longitudinally throughout the kidney mass,
starting from the large curve, so that the kidney is divided into two equal
halves connected to each other through the non-seated wall of the basin. The
cortical, medulla, papillae and basinet are examined. Decapulation is
mandatory and is done after longitudinal sectioning. Follows the
longitudinal section of the ureters.
Decapulation should be done easily and leave the surface of the
kidney smooth, intact. Poor decapsulation with portions of parenchymal
adherent to the capsule suggests the existence of fibrous interstitial nephritis
except for the kidney in which the joint normally has connective adhesions
attached to the capsule.
Volume increase of the kidney is seen in case of congestion, edema,
urinary stasis or hypertrophy. Modification of the specific contour is caused
by focal lesions such as tumors, pyelonephritis, infarcts. The normal kidney
color is brownish-red. Less in adult cats and cats, pregnant females and
older males, especially where the high lipid content changes color, turning
to yellow.
The section surface exam follows the medullary ratio: cortical,
which is normally 1: 2, 1: 3.
Simple, single or multiple, cortical, renal cystitis are accustomed to
piglets.
Renal infarcts are common injuries to most species. Initially,
infarctions are prominent, red-crushed, so that after 2-3 days they become
white after hemoglobin resorption; Older infarcts have the form of
62
retractable scars. The major cause of infarctions is embolism, rarer,
thrombosis of arteries and renal arterioles.
Cortical necrosis occurs in toxics. Cortical shows small or large
white-yellowish outbreaks.
Medullary kidney necrosis occurs in the horse in dehydrated animals
treated with phenylbutazone.
Hydronephrosis is the dilation of the basin and renal calcifications
associated with progressive atrophy of the renal parenchyma until partial or
total cystic transformation. Localization may be unilateral or bilateral and
secondary to congenital abnormalities of the urinary tract, calculus, cystitis,
strictures and compressions of the ureters, prostate hyperplasia.
Renal amyloidosis appears secondary to chronic diseases.
Macroscopic can only be seen in advanced cases, the kidneys are enlarged
in volume, the color is lute, waxy, and the consistency is increased.
Nephritis can be found under different morphological aspects
depending on the affected structures and the type of inflammation and are
presented for each species.
The examination of the ureters follows, in particular, its diameter
and uniformity. The presence of ureteric dilation suggests urinary stasis
caused by calculus or stenosis and leads the investigation to highlight them.
The opening is longitudinal and will highlight the content and appearance of
the walls.
The opening and examination of the bladder is done from the urinary
bladder to the females and after opening the urethra in males. Examination
63
of bladder wall and bladder content is intended to determine the presence of
inflammation, lithiasis, tumors, etc. Examinations, especially in dogs, of the
prostate often present with tumors and inflammation. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
1.17. Examination of the genitals
By females, the exam starts with the ovaries, continues with the
salpinx and the uterus that opens longitudinally. Follow the vagina and the
cervix.
Ovarian examination can show ovarian atrophy, follicular or luteal
cysts, persistent yellow bodies, and tumors. At the level of the salpinx, the
most common are dilations and accumulation of clear fluid (hydrosalpinx).
In the general uterus examination, it is possible to see torsades associated
with gestation more frequently and more rarely with the pyrometer or
hydrometer. Concomitantly with torsion and rupture of the pregnant uterus,
fetuses can be identified in the abdominal cavity, mummified or macerated.
The males are examined for the testicles, which are divided
longitudinally, the epididym, the deferential channels, the adjacent glands
and the external genital organs are examined. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
64
1.18. Examination of nasal and sinus cavities
It examines the contents of the nasal cavities where it can be

observed: exudates, blood clots, parasites, foreign bodies the appearance
and integrity of the nasal corneas, of the walls. Young animals can identify
malformations that usually accompany malformations of the face, mouth,
and eyes.
Among the dystrophies of the nasal mucosa, the most evident in the
necropsy exam is amyloidosis that is found in the horse. The diagnosis is
based on the histopathological examination.
Rhinitis is very commonly diagnosed during the necropsy exam and
a wide range of causative agents can be produced. It is important to
determine whether the progression is acute or chronic.
Paranal sinusitis causes skin deformation and skin fistula formation.
The dog shows sinusitis secondary to periodontitis. The sheep are
commonly found in Oestrus ovis larvae. Serum effusions are commonly
found in respiratory viruses.
In chronic evolution occurs mucosal atrophy, bone deformity,
osteomyelitis, meningoencephalitis. (3, 6, 10, 21, 29, 30)
65
1.19. Examination of the encephalus
The size of the encephalus is assessed in relation to the size of the

skull, the shape and symmetry of the cerebral and cerebral hemispheres, the
appearance of circumvolution, the appearance of the skulls, the appearance
of the meninges and the meninges, the size of the ventricles. In case of
autolysis (old corpses), encephal is recommended to be placed in a 15-20%
formalin bath for 6-24 hours after which sections are made. Mandatory
sections are performed transversally and parallel through cerebral
hemispheres, quadrilateral tubers, cerebellum, protuberance and bulb.
If the anamnesis indicates clinical nerve signs, the brain exam is
more thorough and is followed by sampling in all areas. In the case of field
sampling of the brain from animals having nerve signs, the brain is divided
into two halves by a longitudinal section. One half is refrigerated and
dedicated to the virological, bacteriological and toxicological examination,
and the other half is fixed to formol to prevent deformation in order to
perform the histopathological examination.
For harvesting Ammon horn for histopathological examination in
case of suspicion of rambling, two sections are made in the cerebral
hemisphere, through which the lateral ventricles open. The first section is
transverse to the boundary between the middle third and the posterior third
and the second is longitudinal, perpendicular to the first. Horn Ammon
(hippocampus) is located in the posterior side of the ventricle floor. (3, 6,
10, 21, 29, 30)
66
1.20. Examination of the muscles
Follow the presence of stiffness for possible changes in color,

moisture, or consistency.
Muscle atrophy may be local or generalized. Atrophy from cahexia
is generalized.
The most common lesions are degeneration, the most common of
which is nutritional myodistrophy in all species, young animals, parasitic
and gangrene myositis. (3, 6, 21, 29, 30)
1.21. Examination of the bones and joints
Chondrodysplasis may occur in cattle, sheep, dogs, pigs, have

genetic causes and are manifested by disproportionate bone development
due to dysfunction of growth cartilage. Serious growth disorders also
produce chondrodystrophys associated with genetic diseases with enzyme
deficiencies. Deficient genetic, viral or viral resorption (BVD) leads to
spongy bone hyperplasia and deformities of the head bones (osteopetrosis).
Skeletal malformations are readily diagnosed and are genetically
determined by toxic, nutritional or viral teratogenic factors as will be seen in
the following chapters.
67
Maxillas and teeth are examined with the evisceration of the tongue
and the larynx, the ribs during examination of the chest cavity and during
the evisceration of the thoracic organs. Head bones are examined during
brain evisceration and nasal cavity opening.
The dissection of the femur and joints is followed by the
longitudinal sectioning of the entire bone with a saw for the bone marrow,
growth cartilage and bone.
The articular cartilage and synovial membranes are examined as
soon as possible before dehydration.
Bone examination concerns articular cartilage, epiphyseal, growth,
diaphysis and metaphyses. It looks at the thickness, density and amount of
metaphysical and diaphysial bone. In cases of doubt about possible changes,
it may be possible to compare the pair with the pair, contralateral or with
another animal's counterpart.
Greater practical importance, incidence, and the fight and
prophylaxis measures required by the diagnosis, have nutritional and
metabolic diseases. These are presented for each species. (3, 6, 21, 20, 30)
1.22. General aspects of the abortion nephropsy
Sporadic abortions and offspring of dead products can occur in

females due to individual metabolic, hormonal, anatomical problems and do
not necessarily indicate problems at the level of the whole.
68
Differentiation should be made between late abortions, near term,
premature birth, deadly products and nonviable products.
In most cases of abortions or offspring of nonviable products, it is
advisable to refer to whole and placenta fetuses. Necropsy can also be
carried out on the farm if it can be done under aseptic conditions and if it is
solved by collecting samples for laboratory examinations. Most cases of
abortion have infectious etiology, collecting evidence from microbiological
examinations is very important.
Because abortion can only occur after infection of fetuses from a
gestation, the examination of a single fetus is insufficient. (3, 6, 21, 29, 30)
1.22.1. The technique of abortion necropsy
The external examination of the fetuses is carried out after washing

them under the jet of water to remove the manure that usually covers the
skin surface. This facilitates the examination and allows the collection of
clean samples.
The age of fetuses can be estimated based on their length in relation
to anamnestic data.
The external exam is also appreciated if the fetuses are freshly
aborted, autolysed, macerated or mummified.
69
From aborted close-to-term fetuses, serum or tissue fluids are
harvested for the serological test. The tissue of the axillary region is cut, the
anterior limb is laterally removed and the blood harvested in a tube.
Dissection and tissue sampling is preferably performed
simultaneously, in parallel, from all fetuses to be examined. The fetuses are
positioned dorsally, the limbs are removed by incision of the axillary spaces
and coxofemoral joints.
The opening of the serous cavities is accomplished by removing
the ventral walls of the abdominal and thoracic cavity in a single piece
through a bilateral section. The abdominal wall is sectioned from the pelvis
level, continuing in the anterior sense on both sides of the abdomen, careful
not to touch and cut the viscera with the knife blade. The sections of the
abdominal wall continue with the cutting of the chondro-static bonds to the
pectoral level.
For the purpose of the bacteriological examination, portions of liver
and lung are harvested before organs are handled. Using a scissors and
sterile pins, one pulmonary lobe and one liver lobe from each fetus are
harvested. They can be harvested in the same pulmonary, kidney and spleen
container.
Necropsy continues with evisceration of the thoracic organs by
mammalian specific technique. For the evisceration of the tongue it is
possible to cut with a knife, mandibular symphysis. During the evisceration,
the palate, the tonsils and the thyroid are examined. Pulmonary examination
should highlight whether it is a fetal pulmonary (athelectasis) or an
70
expanded pulmonary (airwell). The atelectasic pulmonus is red, collapsed
and the harvested portions inserted into a water container at the bottom of it
- positive docimase.
Aspiration of meconium in the airways is usually encountered in the
terminal phase of bacterial infections and mycosis. Severe necrotic
bronchitis occurs in equine herpesvirus abortions, whereas bovine
herpesvirus only favors the production of multifocal necrosis at the
bronchial level.
Examine the heart by opening both ventricles. The interventricular
septum integrity and the position of the large vessels at the base of the heart
are monitored. The ventricular thickness is similar due to the circular
arterial channel. (3, 6, 21, 29, 30)
Evisceration of abdominal viscera. The stomach usually contains
mucous greenish material and the colon contains meconium. Liver is
examined through inspection and sections are performed. It interests the
size, position and shape of the adrenal and kidney. Harvest samples of cord,
lung, liver, kidney, thyroid and spleen for histopathological examination.
Fetuses swallow amniotic fluid from the early stages of gestation to
the germs that are involved in abortions in the stomach and intestines.
Gastric content may reveal typical aspects of infections, and the
microscopic examination directly through dark-colored phase contrast or
colored fingerprints may indicate bacteria or mice.
Macroscopic examination and histopathological examination of the
intestines can reveal lesions specific to certain abortifacient diseases.
71
Microbiologically these germs can be highlighted, as the histopathological
lesions can be highlighted. Type 1 bovine herpesvirus produces outbreaks of
intestinal necrosis, Listeria produces diffuse necrotic colitis, Bacillus spp.
Induces crypt epithelial necrosis and lymphocyte hyperplasia in Peyer
plaques, and Yersinia paratuberculosis induces cryptic disappearance and a
massive mononuclear infiltrate. Decapitalize the body by cutting the
occipital-atloid joint. (3, 6, 21, 29, 30)
Brain evasceration can be performed according to the general
methodology by performing the standard sections. The removal of the brain
halves is done after a scissor cut of the cranial nerves. Workmanship must
be done with care and finesse, the brain being very fragile and soft. Half of
the brain is fixed in formol for histopathological examination and the other
half is harvested for virology exam.
The test of the abortion brain is mandatory for each avorton. Macro-
skeletal lesions of the brain are rarer, but when they are characteristic,
especially malformations.
Fetal mummification is the progressive dehydration of dead fetuses
retained in the uterus. This process is favored by the absence of a bacterial
infection, the closed cervix under the influence of the yellow body and an
advanced development of the skin so as to resist autolysis. Under these
conditions, fetal fluid, including tissues, is resorbed and the tissues are
molded on the skeleton and acquire a gray-brown or blackish color.
72
The speed of the process is dependent on the size of the fetus.
Mumps of a ovine fetus is quite advanced after a week of death but the
complete mummification of a 6-month-old bovine fetus needs 6-8 months.
The primary causes of mummification are various, being hereditary
diseases, virus infections, protozoa, placental insufficiency, uterine twisting,
female genital anomalies (eg, double cervix).
Maceration and fetal emphysema. Embryonic death leads to
maceration followed by resorption or expulsion into a purulent mass. This
process is common in Campylobacter spp. and Trichomonas fetus
infections. In the end it leads to the installation of an endometrium and / or a
pyrometer.
Fetal maceration favors tissue liquefaction and more or less
complete resorption. Complete maceration is no longer occurring in fetuses
where the skeleton exhibits different degrees of mineralization because the
bones resist maceration. For example, in cows, after three months of
gestation, the maceration is complete. Bones will be removed or will be
retained in a mourning mass.
Complications of fetal maceration include endometritis, piometer
and perforation by the bones of the uterus milled on them.
Fetal emphysema is a situation that arises from the invasion of the
fetus by the bacteria of putrefaction. It's getting distracted. Emphysematous
fetuses are in different degrees of rottenness, are creatures and emit a foul
odor. (3, 6, 21, 29, 30)
73
1.22.2. Examination of the placenta
Due to the fact that the placenta is dirty, contaminated, the

bacteriological examination is not indicated. Only samples are collected for
the histopathological examination.
Hydraminosus is commonly associated with fetal malformations
and hydralantoid is associated with placental insufficiency and the
development of adventitious placenta, both of which occur more frequently
in cows.
Amniotic plaques are squamous epithelial outbreaks, with or
without keratinization, developed on the amniotic internal surface more
frequently in the umbilical area.
Mineralization of fetal coverings in the form of striations or
plaques is more common in allantoid than amniotic.
It is important for the placenta to be fully examined because the
lesions can be on narrow surfaces. The surface of the carousel is examined
for the detection of necroses and purulent outbreaks. The infestations of the
carunculus are recognized at the level of the placenta and the retention of
cartilage portions at the level of the cotyledons. The lesion is common in
fungal infections but also in Brucella or Salmonella infections. The purulent
placenta is induced by various bacteria including Actinomyces pyogenes.
Carousel fibrosis may be a normal aspect, but also the result of
inflammatory processes of infectious nature. In cattle, placental lesions are
74
more common in the uterine hip area and should not be confused with
normal avascular coronary artery.
Following the necropsy of the avortons and the deceased products,
in order to establish the diagnosis, they will be sent as follows for
examination: Bacteriological: liver, lung, gastric; Virological: lung, kidney,
spleen, brain; Histopathological: pulmonary, myocardial, liver, kidney,
brain, placental; Serological: serum from fetuses in the last gestation period,
serum from mothers.
The gastric contents can be harvested using a sterile needle syringe,
transferred to a sterile tube and sent to the laboratory for bacteriological
examination.
Hemorrhagic-necrotic lesions are encountered in the corion and
allantoid in the case of bacterial and fungal infections.
In the case of Ureaplasma diversum infections, the amniotic internal
surface has focal necrosis, mineralization and fibrosis.
Harvesting of conjunctival mucosa in order to perform the
histopathological examination aims at highlighting infections produced by
Yersinia spp., Actinomyces pyogenes and cattle mice. The histopathological
examination of the skin may indicate the time of infection of bovine fetuses
with BVD virus. (3, 6, 21, 29, 30)
75
1.23. Making the act of necropsy
This document includes: identification of the body, the owner,

anamnestic data. As a rule, data contained in corps accompanying or
accompanying documents are real and should be recorded as such, but it
should not be ruled out that some of the data provided may be involuntary
or voluntary, especially in litigation.
The first part refers to the descriptive report. The description should
be made in such a way as to allow other specialists to clearly visualize what
was observed during the examination and not allow other doctors to make
their own interpretations and to give another diagnosis.
Recognition of injuries requires a thorough knowledge of the normal
appearance of the organs. Sometimes the cadavers arriving at the necropsy
hall show cadaveric changes, if they are advanced, they can refuse to
perform necropsy because it is no longer relevant.
The description of the lesions based on the general tissue and organ
examination plan helps the examiner to describe the lesions and make a
report as objective as possible. In describing the lesions of the parenchymal
organs, reference will be made to the size and shape of the organ, the
weight, the color, the consistency, the surface and the section. For cavity
organs, the body involved, the general appearance of the organ before
opening, the physical characters of the walls (as in the case of compact
organs) and the physical characters of the contents (volume, color,
consistency, transparency, smell) are specified.
76
The description of the injuries should be made as concise, using few
but relevant words. Approximation of the size of some injuries can be done
by comparison with known objects (millet, rice, peas, etc.), but it is
preferable to express accurately in units of measure such as mm or cm.
For non-specialist field necropsy realised by unpecialized doctors in
morphopathologic diagnosis, tissue samples sent to laboratories may be
accompanied by photographs, digital images or video tapes that will reveal
the exact aspects of lesion morphology.
In the act of necropsy are data related to the identification of the
animal, the owner, the anamnesis and the objective description of all the
highlighted injuries (descriptive part). The last part is dedicated to the
conclusional part, namely the morphopathological picture where all the
lesions (morphopathological diagnoses for each organ) are observed. There
are spaces reserved for the laboratory diagnosis specifying the samples
collected for this purpose. All morbid entities that have been diagnosed and
described in the act fall under the heading for nosological diagnosis. A body
usually encounters several diseases between which there may or may not be
a correlation. (3, 6, 21, 29, 30)
77
FILE OF NECROPSIS
signed today…………
I. IDENTIFICATION OF CORPS: species………. race…….. sex

color…………. physiological state…….….. service………..… state
of maintenance………….. particular signs…………..
II. OWNER: name……….. address…………
III. ANAMNESIS: …………
IV. DATE OF DEATH:………………………….

V. EXTERNAL EXAMINATION: 1. Skin surface; 2. Subcutaneous
connective tissue; 3. Appearing mucous membranes; 4. The external ear; 5.
External genital organs; 6. External ganglia; 7. Faners;
VI. GENERAL EXAMINATION OF THE SEROUS CAVITIES: 1.

Cav. abdominal; 2. Cav. chest; 3. Cav. pericardial.
VII. EXAMINATION OF THE INTERNAL ORGANS: 1. The oral

cavity, pharynx, salivary gland, submaxillary and retropharyngeal
lymphonodes
2. Esophagus
3. Thyroid and parathyroid
78
4. Thymus
5. Heart, aorta and pulmonary artery
6. Digestive tube: pre-stomach, stomach, intestine, lymph nodes
7. Attached glands of the digestive tract: liver, pancreas

8. Respiratory system: larynx, trachea, lung, lymphonodes
9. Urinary apparatus: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
10. Spleen…………………………………………………….
11. The genital apparatus……………………………………..
12. Skull: nasal cavities, sinuses, eyeballs, middle and inner ear,
pituitary, epiphysis, meninges and
brain………………………………………..
13. Rahidian canal and spinal marrow…………………….
14. Muscle, bones, joints and bone marrow………………..
15. Other tissues and organs
VIII. ANATOMOPATHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSTICS:
79
IX. PARAZITOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS, harvested samples .....
X. MICROBIOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS, harvested samples
XI……………………………………. TOXICOLOGICAL
DIAGNOSIS, harvested samples………………….....
XII. HISTOPATHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS, harvested samples
NOSOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS
DEATH CAUSE…….
OBSERVATIONS, INDICATIONS
Signature and seal of the veterinarian
At the cause of death, the lesion or pathogenic mechanism that
resulted in the death of the animal (ex.edem pulmonary) will pass. Necropsy
is not just about recognizing the lesions, the most important goal of
necropsy being to identify the cause or causes of death. Necropsy is useful
because information about disease or illness is applied in formulating
appropriate treatment and measures to prevent and control disease. (3, 6, 21,
28, 29)
80
1.24. Collection of samples for laboratory examinations
Samples should be carefully collected and sent to the laboratory

under optimum conditions. Samples that have not been stored in adequate
conditions and have not been sent in sufficient quantities may lead to
diagnostic errors. When there are uncertainties about how to harvest and
preserve evidence for transport, it is advisable to consult the lab that will
process the evidence.
1.24.1. Sampling for histopathological examination
Sample collection is a very important step for the histopathological

examination.
The general recommendations for the collection of samples for the
histopathological examination refer to:
- Early sampling of samples to avoid the installation of cadaveric
changes (autolysis and putrefaction).
- Avoid crushing tissues during harvesting.
- The harvesting of tissues and organs with lesions should be made
from the most representative areas.
- The dimensions of the harvested parts must be small enough to
allow rapid and complete fastening of these.
81
a). Cadaveric autolysis occurs under the action of cellular enzymes
for tissues immediately after death. The rate at which they are installed and
progressing varies depending on the organ. Encephalus, kidneys or mucous
are the first to undergo major autolytic changes, so these organs are the first
to collect samples. Ideally, for the histopathological examination, the parts
should be collected immediately after the death of the animal. For
histochemical and immunohistochemical exams, immediate sampling is
mandatory. There are situations requiring the collection of samples from
corpses with advanced cadaveric changes, or at different stages of
putrefaction, in order to determine the cause of death (in case of litigation or
suspicion of serious illness).
b). Harvesting is done using well-suited instruments (scalpel blades)
to allow a smooth, continuous cut without friction and without crushing
tissue fragments. For harvesting samples in the cavity walls (stomach,
intestine, etc.), the cutting is done with scissors after previously stretched
portions of tissue have been stretched on a piece of cardboard. In the case of
very loose tissues, due to autolysis or thawing after freezing, to prevent
crushing, larger fragments may be prefixed in the form of 10-20%, then
after 1-2 hours the cutting should be made to the appropriate size for fixing.
c). To be relevant, the piece should contain both pathological
changes and normal tissue in continuity.
d). Depending on the organ, the fixer used, its penetration capacity,
the thickness of the parts is different. Generally, parts with a thickness of up
82
to 5mm are harvested. For cytological examinations, a thickness of up to
3mm is acceptable.
From large tumors tissues will be harvested from multiple areas. The
connective capsules are cut to facilitate penetration of the fixator. The
contents of the mucosal cavities are removed with finer fixation.
e). For each organ there are certain features of anatomical and
histological structure that recommend the use of a specific harvesting
technique. Orientation of the sections is done according to the organ and the
purpose of the histopathological examination. The sections are made in such
a way that the harvested sample encompasses all the structural elements of
the organ (eg parenchyma and bile ducts in the liver, medullary in the
kidney). In the case of muscle tissue, sections parallel to muscle fibers are
made.
It is contraindicated the late harvesting of samples, their crushing,
fixing them in containers that deform them. (3, 6, 21, 29, 30)
1.24.2. Fix the samples for histopathological examination
The purpose of the fixation is to stop the vital phenomena specific to

tissue harvested for its histochemical investigation, stop cadaveric changes
(autolysis, putrefaction), prepare cells and tissues to color some
components, and increase permeability for dyes.
83
Fixing is achieved with the help of fixation solutions. There are
several fixative fluids that are used depending on the tissue being
investigated and the coloring techniques to be used.
In order for the sample water not to dilute the fixative liquid
significantly, a fixer volume of at least 10 times the sample volume is used.
After 24-48 hours the tissues are fixed, the formalol is changed and the
amount of formalin required is less, just enough to cover the samples.
The usual capacity of the fixing tanks is 100-250 ml, but larger
containers are also used where the pieces are separated into individualized
plastic cans. Plastic containers and not glass containers should be used for
transport to avoid breaking them. For specimens that are sent in winter,
samples must be frozen. This is done by adding to the classical
formaldehyde solution of 95% ethyl alcohol in a proportion of 10%.
The brain is fixed by inserting into a large amount of fixative. Leave
for 24 hours and then separate and choose the desired fragment.
Segments of the gastrointestinal tract should be taken as soon as
possible after the opening of the body to minimize cadaveric changes. The
intestinal segment opens in length before insertion into the fixative to ensure
adequate and timely storage of the mucosal layer and to increase the
penetration area. (3, 6)
84
1.24.3. Collection of samples for haematological and
cytological examinations
After the blood has been collected in an anticoagulant tube,

homogenisation is ensured by inverting the tube several times.
Two smears are made from each blood sample, after homogenizing
the blood with EDTA, on clean blades and air-dried.
The smears do not freeze to avoid hemolysis. For transportation, the

lamellas are placed in plastic or cardboard boxes with lid and spacers.
Specially provided.
Samples for cytology are generally smears or fingerprints made of

liquids and tissues. Tumor tissues are occasionally prepared for cytological
evaluation. It is possible to arrive at a diagnosis after preparing and
examining smears (from the sectioned tumor or aspiration) before the tissue
blocks in the tumor are processed after the paraffin technique. Immediately
dry the smear so as not to alter the architecture of the cells. Fastening can be
done by flaming or by introducing the sample into absolute methyl alcohol.
The smears can also be prepared from body fluids by putting a few
drops on the blade. The liquid can be collected and centrifuged and the
smear prepared from the cell deposit on the bottom of the tube. (3, 6)
85
1.24.4. Collection of samples for the bacteriological
examination
Samples for microbiological examination are collected under aseptic

conditions shortly after the death of the animal. Sampling for bacteriological
cultures is done before opening the gastrointestinal tract.
It is recommended to cauterize the surface of the organ with a hot
spatula and then to harvest the necessary material from the depth of the
solid organ, the abscess or the coagulated mass. The choice of sample
transport medium depends largely on the micro-organisms that are
suspected to be present at the sample level. Racing can be done from the
cavities of the body or from the open organs or even before the full opening
of the organs. Cavity organs and segments of the gastrointestinal tract are
most easily manipulated if they bind to both ends and insert into a Petri
plate. (3, 6)
Blood samples must be collected prior to euthanasia of the dying

animal. There are situations in which blood samples can be obtained from
animals that have died in the last 3-4 hours. This can be done by sucking
blood from the heart before opening the compartments. The general rule in
collecting body fluids is to obtain uncontaminated samples. Liquids can be
collected during the examination if the need for these types of exams is
anticipated.
86
Ascitic fluid is analyzed according to quantity, color, turbidity.
Urine is obtained by direct aspiration with the urinary bladder syringe. The
cerebrospinal fluid may be collected before the brain is opened. It is done
by sucking the liquid with a needle syringe.
The isolation of microbial agents from samples taken at the necropsy
test is all the more conclusive as the material collected is sent to the
laboratory more quickly. Most pathogenic bacteria die in rotting tissues,
while saprophytes and those in the environment are multiplying.
Samples are placed in sterile plastic containers or bags. The intestine
is collected separately from other tissues.
Samples submitted for bacteriological examination must be kept

cool (not frozen) throughout the transport. It is not recommended to freeze
specimens for bacteriology with one exception. Samples for identifying
Brucella bacteria will be taken immediately after the animal's death, will be
frozen immediately and sent to the laboratory in the frozen state.
No samples are taken from animals treated recently with antibiotics
or chemotherapies because the expected results will not be obtained.
In the case of suspected anthrax, fresh or coagulated blood is
harvested in a disposable sterile syringe and then transferred to a cooling
tube. The spleen is wrapped in a sterile bag and cools.
To identify germs of the genus Clostridium, samples should be taken
immediately after the death of the animal and should be preserved well to
prevent contamination with non-pathogenic sporulated microorganisms.
87
In case of enteric diseases, some airborne finger prints and faeces
samples will also be sent. In case of doubt about the samples to be taken
from a corpse, it is advisable to harvest more tissues. The following organs
are preferred: spleen, cord, jejunum and ileum (ligature, unopened), brain
(longitudinal section), lung (from lesion areas), kidney (not encapsulated),
lymph nodes adjacent to lesions, liver because it is quickly invaded
postmortem by intestinal bacteria but is a good test for the diagnosis of
salmonellosis). (3, 6)
1.24.5. Collection of samples for virosological examination
Viruses can be easily destroyed by heat, light, dehydration and pH

modification.
Isolation of viruses is made easier if samples are harvested from
fresh animals or bodies with acute forms of disease.
The harvested samples are freezing but not freezing. Tissue frosting
destroys cells and decreases the effectiveness of immunofluorescence and
immunohistochemistry. Tissue contact with disinfectants can destroy
viruses and / or cell culture on which cultivation will take place. (3, 6)
88
1.24.6. Collection of samples to perform the mycological
examination
Skin samples for the cultivation of fungi should be sampled as

aseptically, refrigerated and sent to the laboratory on ice bags.
Hair and cutaneous scums are sent in dry plastic or paper bags.
Excessive humidity during the storage and transport of samples favors the
excessive development of bacteria and the compromise of the result. The
collection of skin samples is done at the periphery of the lesions.
Myelological examination of the skin in parallel with the histopathology is
preferable. A portion of the skin is fixed in 10% formol and another portion
is chilled for mycological examination.
In case of deep mycoses suspicion, tissue with obvious lesions,

lymph nodes, as well as secretions, exudates, necroses, etc. will be taken.
under sterile conditions. The collected samples are frozen. Parallel samples
are taken for histopathological and bacteriological examinations. (3, 6)
89
1.24.7. Collection of samples for parasitological examination
For examination, ectoparasite samples are collected prior to the

opening of the body. Ticks, fleas, lice can be brushed carefully on fur or
feathers and fixed into formol. For better harvesting, wet the coat or feathers
of the body with a detergent solution. When collecting ticks from fresh
bodies, breakage of the previous part should be avoided by watering the
body of the tick with ether. It will kill the tick and allow it to be extracted.
Samples are fixed in the ground. 70% ethyl alcohol or 10% formol.
To avoid their creaking, the parasites are introduced into lukewarm
water before fastening. It should be avoided detachment of the strips from
the attaching bracket because the scolex will break, which is very important
for identifying the species.
The sampling for the demonstration of eggs and parasites larvae is
usually done from the rectum. Fat cups should have as little air as possible,
so it is recommended to fill them as well. Samples are cooled to prevent
fermentation.
90
Large external or internal parasites are fixed in 70% ethyl alcohol or
10% formalin. To diagnose blood parasites, blood samples with
anticoagulant (heparin or EDTA) and two blood smears are sent. (3, 6)
1.24.8. Taking samples to perform the toxicological

examination
Samples for toxicological examination should be taken in such a

way as to avoid contamination with different chemical substances used
during necropsy (fixers, detergents, disinfectants).
They do not wash because toxic residues can be removed or too

diluted to be identified.
Apart from the special indications, no preservatives should be added

to the samples to be chemically investigated. Samples are frozen and must
be frozen at the lab, but the blood is instead frozen.
In case of suspicion of intoxication, it is advisable that the

veterinarian contact the laboratory to which the samples are to be sent, in
order to be informed precisely about the quantity to be dispatched, how to
preserve and transport the samples. (3, 6)
91
1.24.9. Collection of samples for serological and biochemical
examination
For biochemical analysis, it is recommended to dispatch serum

samples from diseased animals. 1 ml of serum will be sent for each test to
be carried out. The serum separates from the clog before dispatch.
Bloodless serum is only recommended for serological examinations,
hemolysis may interfere with serological and biochemical tests giving
erroneous results.
All serum samples are refrigerated and shipped with a refrigerant.
The serum can be frozen after it has been taken off the coagulum. Cooling is
essential for enzyme assays. The identification of each tube by numbering
that corresponds to the data in the accompanying note is obligatory. (3, 6)
1.24.10. Preparation and transport of samples to the

laboratory
Samples must be accompanied by anamnestic data that must include

the owner's name and address, animal data, species, race, age, gender,
disease, morbidity, mortality, vaccinations, applied and effective
application, signs clinical lesions observed at necropsy and presumptive
diagnosis. Sending photos of organs with injuries along with
92
histopathological examination parts provides important information in
establishing the diagnosis.
Anamnetic data, the referral bulletin, are written and packaged in
closed plastic bags. On each container the name of the owner and the
harvested sample are given.
Serum samples are numbered in correlation with the data in the
referral bulletin. One packet includes only one flock.
Each tissue is packaged separately. The intestine is always packaged
separately from other tissues to prevent bacterial contamination.
Containers containing biological fluids or formalin are tightly closed
with lids and placed in plastic bags.
The packs will have ice packs to be in contact with the samples and
keep them cool until the lab. The sample pack must be lined with expanded
polystyrene which is a good insulator. It is preferable to use isothermal and
waterproof containers.
Packaged samples should be firmly secured with paper inside the
container to prevent movement and breakage during transport. (3, 6)
1.24.11. Rapid tests used during necropsy
Direct preparations
Direct preparations are a quick technique for making non-colored
native microscopic preparations. The technique involves the collection of
liquid materials of normal or pathological appearance, laying on a porthole
blade, coating them with a slat and examining them as such at a microscope.
93
Liquids to be examined microscopically are harvested by syringe suction or
taken with the corner of a microscopic slide. The examined materials
collected from the mucous membranes, sediments, compact tissues are
mixed with saline or clarifying solutions for skin rashes.
Microscopic examination is done in bright field, phase contrast and
dark field. Most cells, microscopic parasites, and even bacteria can be
observed when examining preparations in bright light.
Examining direct preparations is done under much better conditions
in phase contrast. Recombination of two light beams with the same
wavelength but phase shift increases the contrast by increasing the
refractive index. Light intensity differences will be perceived as darker
formations (cells, microorganisms) on a lighter background.
Phase contrast gives fine details on the internal structure of the cells.
The process is well suited to examining non-stained, live or dead cells, and
parasites. Examination in the dark field involves the visualization of
particles in suspension, particles that reflect or refract an oblique luminous
beam. The examination technique is suitable for transparent suspensions
and is used to highlight spirochetes, flags, cells, parasites and suspension
crystals.
The skin scrape is the most commonly used sample collection
procedure for microscopic examination. It is of utmost importance in
identifying small and microscopic ectoparasites. The demodecimal exam is
made of recent injuries. The skin in the area to be raked is trapped and
compressed between the thumb and the index finger to remove the hair
94
follicle parasites. The material obtained is raked and placed on a porthole
blade. To facilitate the adhesion of the material collected by the blade, it is
advisable to apply a drop of mineral oil to the surface to be rolled or to the
blade blade. Follow the deeper scrutiny until bleeding from the capillaries
(in fresh bodies). Stripping the hair and examining the material that is
expressed in compression can reveal parasites.
The scraped material is mixed on the blade with 2-3 drops of
mineral oil. Mix the oil thoroughly with the rinse material until it is
homogenized, then cover with a histological slide. For a better examination,
a better contrast to identify parasites, it is advisable to lower the capacitor or
close the diaphragm. Identification of adult parasites or immature forms
(eggs, larvae, nymphs) establishes the diagnosis.
Superficial parasites (Dermanyssus, Otodectes) can be highlighted
after harvesting from the skin or hair with an acetate adhesive tape. The
pure acetate band is pressed onto the surface of the adjacent hair and skin or
on a race surface. The tape is then glued to a porthole blade and examined.
Because most dermatophytes in animals are outside the hair,
clarification of direct preparations is not necessary so that examination can
be done in mineral oil. Clarification of the hair and spumas can be done
between the blade and slat in a few drops of KOH 10-20%. The blade is
warmed for 15-20 seconds without boiling. The heating can be replaced
with a standby time of 30 minutes at room temperature.
95
KOH solution can be replaced with so-called "chlorphenolate" to
clarify keratin: 50 g of chlorohydrate, 25 ml of liquid phenol and 25 ml of
lactic acid. This mixture can be examined immediately. (3, 6)
1.24.12. Collection of samples for smears
Cytological samples can be collected by buffering and lesioning.

Techniques used for sample collection and blade preparation vary
depending on the anatomical location, tissue characteristics, and the
characteristics of the patient.
Prints. For cytological evaluation fingerprints can be made from
external lesions or tissues extracted during necropsy. Ulcers should be
printed before being cleaned. Then the lesion should be cleaned with a
surgical sponge moistened with saline and reprinted and / or raked.
To make prints, the blood and tissue fluids should be removed from
the surface of the lesion by wiping them with an absorbent material. Excess
blood and tissue tissues prevent cells from adhering to the blade, resulting in
poor cell preparation. Also, excess fluid prevents cells from dispersing and
takes the form and size they usually have in airborne smears.
96
The middle of a clean blade is pressed against the wiped surface of
the tissue to be printed. Although generally more prints are made on each
blade, a footprint on the blade is usually sufficient. When possible, it is best
to make several prints so that they are available for any special coloring.
A proprietary print technique is a print technique that lends itself
well to cellular studies (endothelium, mesothelium) but also to fibrous
tissue. The lashes are frozen in the freezer or cryostat and the tissue to be
analyzed will be easily, quickly touched by the surface of the blades. Follow
the quick heating of prints on a platinum or a hot air dryer to prevent
condensation. By successive imprinting of the same area we obtain serial
sections through tissue.
Scraping. Scraping has the advantage of collecting many cells from
the tissue and is therefore used for dense tissues with few cells.
Scraping is done by pulling a scalpel blade or a histological blade
perpendicular to the surface of the cleaned and dry lesion. The material
collected on the blade is transferred in the middle of a microscope blade and
displayed by one or more of the techniques described below for the
preparation of solid mass smears.
It is necessary to immediately dry the smear to preserve the
architecture of the cells. Fixation can be done by immersion in absolute
methyl alcohol. (3, 6)
1.24.13. Making smears
97
Several methods can be used to prepare smears for diagnostic
cytology from raclettes and biological fluids. Choosing the technique to
make the preparation depends on the characteristics of the sample.
Blood smear technique: Once the material has been deposited on a
blade, a second blade is placed over the first at an angle of 30-40 °. This is
pulled back along the first blade until it comes into contact with the sample.
When the fluid has extended along the junction of the two blades, the blade
above is drawn forward rapidly and finely.
The squash method: can give excellent cytological smears. The
preparation is done by depositing the material in the middle of a blade and
then placing a second horizontal blade across the material at a right angle to
the first blade. This is then dragged through quick and easy sliding over the
first blade. It is important not to press the blade at the display as it causes
the cells to break. The weight of the blade is usually sufficient for proper
display of the cells. If there are small pieces of tissue that do not disperse
when the second blade is applied (eg, bone marrow pieces), a slight finger
pressure can be applied before the display.
Other display techniques: A less destructive method is to put the
second blade over the material, then rotate 45 ° and rise.
Another technique for displaying aspirated materials is to pull the
material into the peripheral areas in several directions with the tip of a
syringe needle, resulting in a sea star photo. This technique does not destroy
fragile cells and also allows the maintenance of a thick tissue tissue around
98
the cells. Sometimes this thick layer prevents cell dispersion and interferes
with the observation of cell details but also has acceptable portions.
The brush technique is very good for bone marrow smears and
consists in lightly touching the marrow with a dry brush of decayed hair and
mild brushing of the blade to obtain a fine coat of note.
Preparation of smears from liquids. The smears should be prepared
immediately after collection of the liquid. The smears can be made directly
from the fresh, well-mixed liquid, or from the centrifuge sediment by the
blood smear technique, the linear smear technique, or the squash method.
The choice of technique depends on the cellularity, viscosity and fluid
homogeneity.
Linear smear technique can be used to concentrate small cell fluids,
but typically does not sufficiently disperse cells from cell-rich liquids.
Therefore, translucent liquids usually require concentration, either by
centrifugation or by the linear smear technique, with centrifugation being
preferred.
To concentrate the liquids by centrifugation, the liquid is centrifuged
for 5 minutes at 1000-1500 r / m. The sediment is resuspended in a few
drops of supernatant by lightly inclining the tube. A drop of the resuspended
sediment is placed on a blade and made by a squash method. If possible,
make several preparations with each technique.
If the liquid can not be concentrated by centrifugation or if the
centrifuged sample contains few cells, the technique of linear smear may
be used to concentrate the cells in the preparation. A drop of liquid is placed
99
on a clean blade and the technique of the blood smear is used only that the
second blade rises from the preparation to about 3/4 of the smear, leaving a
linear portion containing more cells than the rest of the blade.
Unfortunately, it is possible that too much liquid will remain in this "line"
and prevent good cell dispersion. (3, 6)
2. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN BIRDS DISEASES
Corpses are identified from the following points of view: species,

race, origin, sex, age, productive type, exploitation category, breeding
system, owner identification.
The description of clinical signs should be reported in chronological
order by the caregiver or person accompanying the birds to the laboratory.
The history of the herd must include the following aspects: the level
of production, uniformity of the herd, previous diseases in the herd,
description of current clinical signs, morbidity and mortality before and
after signs of disease, vaccinations, feed program, feed consumption,
microclimate conditions temperature, humidity, ventilation), bird
conservation data, nutrition, chemical composition of feed, water quality
used for watering birds.
100
In intensive poultry farms, a number of microclimate factors and
managerial factors can negatively influence or even cancel the response of a
herd to a particular medication.
Survey of source (origin) of birds, incubation, hatching, heat stress
(cooling or overheating) as well as early mortality can provide essential
information for development and further health. For example,
encephalomyelitis is observed in the first week of life and is associated with
unhygienic hatching conditions. Salmonella infections, usually transmitted
by egg, are observed after about 8 days of life. The epidemic antremorum is
also transmitted through the egg and is most likely observed at about 12
days of life. Coccidiosis, the disease of misery, occurs after 21 days of life.
The anamnesis follows the treatment and its duration, including its
prolongation after signs. A number of infections such as those with
Salmonella or pasteurella can be controlled, managed by anti-infectious
medication but can relapse. (3, 6, 14, 24)
2.1. Examination of the exterior
The external examination of the corpses seeks, first of all, the

general appearance of the corpses, some of which can easily be observed at
this stage. Hypothypsea can be highlighted externally by a low body
development, members developed disproportionately to the trunk and
confirmed, after the opening of the body, by the poor development of
internal organs.
101
The conformation of corpses is appreciated according to the normal
appearance of the species and the breed. Nonspecific lesions, rickets (sternal
abnormalities), periosis (limb defects), osteopetrosis (long bones
thickening), etc. can be observed.
The constitution must be robust in meat and fine breeds in egg
breeds. The condition of maintenance is examined by simple inspection and
palpation of the body. Maintenance is appreciated as cachexia, poor, good,
very good maintenance and obesity. At the palpation, the prominent
sternum nose, with sternal muscular atrophy, feels weak or cachexic. We
also appreciate certain abnormal head and limb positions. Toricollis occurs
in encephalomalacia and abnormal limb and wing positions occur in Marek
Disease, as well as in B1 hipovitaminosis.
The skin surface examines both feathered and feathered skin (crest,
ears, beards, eyelids) with smallpox lesions in the form of gray nodules that
are covered with scabs (Fig.1.1) Overlapping bacterial infections and there
are necrotic, purulent and fibrotic inflammations in the head and mucous
membrane of the skin.
Anemia prints a lighter color to the beard, the black color appears in
poisoning with substances that bind to Hb. The appearance of black spots in
the crest and beards is seen in histomonosis (black headache). In the chronic
avian cholera occurs the edema of the beards and, more rarely, the gangrene
of the beards appears with their elimination. As a result of battles or
cannibalism, there are wounds, ulcers in the ridge, the chins and the cloaca.
102
At the limit of the limbs, scab lesions can be seen. Apparent mucous
will also be examined. The oral mucosa may exhibit fibrin deposits,
diphtheria inflammation, candidiasis and trichomonasis. (3, 6)
2.1.2. The general appearance of the corpse
- aplomb defects and spine deviation in rickets by chickens and

osteomalacia by adults;
- underdevelopment (increasing delay) in hypothypsy;
- penguin-shaped abdomen in: egg pseudoconcrements, vitelin
peritonitis; (14, 30, 34)
- tumors in the toracoabdominal cavity.
2.1.3. Examination of skin and feathers
Examine the skin of the head region: ridge, beards, eyelids,

and then the skin of the extremities of the legs (tarsometatarsian regions and
phalanges). When examining the skin, the color, thickness, elasticity,
presence of crusts and / or nodules are appreciated. (3, 6)
2.1.4. Skin lesions:
103
- injuries in case of trauma;
- crusts in eruptive dermatitis;
- variolus nodules in difteriovariol;
- the swelling of the plumifer follicles in: sarcomatosis, Marek's
disease. (14, 30, 34) (Fig. 1)
2.1.5. Feathers lesions:
- the loss of feathers in: chronic diseases, dermatoses, parasitoses;

- agglutination of feathers around the cloacal opening with
feces in enteritis;
- the presence of blood around the cloacal hole in cannibalism. (14,

30, 34)
2.1.6. Lesions of the apparent mucosa
- palatability of mucouses in anemias;

- fibrous deposits in conjunctival sacs in avian vaiola with oculo-
nasal localization, haemophilic coriospasm, mycoplasmosis;
- cloacal prolapse occurs in: egg retention, egg pseudoconcrement,
tumors in the thoraco-abdominal cavity. (14, 29, 34)
104
2.1.7. Skinning and examination of subcutaneous connective
tissue
The body rests in the dorsal position and is depleted on the

ventral face of the cervical and thoracoabdominal regions, also on the
internal limb. Complete with the skin surface exam.
A buttonhole is running at the xifoid level of the sternum. Then,

under the protection of a grooved probe, the skin is cut across the midline of
the ventral face of the body, first to the caudal to the coccyx, then to the
bottom of the beak, protecting the goose. The main section is completed
with four other sections that run on the inner face of the wings and legs,
perpendicular to the first.
Subcutaneous conjunctive tissue is dilated and the skin is laterally
affected. In this way data on subcutaneous connective tissue can be
obtained. (3, 6)
2.1.8. Subcutaneous conjunctive tissue lesions:
- peters in haemorrhagipar syndromes;
105
- edematous infiltrations in cahexia;
- parasitic granulomas;
- tumors in avian oncogenic viroids.
2.2. Inside exam
2.2.1. Opening and examination of the thoracoabdominal

cavity
A breach is made in the ventral wall of the cavity, behind the

xenophoid sternum process. With straight scissors under the protection of
the grooved probe or two fingers from the hand that handles the scissors,
three sections are practiced: one on the median line to the cork and two
other lateral sections parallel to the symmetrical hippoconduct edges , to the
level of iliac pallets. The wall of the cavity is thus segmented into two
triangular flaps which laterally flutter. (3, 6)
The sternocostal plaster will continue to rise. For this purpose, two
symmetrical and convergent caudo-cranial and slightly oblique sections are
practiced upwards from the iliac pallets (the point of the anterior sections)
to the middle of the clavicles. With scissors in youth and with costotom in
adults, the ribs, coracoids and clavicles will be cut. Sternocostal plastron
rises slightly, diluting or carefully cutting the insertion of the pericardial
sac. It examines the degree of development of pectoral and sternum muscles
106
that can be deviated from rickets by chicken and osteomalacia by adults. On
the inner face of the sternocostal plastron there may appear vaginal deposits
in the visceral gout as well as fibrin films in acute colibacillosis. (3, 6)
2.2.2. Lesions of the thoraco-abdominal cavity
- petechiae and suffusions in: poisoning, hippovitaminosis K,

infectious diseases;
- hemoperitoneum in: organ breakag es, trauma, cannibalism;
- uric polyserositis - deposits of uric acid in the visceral gout;
- fibrinous polyserositis in acute colibacillosis;
- ovibags in peritonitis consecutive to the abdominal pont;
- vitelus in vitelin peritonitis;
- tumor formations located on the serous cavity or its walls in
oncogenic virosis. (14, 30, 34)
Airbags normally collapse immediately after opening the cavity and
can not be examined. In pathological conditions they are destined, with
thickened walls and internal deposits. (3, 6)
2.2.3. Airbags lesions:
- fibrinous aerosaculitis - fibrin accumulations, occurs in

mycoplasmosis; (Figure 1.3)
107
- granulomatous aerosaculitis - irregular, diffuse or granulomatous
thickening in aspergillosis.
2.2.4. Opening and examination of the pericardial cavity
To open the pericardial cavity, the tip of the pericardial sac is

grasped with the surgical forceps and gently pulls against the examiner
placed in the posterior part of the body. Using a scissors, a small buttonhole
is executed in front of the pendulum and then two lateral sections in the V at
the base of the cord. The upper lobe of triangular shape is reflected, and the
lower one, larger, will preserve and allow the examination of possible fluid
pathological collections. (3, 6)
2.2.5. Lesions of the pericardial cavity:
- hemopericard due to serious trauma;

- serous pericarditis is characterized by the presence of a citrine
fluid that coagulates into the air within 15 minutes, and occurs in acute
avian cholera;
- fibrinous pericarditis in acute colibacillosis;
- uric pericarditis in the pericardial site of visceral gout. (Fig.1.4)
108
2.2.6. Evisceration and examination of the heart
The cord is grasped by hand or with a brush and gently pulls

upwards, and then the large pots are cut. In very fresh (with uncoagulated
blood) or very old (blood-haired) body, two ligaments are attached which
catch all the vessels at the base of the cord, and the cord rises after being cut
between the two wires.
It is appreciated the amount and quality of fat at the base of the
heart, the presence of small hemorrhages in the avian cholera, the
appearance of nodular formations that protrude at the surface of the heart
and which may be tumors or pulmonary nodules (avian salmonellosis).
After the opening of the heart, the myocardial sectional area is appreciated
as the aspect of the parietal and valvular endocardium. (3, 6)
2.2.7. Heart lesions:
- globular cord (round heart disease) in severe policing and

intoxication with furazolidone;
- punctuatet haemorrhages at the base of the heart ("splatter cord")
in avian cholera;
- lymphohistiocitar myocarditis (pulmonary nodules) in
salmonellosis;
- granulomatous myocarditis in tuberculosis and aspergillosis;
109
- myocardial tumors in Marek's disease or lymphoid leukosis. (14,
30, 34)
2.2.8. Evisceration and examination of the liver
The liver is eviscerated by cutting the vessels, the cystic channel and
the supporting ligaments. When examining the color, it should be taken into
account that the liver in chickens during the first three weeks of life is
yellowish, pathological in the liver of adult birds. (3, 6)
2.2.9. Lesions of the liver:
- hepatosteatosis - the liver is yellowish-rusty and very brittle, is

observed in mycotoxicosis or the feeding of laying hens as well as some
- hepatic amyloidosis - the liver has a waxy appearance, the lesion is
observed in chronic infections: tuberculosis, mycoplasmosis;
- necrotic milliar hepatitis - on a yellowish background there are
some small nodules (sand pressed liver) in the avian cholera; (Figure 1.5)
- necrotic hepatitis in big outbreaks in necrotizing hepatosplenicitis
produced by Clostridium perfringens, in trichomonasis, in streptococci,
histomonasis; (Figure 1.6)
110
- hemorrhagic hepatitis with hepatitis with inclusions and viral
hepatitis of duckling;
- hemorrhagic-necrotic hepatitis in subacute colibacillosis;
- fibrinous perihepatitis in colibacillosis; (Fig.1.7)
- lymphohistiocytar hepatitis in salmonellosis;
- granulomatous hepatitis in tuberculosis and coligranulomatosis;
(Figure 1.8)
- fibrous hepatitis in aflatoxicosis and heart failure;
- tumors in Marek's disease and lymphoid leukosis. (Figure 9) (14,
30, 34)
2.2.10. Evisceration and examination of the spleen
It is located in the median plane of the toracoabdominal cavity, in a

triangle bounded by the right lobe of the liver, the glandular part of the
stomach and the origin of the duodenum.
The spleen eviscerates after cutting the gastrosplenic mesh and the
two vascular pedicles. (3, 6)
2.2.11. Lesions of the spleen:
111
- spleen atrophy (spleen much reduced in volume and weight)
occurs in: cachexia, hypothypsy, tricotecan poisoning;
- fibrinoid lienosis (spleen is enlarged in volume, brown, granular
on the sectional area); occurs in subacute colibacillosis, salmon, cholera;
- amyloid lienosis (wax-like spleen) in chronic diseases, especially
tuberculosis;
- spleen ischemia (reduced spleen in volume and pale) in bleeding;
- necrotic splenitis, milliar in cholera, and salmonellosis, high
outbreaks in necrotizing hepatosplenic and histomonasis;
- lymphohistiocytar splenitis in salmonellosis;
- granulomatous splenitis in: tuberculosis, granulomatosis, mycosis;
- tumors - with a nodular appearance or organ that has been greatly
increased in volume from 10 to 20 times in leucosis and Marek's disease.
(14, 30, 34)
2.2.12. Evisceration of the gastrointestinal tract
Three double ligatures will be applied: at the entrance of the

glandular stomach, in the end of the duodenum, and in the rectum, near the
chinchilla. After dividing the two yarns into each double bond, the
gastrointestinal tube will be eviscerated in two blocks: one consisting of the
stomach, duodenum and pancreas, the other from the jejunum, ileon, cecal
sac, colon and rectum. (3, 6)
112
2.2.13. Evisceration and examination of genitals
By males the testicles are examined by sectioning on the convex

edge.
When assessing testicular changes, account is taken of the species,
age and especially the physiological period. In the peak period of sexual
activity, the testicles are much higher than in the rest period.
By females the ovary, oviduct and cloaca will be eviscerated by a
circularly sectioning the skin around the cloacal hole. The three organs will
be broken down into the laying hens. In chickens, where the salpinx is
undeveloped, the ovary and chicken will be eviscerated separately. (3, 6)
2.2.14. Lesions of the female genital apparatus:
- ovarian and ovary atrophy occurs in: - faults, adenovirosis,

fusariosis;
- depolimerisation of the vitelus in ovibags in: - protein
deficiencies, infectious bursitis, mycoplasmosis, cholera, colibacilosis;
- necrotic oophoritis (greenish ovibags) in pseudomonasis;
- haemorrhagic oophoritis in infectious bronchitis; (Figure 1.10)
- fibrinopurulent oophoritis in: colibacillosis, salmonellosis,
pasteurellosis, mycoplasmosis;
- proliferative oophoritis in salmonellosis; (Figure 1.11)
- granulomatous oophoritis in tuberculosis;
113
- ovarian tumors in oncogenic virosis;
- egg retention (stagnation of the egg at the entrance of the cloacae)
in hypocalcaemia;
- egg pseudoconcrement in obstacles in the way of the egg transit or
salpingian atony;
- fibrinous salpingitis (fibrin mucus in the oviduct) in
mycoplasmosis;
- lymphohistiocytar salpingitis in the form of small nodules or
microchips in infectious bronchitis;
- granulomatous salpingitis in: coligranulomatosis, tuberculosis,
mycosis. (14, 30, 34)
2.2.15. Lesions of the male genital apparatus:
- the necrotic orchitis of the warts, the testicles or the testicle appear
larger in volume and granular and dry on the salmonella sectional area.
2.2.16. Examination of the Fabricius burse
The Fabricius burse, placed on the dorsal face of the urode, evades
with the cloaca. When assessing its changes, it will be taken into account
114
that the scholarship increases in weight and volume up to 4 months of age,
lasts for up to 5-6 months and then gradually decreases until complete
disappearance at 7-8 months (in the hen). Macroscopically, it is made up of
cerebral folds that converge towards a reduced cavity, which is normally
bare with the glossy surface. The Fabricius burse opens longitudinally. (3,
6)
2.2.17. Lesions of the Fabricius burse
- accidental atrophy occurs in stress, viral, bacterial and parasitic

diseases, to differentiate from physiological involution;
- corneous metaplasia (the surface of the internal cavity appears
rusty and brown) occurs in hippocampus A of the avian youth;
- edematous lymphobursitis (large volume schizophrenia, gelatinous
infiltrated wall and small bleeding) in infectious bursitis;
- fibrinous lymphobursitis (yellowish fibrin deposits in the cavity)
in colibacillosis;
- hemorrhagic lymphoburitis in coccidiosis for intensive system and
prostagonimosis for small households;
- granulomatous lymphobursitis in: coligranulomatosis,
tuberculosis, mycosis;
115
- tumors; in lymphoid leukosis the stock market is very large, with
the thick wall and slowness on the section; can reach the weight of 100
grams.
2.2.18. Evisceration and examination of the kidneys and

suprarenal glands
The suprarenal glands appear as two granular, pyramidal and

orange-shaped formations located at the apical pineal of the kidneys. They
will be eviscerated only for histological examinations.
The kidneys eviscerate from the kidneys, dividing the large vessels
and nerves. A longitudinal incision is executed in each lobe. (3, 6)
2.2.19. Lesions of the kidneys
- uric nephrosis, the kidneys appear enlarged in volume, painted

with whitish spots, looks like a bunch of eggs, appears in the viscera gout;
(Figure 1.12)
- interstitial lymphohistiocular nephritis occurs in salmonellosis
and infectious bronchitis;
- granulomatous nephritis is observed in coligranulomatosis and
aspergillosis. (14, 30, 34)
2.2.20. Evisceration and examination of the lungs
116
Lungs are taken off from the intercostal spaces, starting from their
posterior edge. Then the trachea is cut before the bifurcation in the two
main bronchi. Slicing and diluting their serous bonds with the cavity walls,
the pulps are extracted from the corpse and examined according to the
classical methodology. (3, 6)
2.2.21. Lesions of the lungs
- active pulmonary congestion (the pulmonary appears in volume,

red red, blood is expressed on the surface of the surface, the docimasia is
negative), it occurs in the microclimate deficiency and in the initial phase of
the inflammation;
- pulmonary edema (lean lung, gray color, sparkling fluid on the
section, docimasia between two waters); occurs in: ANTU intoxication, salt
intoxication, acute avian cholera, colibacillosis;
- haemorrhagic bronchopneumonia in the pseudoptera;
- fibrinous bronchopneumonia in chronic cholera and
mycoplasmosis;
- lymphohistiocitar bronchopneumonia in salmonellosis (puloric
nodules);
117
- granulomatous bronchopneumonia in chickens aspergillosis;
- tumors, nodular appearance or as diffuse gray areas in leukosis and
Marek's disease; (14, 30, 34)
2.2.22. Examination of thyroid, parathyroid and thymus

glands
Thyroids appear as two red-faced formulas, 0.25-0.5 cm long

oocytes placed on the common carotid artery cranial artery toward the point
of emergence of subclavicular arteriovenous trunks at the entrance to the
toraco-abdominal cavity. (3, 6)
The parathyroids are very small in size, 1mm in diameter and
yellow in color, placed at the caudal pole of the thyroid, intimately attached
to or spaced from them up to 0.5cm.
Thyroids and parathyroids do not provide diagnostic links to the
necropsy exam and these glands are harvested only for histological
examination. (3, 6)
Thymus is a maximally-developed lymph node organ in puberty,
then regresses, but does not disappear completely. Thyroid injuries are
therefore related to young age In chickens the thymus consists of two
symmetric chains of seven lobes placed along the jugular veins; can be
examined very well in situ immediately after the skin of the cervical area.
(3, 6)
118
2.2.23. Lesions of the thymus:
- accidental involution (of stres) is caused by stressful factors,

hypothypsy, cachexia;
- uric dystrophy in the visceral gout;
- fibrinoid and mucoid dystrophies in mycoplasmosis and
colibacillosis;
- necrotic thymitis in clostridiossis;
- lymphohistiocytar thymitis in salmonellosis;
- tumoral hyperplasia of thymic lobules in leucosis and Marek's
disease.
2.2.24. Examination of the bucal cavity
The scissors are inserted into the beak commissions, and all the
anatomical formations in the lateral walls of the buco-pharyngeal cavity are
deeply cut. Examine the oral cavity by gently pressing the floor of the
cavity with your finger. (3, 6)
2.2.25. Lesions of the bucal cavity:
119
- bucal necrosis (especially at the tip of the tongue) occurs in burns,
fusariotoxicosis and black tongue syndrome (PP avitaminosis);
- fibrinous stomatitis occurs in: candidiasis, pseudopesty, the
bucolarian location of avian smallpox, pigeon trichomonasis.
2.2.26 Examination of the esophagus and the goose
The esophagus and the goose open all the way, following their
topography, volume, content, appearance of the mucosa after removal of
food deposits. (3, 6)
2.2.27. Lesions of the esophagus and goose:
- corneous metaplasia of the esophagus submucosa glands, which

form in the form of a first translucent node and later whitish and hard on
palpation; the lesion occurs in hippocampus A of the chickens;
- fibrinous esophagitis is present in candidiasis, pseudopesty,
variole, trichomonasis, as a continuation of mucosal inflammation;
- fibrinohemorrhagic esophagitis in the duodenum;
- obstruction (pulping goose) is caused by various foreign bodies as
well as too concentrated fodder;
- goose ptosis (pendulous goose); the guinea pigs appear dilated and
fall below normal; the lesion is caused by hyperglucid feeding and favoring
120
yeast fermentations; as a result of the gas accumulations, the walls of the
bush and the supporting muscles are detached;
- necrotic ingluvitis into quick lime intoxications;
- fibrinous ingluvitis in candidosis and hippovitaminosis A by
chickens, variola by turkeys, aspergillosis by chickens, capilariosis by hens
and pheasants.
In appreciation of the goose lesions by pigeon, it is to be taken into
account that, starting with the eighth day of clotting, both in females and
males, there is an epithelial hyperplasia of the mucous membrane and
hypersecretion of lipid-albumin metabolites. These, together with the
desquamated epithelium, accumulate at the surface of the mucosa as a
grungy paste, also called "pigeon milk", the only source of chickens
nutrition in the first three weeks of life. (14, 30, 34)
2.2.28. Examination of the trachea
The trachea is opened and examined from the laringotracheal

opening to the site of emergence of the main bronchi, where it was cross-
sectioned for pulmonary evisceration. (3, 6)
2.2.29. Lesions of the trachea
- haemorrhagic laryngotracheitis: acute infectious

laryngotracheitis, singamosis, pseudoptera;
121
- fibrinous laryngotracheitis occurs in: difteriovariol (subacute-
chronic forms), hippocytaminosis A, candidosis, aspergillosis. In avian
difterovario, it is manifested by the appearance of a fibrin plug that
obliterates the laryngotracheal opening and causes death of the bird by
asphyxiation.
2.2.30. Opening and examining the nasal cavities and the

infraorbital sinus
Cross the top of the beak at its base crosswise, then examine the
dorsal and ventral corneas and the nasal septum. If the section is slightly
oblique, the infra-red sinus can also open.
Rhinitis and sinusitis have a high incidence by birds being
determined by very varied pathogens. It is of practical importance rhinitis
and fibrinous sinusitis that occur in avian smallpox in oculonasal location,
in haemophilic cortis, mycoplasmosis, chronic avian cholera. (3, 6)
2.2.31. Opening of the cranial cavity, evisceration and

examination of the encephalus
122
For crossing, a cross section is practiced by the front bone that joins
the rear angles of the orbits and two lateral sections spaced 2 cm apart and
parallel, caudally oriented to the supraoccipital ridge. With the scissors used
as a lever, the hood rises from the front. After an in situ examination of the
meninges and the encephalus, it is eviscerated starting from its cranial
portion, by cutting the optical chisma, cranial nerve roots and bulb at its
caudal extremity. (3, 6)
2.2.32. Lesions of the encephalus:
- chickens encephalomalacia - produced by deficiency in vitamin E

and selenium, a slight rash of the nerve substance occurs;
- fibrinous and purulent meningoencephalitis in duck
pasteurellosis;
- granulomatous encephalitis in: tuberculosis, coligranulomatosis,
generalized mycosis.
Generally, the lesions listed above have rare macroscopic
manifestations, requiring histological examination.
2.2 33. Evisceration and examination of the eyeball
123
Separate the conjunctiva, the muscles of the eyeball and the optic
nerve, extract and immerse the organ in 5% formol for 12-24 hours. With
very fine instruments, the eyeball is segmented in a sagittal plane. (3, 6)
2.2.34. Lesions of the eyeballs
- fibrinous conjunctivitis, keratitis and panophthalmia from the

oculo-nasal location of avian smallpox, hemophilia, mycoplasmosis and
chronic cholera;
- depigmentation of the iris and change in pupil shape (sometimes
unilateral) occur in the ocular location of Marek's disease.
2.2.35. Examination of the peripheral nervous system
By chickens it can examinated in situ the brachial plexus after the

evisceration of the lungs and the sciatic nerves through the dissection of the
last intermuscular space of the thigh. (3, 6)
2.2.36. Lesions of the peripheral nervous system
- edema of the brachial and lumbosacral plexuses in the riboflavin

deficiency in chickens;
124
- irregular tumor thickening in the trunk site of Marek's disease.
(14, 27, 30, 34)
2.2.37. Examination the locomotor apparatus
The examination of the locomotor apparatus begins with the

examination of the sternocostal sternocostal sternum in order to open the
toracoabdominal cavity and is continued with the inspection, palpation and
cutting of the bones, depending on the anamnestic data and the unfolding of
the necropsy examination up to this point. Open joints that appear deformed
or raised in volume. (3, 6)
2.2.38. Lesions of the locomotor apparatus:
- deviation of the sternal hull, accompanied by swelling of the inter-

and chondro-articular joints, is a lesion of youth rickets and osteomalacia of
laying hens;
- exaggerated softening of the tibia by chickens occurs in rickets,
the lesion motivating it as its "soft-bone disease";
- hemorrhagic and purulent arthritis in staphylococcus,
streptococci, chronic salmonellosis, cholera;
- hyperplasic arthritis in avian gout localized joint and tuberculosis;
- atrophy of sternal muscles (amyotrophy) in cahexia, hypothypsy,
chronic diseases, gout; (Figure 1.13)
125
- sternal myodistrophy in white muscular disease (Figure 1.14) (14,
30, 34)
2.2.39. Examination of the pancreas and digestive tract
The gastrointestinal exam begins with the opening of the glandular

portion of the stomach (proventricle) along it. After careful examination of
the glandular portion, the muscular portion opens on its large curve.
Remove the contents and examine the integrity and color appearance of the
cuticle. It takes off, appreciating the degree of adhesion to the mucosa, the
color and integrity of the mucosa as well as the thickness of the muscular
layer of the wall. (3, 6)
The intestine opens along its entire length on its small curvature.
The intestinal tube diameter, color, wall thickness, pathological deposits at
the surface of the intestinal mucosa will be listed. It is often used for
diagnostic purposes to determine the intestinal pH or the parasitological
examination directly between the blade and the blade of the intestinal
contents or the mucous scalp. (3, 6)
2.2.40. Lesions of the pancreas:
- haemorrhages in toxicosis and some infectious diseases such as

ducks pest;
- necrosis in: cahexia, hippovitaminosis, chlamidosis;
- pancreas tumors appear in sarcomatosis. (14, 30, 34)
126
2.2.41. Lesions of the digestive tract:
Proventricular lesions:
- haemorrhagic proventriculitis is observed in the avian

pseudopesta, in the form of two circular bleeding bands at the entrance and
exit of the proventric. The lesion also occurs in infectious bursitis and in
hippovitaminosis K; (Fig.1.15)
- fibrinous proventriculitis occurs in: candidiasis, aspergillosis,
capilariosis, pseudoptera;
- lymphohistiocitar proventriculitis, with uniform thickening of the
wall, occurs in adenovirosis of broilers;
- parasitic proventriculitis occurs in parasitic infestations with
Tetrameres, Capillaria;
- nutritional proventriculitis is produced from rough, aristocratic
fodder, molded fodder; inflammation is initially bloody, then fibrinous and
eventually hyperplasic;
- traumatic proventriculitis occurs as a result of the penetration of
sharp bodies in the organ wall;
- granulomatous proventriculitis occurs in coligranulomatosis and
tuberculosis;
127
- tumors of the glandular stomach, found in Marek's disease or
lymphoid leukosis, are manifested by the over-thickening of the wall, which
has a slanted appearance on the section. (14, 30, 34)
Muscle stomach lesions:
- green pigmentation of food and cuticle appears in pseudomonasis

and long-term starvation by bile pigmentation;
- necrosis and cuticle erosions occur in Fusobacterium
necrophorum infection and in serious deficiencies;
- mucosal haemorrhages in pseudopest;
- atrophy of the muscular, with thinning of the wall, appears as an
inactivity atrophy in the case of fodder feeding with too fine triturates;
- Zenker type wax necrosis occurs in hippovitaminosis E and in
hypo-islenose;
- ventriculitis appear in the same forms and the same aetiology as
the proventriculite. (14, 20, 30, 34
Intestins lesions:
- topographic changes are caused by massive parasitosis, toxic feed

or inflammation;
- intestinal inflammation - enteritis, are varied as morphological
forms and have diverse etiology;
- necrotic enteritis in Clostridium perfringens infections;
128
- haemorrhagic enteritis in: coccidiosis, pseudoptera, parvovirosis
of geese;
- diffuse haemorrhagic typhlitis in coccidiosis; (Fig.1.16)
- dipteroide enteritis in avian pseudopesta;
- lymphohistiocitar typhloproctitis in salmonellosis;
- granulomatous enteritis in tuberculosis, coligranulomatosis,
aspergillosis and tensy;
- intestinal tumors are found in Marek's disease, leucosis and with
serous superficial localization in avian sarcoma. (14, 27, 30, 34)
Fig. 1.1.CUTANEOUS Fig.1.2 SWELLING OF THE

EXANTHEMA (VARIOLIC) (original A. PLUMIFER FOLLICLES
Stancu) (after Moreland 2009)
129
Fig.1.3.FIBRINOUS Fig.1.4. STERNAL AMYOTROPHY
AEROSACULITIS (original A. Stancu) (original A. Stancu)
Fig.1 5. STERNAL Fig.1.6. FIBRINOUS

MYODISTROPHY (original A. Stancu) PERIHEPATITIS (original A. Stancu)
130
Fig. 1.7. GRANULOMATOUS HEPATITIS – Fig. 1.8. NECROTIC HEPA
TBC (after Moreland 2009) LARGE OUTBREAKS (after More
Fig.1.9. NECROTIC HEPATITIS IN MILLIAR Fig.1.10. HAEMORRHAGIC

(original A. Stancu) (original A. Stancu
131
Fig.1.11 PROLIFERATIV OOFORITIS Fig.1.12. NEFROSIS AND URI
(after Moreland 2009) (original A. Stancu
Fig. 1.13. HAEMORRHAGIC Fig. 1.14. HAEMORRHAGIC

PROVENTRICULITIS (original A. Stancu) DIFUSEE TIFLITIS (original A. Stancu)
132
3. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN SWINE DISEASES
After the corpse is recorded and the anamnestic data is taken, the
general examination of the corpse is carried out. The state of maintenance,
the color of the mucous membranes and the appearance of the body's natural
holes are appreciated. (3, 6)
3.1. Exterior exam
Frequently, skin erythema or red skin appearance due to overloading

dermal blood vessels is noted. Appearance is more obvious in the ears and
abdomen. The causes of erythema are multiple and include septicemic
infections such as rubella, salmonellosis, streptococcus and pest. Cutaneous
133
localized erythema in the mammary gland occurs at the site of the
mammary area. Ventral cutaneous erythema may be produced by irritating
agents such as urine, cousin, disinfectants or a frozen floor. Cutaneous
eritem associated with subcutaneous edema is a feature of sunburn with or
without the association of exogenous photosensitising factors.
Skin cyanosis is expressed as a red-bluish skin color resulting from
the loading of vessels with poorly oxygenated blood, asphyxia, or
thrombosis of dermal vessels. Frequently occurs in hypoxic conditions
secondary to respiratory or cardiovascular failure, in the case of dead
animals for several hours, cyanosis can not be distinguished from erythema.
The jaundice can be seen in the case of leptospirosis, and in the case
of adult ascaris suum migration in the coledoc channel.
Cutaneous parasitic infestations in pigs include sarcoptic worm,
demodecal worm, lice and fleas. Sarcoptic scab is the most common pork
parasitism in the world.
Cutaneous viral diseases include vesicular diseases, such as foot-
and-mouth disease, vesicular exanthema, vesicular stomatitis and swine
vesicular disease. Diseases are difficult to diagnose clinically and
morphopathologically, so laboratory examinations are needed. Variola
especially affects young piglets, often not affecting pigs in fat and adults.
Subcutaneous abscesses can often be observed in the external
examination of the corpses and may develop in enzootic form in certain
flocks. The most common pathogen in these abscesses is Corynebacterium
pyogenes, the creosum being creamy, yellowish.
134
Ear necrosis are frequent injuries to fattening pigs. Etiology is
attributed to traumas, frequent bites, infected with Staphylococcus hyicus
and beta-hemolytic streptococcs.
Dermatophytes occur frequently in adult pigs and are more easily
identified in areas with unpigmented skin. The most common etiological
agent of dermatophytes is Microsporum nanum. Pityriasis rosea affects
piglets in fattened and adult pigs but is a disease that self-diminishes and is
of no particular economic importance. The cause is unknown but a
hereditary predisposition is suspected. The lesions are easily observed, are
similar to those in the microsporosis and are located in the abdomen and the
inguinal area.
Parakeratosis is associated with pigs deficient in zinc but also with
other dietary factors, namely calcium, fatty acids and copper. Initial lesions
are located on the ventral side of the abdomen and the distal limb. The
surface of the skin is dry, rusty and granular, with crusts and crevices. (3, 6,
11, 12)
Hypotrepsy is characterized by a general underdevelopment

(diagnosed only in youth) and generalized hypotrophy, morphoclinically
translated by: general substate and underweight aspect, hirsutism,
subdimension of all organs and tissues except adrenal glands.
135
From the etiopathogenetic point of view, hypothypsy may be:
congenital and postnatal.
Postnatal hypothypsy (acquired) is the most important from a
practical point of view and has the following causes: early weaning,
undernutrition, policery, chronic infections, massive parasitic infestations.
By examining the general aspect, any defects of conformation,
constitution and aplombs can also be found. (14, 17, 30, 34)
3.1.2. Examination of the skin
The skin is examined mainly by inspection but also by palpation and

sectioning of the macroscopically modified areas. It will follow color,
deformations, elasticity.
3.1.3. Lesions of the skin:
- active congestion or erythema, localized or generalized, translates

into the red vivid color of the skin, and in the vitropress test, the cutaneous
area examined is recolorized instantaneously. The lesion precedes the
inflammatory phenomenon, occurs in various toxics, and is more specific to
the pig's red diseases: salmonellosis, pest, rujet; (Fig.2.1)
136
- passive congestion or cyanosis occurs in association with the
similar modification of the appearance of mucous membranes, consists of
their bluish-blue coloration and generally signals local hypoxia phenomena;
Both erythema and cyanosis will be distinguished from cadastral
hypostasis.
- skin haemorrhages in the pestilence, rabies poisoning and
mycotoxicosis, in isochimic thrombocytopenic purpura;
- hyperkeratosis is produced by hippocampi nosis A and is
manifested by the appearance of well-defined hyperkeratosis plates,
brownish-brown and hard to palpate;
- paracheratosis, a lesion considered specific to hypnosis, translates
into macroscopic aspects similar to those in hyperkeratosis, only that the
modified areas are soft at palpation;
- alopecia (hair loss) in newborns causes hypothyroidism in sows,
and in youth are incriminated policemen; (14, 15, 30, 34, 36)
3.1.4. Dermatitis
- photodermatosis or photosensitization dermatitis, occurring

primarily in animals depigmented following ultraviolet exposure, and the
animals were pre-fed buckwheat, buckwheat, lupine, lucerne, plants
containing photodynamic principles;
-the exsudative epidema of piglets produced by Staphylococcus
epidermidis;
137
- pustular dermatitis caused by streptococci;
- parasitic dermatitis seen in scabies, hematopoiesis and
characterized by areas of erythematous rash with hyperkeratosis and
subsequent crucifixes.
- Exantems are secondary dermatitis that occur in eruptive
infectious diseases and have a gradual evolution: poppy, papule, vesicle,
pustule and crust:
- rectangular urticariform exanthema in subacute ruffles;
- papulous exanthema in acute pustules;
- vesicular or vesiculo-erosive exanthema in foot-and-mouth
disease, vesicular stomatitis, vesicular exanthema and solanum intoxication;
- variolant exanthema in the porridge of the swine;
- haemorrhagic-necrotic varioloid exanthema in pestilence and
chronic salmonellosis;
- crust exanthema in chronic salmonellosis. (14, 26, 30, 34)
Dry gangrene is the most common variant of local skin
devitalization and is observable through depressed, sometimes depressing
areas, blacks, dry and hard to palpate. The common change in decaying
wounds, dry gangrene can also be observed in zearalenone intoxication and
in hyperrestricularism, with mammalian localization, in piglets.
138
3.1.5. Examination of apparent mucouses
In the conjunctival mucosa, the thickness of the eyelids, the shape

of the palate, the color and the humidity of the mucosa, the state of fullness
of the vessels. It can be seen here: jaundice, mucosal palpitate in anemia,
hyperemia, punctual haemorrhages, and edema of eyelids in edema disease.
The bucal mucosa is examined at the level of the gingivolabial
lining, the entire cavity being examined after the evisceration of tongue and
pharynx. The oral mucosa may be anemic, jaundice, may present seizures or
erosions in eruptive virosis or ulcerative lesions in buccal diphtheria of
piglets produced by Fusobacterium necrophorum.(3,6)
The vestibular and vaginal mucosa in females is examined, preputial
in the male.
3.1.6. Skinning and examination of subcutaneous conjunctive

tissue
On the body placed in the dorsal position, the skin is cut on the
median line of the ventral face, from the intermandibular space to the anal
opening; section doubles in "melon slice" at the navel, foreskin, vulva and
anal opening. Four sections, perpendicular to the first, are then made on the
internal limb to the metacarpal and metatarsal joints. Skinning is done as
carefully as possible, and any underlying pathological formations will be
left in the body. (3, 6)
139
3.1.7. Lesions of the subcutaneous conjunctive tissue:
- serum generalized edema of subcutaneous connective tissue

appears in edema disease, ferritic anemia and heart failure;
- serohemorrhagic edema with peripheral localization occurs in
glosantrax;
- the yellow coloration of the s.c.t. - jaundice - occurs in ascaridosis,
leptospirosis, phosphorus intoxication;
- siderosis: rust coloration of subcutaneous connective tissue and
external lymph nodes is the result of overdose of iron-based antianemic
preparations;
- subcutaneous abscesses with a creamy yellowish-green powder
appear in piobacillosis. (14, 30, 34)
3.2. Examination of the inside
3.2.1. Opening and examination of the abdominal and

peritoneal cavity
A buttonhole is executed in the abdominal wall, behind the

xenophoid appendix of the sternum and under digital control, the ventral
140
wall of the cavity is cut to the ischialopic symphysis. In the youth, the
incision will bypass the navel. This first section is completed with two
lateral sections that run on the edge of the hypoconduter until near the
lumbar transverse processes. The wall of the cavity will be cut into two
triangular flaps that laterally flow.
A general examination of the abdominal cavity is performed,
following: the topography of the cavity organs, particular odors released at
the opening of the cavity, the appearance of the seros, the pathological
collections, the pathological formations that are interested in the walls of the
cavity or serous. (3, 6)
3.2.2. Lesions of the peritoneal cavity
Before opening the chest cavity, the diaphragm will be examined

and its integrity, elasticity, convex or concave shape will be noted.
The thoracic cavity will open through two symmetrical lateral
sections that go from the transverse lumbar process to the caudal and
slightly oblique to the middle of the first pair of ribs. The section will be
initially drawn with a knife in the muscles on the outer chest box face and
then executed with the costotom. After cutting the diaphragm from the
hypocondral arc and the sternal insertion of the pericardial sac, the
sternocostal plaster will be lifted. An organ topography examination is
performed in the thoracic cavity, and eventual pathological collections or
formations will be observed. (3, 6)
141
3.2.3. Open and examinination the chest cavity and pleural cavities
Before opening the chest cavity, the diaphragm will be examined

and its integrity, elasticity, convex or concave shape will be noted.
The thoracic cavity will open through two symmetrical lateral
sections that go from the transverse lumbar process to the caudal and
slightly oblique to the middle of the first pair of ribs. The section will be
initially drawn with a knife in the muscles on the outer chest box face and
then executed with the costotom. After cutting the diaphragm from the
hypocondral arc and the sternal insertion of the pericardial sac, the
sternocostal plaster will be lifted. An organ topography examination is
performed in the thoracic cavity, and eventual pathological collections or
formations will be observed. (3, 6)
3.2.4. Lesions of the chest cavity
- pneumothorax: penetration of air into the chest cavity following

penetrating wounds;
- hemotorax: in severe trauma, with breakage of large vessels;
- fibrinous pleurisy is a common lesion in subacute-chronic
pasteurellosis, haemophilia, streptococci, Glässer's disease;
- purulent pleuresy: in piobacillosis;
142
- fibroadezivous pleurisy is characterized by welding pleural
effusions through connective tissue, as a result of the exudative pleurates
described above;
- granulomatous pleurisy is seen in tuberculosis and mycosis. (14,
18, 26, 29, 33)
3.2.5. Opening and examination of the pericardial cavity
Take the tip of the pericardial bag with a surgical punch and jump to
the examiner. With the scissors, a break is made before the twist and then
two incisions in the "V" with the opening to the base of the cord. The upper
lamella reflects forward and examines possible pathological collections or
deposits at the surface of the epicardium. (3, 6)
3.2.6. Lesions of the pericardial cavity:
-hemopericardium - in the pig's dietary microangiopathy;

- fibrinous pericarditis in Glässer's disease, myoplasmosis and
pasteurellosis;
- purulent pericarditis in piobacillosis;
- fibroadeziv pericarditis as a chronic form of exsudative
inflammation of the pericardium. (14, 26, 30, 34)
143
3.2.7. Evisceration and examination of buccal-cervico-
thoracic organs
The bucco-cervico-thoracic organs (tongue, pharynx, larynx,

esophagus, trachea, descending aorta, caudal caudal vein, heart and lung)
are extracted in a single block. This block also includes thymus, thyroid and
parathyroid. For primary evisceration deep sections are made in the floor of
the mouth, on the internal face of the mandible branches. With the fingers of
the left hand, the tongue engages and is drawn between the arms of the
mandible. By stretching the tongue behind and cutting the connective
tissues, the pharynx, larynx, esophagus and trachea rises until the chest
cavity enters. The lungs, the cord, the cavity lymph, the esophagus, the
descending aorta, and the caudal caudal to the diaphragm, where the tubular
organs (the esophagus) are cut between the two strands and the buccal
cavity are examined, then, according to usual techniques, the cord (detached
from to the block), lungs, tongue, pharynx, larynx, esophagus and trachea.
Thyroid, thyroid and parathyroid are also examined. (3, 6)
144
3.2.8. Lesions of the buccal cavity
- cataral stomatitis: as a gray deposit on the back of the buccal

mucosa, it can be caused by irritating, toxic, fermented foods;
- vesicular stomatitis: in foot-and-mouth disease, vesicular disease;
- diphtheroid stomatitis in oral diphria of piglets and candidiasis;
- lingual necrosis in fusariotoxicosis.
3.2.9. Lesions of the pharynx
- serous pharyngitis - in acute pasteurellosis;

- chrupal pharyngitis - in candidiasis;
- fibrinonetic pharyngitis - in diphtheria, plague, Aujeszki disease.
- haemorrhagonetic pharyngitis - in glosantrax;
- purulent pharyngitis - in piobacillosis;
- gangrenous pharyngitis - in the traumatization of caudal
pharyngeal diverticulum;
- granulomatous pharyngitis - in actinobacillosis.
Lesions of the oesophagus:
- oesophageal obstruction by ingestion of potatoes, earwax;

- crupal oesophagitis - in candidosis.
145
3.2.10. Lesions of the larynx
- bruising: in septicemic pasteurellosis;

- laryngeal edema - in heart disease, intoxication, anthrax;
- necrotic laryngotracheitis - in Aujeszky's disease.
3.2.11. Lesions of the heart
- cord tamponade produced in hydropericard, hemopericard and

chilopericard;
- cardiac hypertrophy in endocarditis, chronic nephritis, deficiency
in Fe or Cu;
- cardiac dilation - chronic pulmonary anemia, iron anemia and
dietary microangiopathy (deficiency in vitamin E and selenium); (Figure
2.2)
- serous atrophy of adipose tissue at the base of the heart - in
chronic diseases, multiple serious shortcomings;
- haemorrhages in special in the form of subendocardial suffusions
in dietary microangiopathy or "muriform heart disease", pest, anaerobic
enterotoxemia, intoxication, hippocytaminosis K; (Figure 2.3)
- granular, fatty and hyaline myocardiasis in hippocampinosis,
toxic conditions and some infectious diseases.
- parenchymal myocarditis - in piglets fever;
146
- purulent myocarditis - in piobacillosis;
- lymphohistiocitary myocarditis - in viral encephalomyocarditis;
- granulomatous myocarditis - in tuberculosis;
- parasitic myocarditis - in cysticercosis;
- endocardial calcification - in hypercalcaemia;
- ulcerovegetant endocarditis - in chronic tongue. (14, 26, 30, 34)
3.2.12. Lesions of the lungs:
- pulmonary atelectasis - may be congenital due to

morphophysiological immaturity, pulmonaries are reduced in volume and
weight, have a bluish stain, lacking luster, docimasia being positive or
acquired as a result of parasitic infestations or pathological collections in
the pleural cavity and is characterized by the presence of depression areas
that have a red cherry color, the docimasia being positive;
- active pulmonary congestion is caused by thermal shock,
hydropathology, vicious microclimate, long and tedious transports and
characterized by a bright red coloration of the lung, docimasia is negative;
(Figure 2.4)
- passive pulmonary congestion occurs in left heart failure, the
pulmonus has a red cherry colouration, and there is a red sour blood flow in
the section, the docimasia is between two waters;
147
- pulmonary edema occurs in ANTU or phosphogynx intoxication,
dietary microangiopathy, feripritis anemia, edema disease, acute
pasteurellosis, and is characterized by the presence of a whitish white liquid
similar to egg whites beating the pulmonary tissue, bronchi and bronchiole.
Surface of lung tissue is stretched. In the liquid color classification, it is
classified as edema of stasis if the liquid is bleached and inflammatory
edema if the liquid is reddish;
- pulmonary red infarction occurs in the onset of P.I.P. and
chrysanthemum and is characterized by the presence of compact, red-
cherry-black, dense, triangular form with a plexus-oriented base;
- catarrhal bronchopneumonia - is located in the cranial and medial
lobes. Depending on the evolutionary stage of the disease, they have a
uniform purple coloration, obvious lobular drawing, increased consistency
on the section, this aspect being characteristic of the onset phase, also called
the splenosis phase, then in longer forms the pulmonus gets a grayish- , the
consistency is increased, the lobular drawing well highlighted. This phase is
also called the pancreatizing phase. It occurs in the enzootic pneumonia of
the pig; (Figure 2.5)
- necrotic bronchopneumonia - as a result of buccal buccal necrosis
of the piglets, characterized by the presence of well-defined necrosis
outbreaks;
- haemorrhagiconecrotic bronchopneumonia - with dorsal dentist
localization in Aujeszky's disease, in the form of interlobulous bursitis in
148
the pestilence, in the form of icteric infestations in leptospirosis,
hepatopulmonary larval ascaridosis;
- purulent bronchopneumonia - in piobacillosis, in the form of
abscesses (apostomatotic) or diffuse (phlegmonous);
- gangrenous bronchopneumonia - as a result of aspiration of food,
medication, or pathological pathology in the airway;
- lymphohistocitar bronhopneumonia - high conserved carnation
areas located in the cranial and medial lobes, in the enzootic pneumonia of
the pig;
- granulomatous bronchopneumonia - presents in various ways
depending on the causative agent: infectious granulomas are adherent to
the pulmonary tissue and can be found in tuberculosis, actinobacillosis,
brucellosis, parasite granulomas are well contoured and can be compact in
metastrongilosis, ascaridosis and cystic echinococcosis ;
- fibrinous bronchopneumonia as a chronicle of acute
bronchopneumonia. (14, 22, 26, 30, 34)
3.2.13. Lesions of the thymus
- as a more frequent lesion, an accidental involution occurs in

hypothypsy, parasite infections and invasions.
149
3.2.14. Lesions of the thyroid
- can be observed: metastatic calcification, colloid goose,

thyroiditis, tumors.
3.2.15. Lesions of the parathyroids
- parathyroids hyperplasia is found in rickets hippovitaminosis P,

nephropathy in adults.
3.2.16. Evisceration and examination of the spleen
The spleen is slightly detached, being placed along the last two ribs
on the left side, venting the hypocordium about 6 cm and coming in contact
with the left side of the stomach. (3, 6)
150
3.2.17. Lesions of the spleen
- spleen congestion - is diagnosed when spontaneous blood appears

on the sectional surface, precedes the inflammation;
- marginal red infarcts - in classical plague; (Fig.2.8)
- haemorrhagic splenitis (acute infectious): the spleen has a
generalized red color and a rubbery consistency; occurs in acute tongue and
streptococci;
- purulent splenitis - in piobacillosis;
- lymphohistiocitar splenitis - in subacute salmonellosis - chronic;
- granulomatous splenitis - in tuberculosis, brucellosis,
echinococcosis.
Tumors of the spleen seen in leucosis.
3.2.18. Evisceration of the gastrointestinal tract
For the correct evisceration of the post-diaphragmatic digestive tract,

four double bonds will be applied: on the cardia, on the duodenum flexure
(at  10 cm from the pyloric hole), on the ileon (a few inches ahead of the
ileocecal valve) and on the rectum as close as possible to the anus.
After dividing the tube between the double bonds and dilaceration of
the large mesenter, three blocks will be drawn: the large intestine with the
rectum, colon, cecum and the ileocecal bile, the ileum with the ileum: the
151
jejunum and the duodenum and the stomach with the duodenum and the
pancreas. Before the last block is lifted, the duodenum will be opened at 
2-3 cm behind the pelvis and the permeability of the coledocal canal will be
determined by mild pressure on the gallbladder. (3, 6)
3.2.19. Evisceration and examination of the liver, gall

bladder and liver lesions
The liver is examined according to the usual technique.
Lesions of the liver:
- hepatic steatosis (fatt hepatosis): the liver is lightly bulging,

brownish-yellow in color, friable consistency, traces of fat remain on the
blade of the knife. The lesion occurs in prolonged stasis, intoxications,
especially in the ocratoxicosis of infant piglets; (Fig.2.9)
- dietetic hepatosis: the liver has a rusty color, the obvious lobular
drawing, pickled with necroses and milking hemorrhages, on the section
surface has a dry granular appearance. The lesion in hippovitaminosis E (in
association with hypocellosis) is observed;
- milliar necrosis can be observed in Aujeszky's disease and in
chronic poisoning with pesticide;
- parenchymatous hepatitis or toxic acute gives the liver the
appearance of a boiled organ identical to that of the fallopianal autolysis and
will therefore only be diagnosed on fresh corpses. It is the result of
intoxications;
152
- necrotic hepatitis may manifest in two forms: necrotic hepatitis in
small outbreaks (milliar) in salmonellosis produced by toxigenic strains;
necrotic hepatitis in large (necrotizing) outbreaks occurs in infections with
Clostridium perfringens (Fig.2.10)
- purulent hepatitis (apostematomatous) occurs in piobacillosis in
the form of large abscesses and in streptococci in the form of small stellate
abscesses;
- lymphohistiocitary hepatitis, manifested by the increase in volume
of the liver, sometimes with the appearance of very gray outbreaks, is a
lesion characteristic of salmonellosis;
- fibrous toxiinfectious hepatitis (cirrhosis) occurs in intoxications,
chronic infectious diseases, mycotoxicosis, chronically circulating
disorders. The liver is often reduced in volume, with the surface and the
increased consistency, and when the tissue is cut, the liver squeezes;
- fibrous (parasitic) interstitial hepatitis is macroscopically similar
to cirrhosis and is caused by hepatic migration of ascarids, esophagastomas
and cysticercus larvae; (Figure 2.11)
- cystic granulomatous hepatitis occurs in hydatidosis in the form of
cystic parasite granulomas.
Gall bladder can be found in calculi, asbestos clusters or edema of
the bladder wall that is present in transmissible gastroenteritis, dietary
microenchiectasis, dietetic hepatosis. (14, 23, 25, 26, 30)
153
3.2.20. Evisceration and examination of the suprarenal
glands
Placed at the craniomedial pole of the kidneys, with a slightly

elongated shape and slightly swollen in the pig, the adrenal glands rise
gently by taking off and disrupting the vascular connections; the
dimensions, the color, the consistency, the relationship between the cortical
and the medullary areas on the sectional surface will be noted. (3, 6)
3.2.21. Lesions of the suprarenal gland
- developmental disorders: agenesis, supernumerary glands;

- hypertrophy: in all stress states in their initial phase;
- cortical haemorrhages into poisoning.
3.2.22. Opening the pelvic cavity
It is practiced by large pigs and is carried out by cutting the pubic

and spinal muscles, on the one hand and the other on the symphysis of the
shiatopubiene, and by removing the median bone segment thus obtained. (3,
6)
154
3.2.23. Evisceration and examination of the urogenital
apparatus
If all the urinary tract is suspected, the kidneys eviscerate with the
ureters and the bladder, or even in a single uro-genital bloc.
Evisceration of the kidneys begins by cutting the supporting
fascicles and the parietal peritoneum that delineates the renal lobe and
continues with the cutting of the vascular and urinary bindings.
The bladder rises in a common or separate block. In both cases,
especially in the fullness of the bladder, the urethra will be cut between two
wires. (3, 6)
3.2.24. Lesions of the urinary system
- kidney abnormalities represented by unilateral agenesis,

congenital cysts (polycystic kidney), hydronephrosis;
- hydronephrosis is the accumulation of urine in the basin as a result
of the abnormal appearance of some ureter valves; the kidney appears as a
pouch with thin walls and full of urine;
- urinary retention cysts; (Fig.2.12)
- renal steatosis occurs in aflatoxicosis and ochratoxicosis of infant
piglets (in association with hepatosteatosis); (Fig.2.13)
155
- renal gout (guaninosis) is manifested by the appearance in the
basin of whitish protein deposits or just the appearance of some starchy
stones in the kidney papillary. It occurs in transmissible gastroenteritis
(TGE) of piglets as well as in renal morphological function caused by
inadequate diet of pregnant sows.
- renal haemorrhages is seen in severe lumbar trauma and in
warfarin intoxication;
- parenchymatous nephritis: the kidneys are pale, friable, boiled
organs. The lesion is the result of poisoning with copper sulphate,
phosphorus or phosphates;
- hemorrhagic interstitial nephritis (turkey egg aspect) or high
outbreaks may occur in rujets (glomerulonephritis) and in parasite,
salmonellosis and acute leptospirosis (interstitial haemorrhage); (Fig.2.14)
- kidney white infarction in swine pest; (Fig.2.15)
- purulent nephritis occurs in piobacillosis, streptococci or as a
metastasis of any purulent inflammation in the body;
- kidney abscess; (Fig.2.16)
- lymphohistiocitar interstitial nephritis, in the form of white
spotting, slowness, and on the section the presence of strips of the same hue,
is encountered in subacute-chronic leptospirosis; (Fig.2.17)
- granulomatous nephritis in the form of large, compact and
homogeneous nodules, in chronic bacteriosis and in the form of cysts in
hydatidosis;
156
- purulent pielitis is the purulent inflammation of the pelvis and
occurs as a result of the urinary propagation of genital infections in sows;
- vesicular haemorrhages can be observed in hay fever, ruffle,
wafarine intoxication;
- hemorrhagicopurulent cystitis is produced by Arcanobacterium
pyogenes and Streptococcus suis. (14, 26, 30, 35)
3.2.25. Lesions of the female genital apparatus
- genital tract hypoplasia in gilts with hormonal imbalances

generated by inadequate maintenance;
- endometrial atrophy is secondary to hypoestrogenism or
castration;
- endometrial hyperplasia is the result of hypererestrogenism caused
by poisoning with zearalenone;
- Topographic disorders of the uterus: torsion (twisting around its
own axis) and prolapse (exteriorization through the vulvar aperture) due to
placental retention, hypocalcemia, mycotoxicosis;
- purulent endometritis - as a result of placental retention;
- vulvovaginal edema in the first week of life is caused by
fusariotoxicosis;
157
3.2.26. Lesions of the male genital apparatus
- testicular hypoplasia is caused by serious, pre- and postnatal

eating disorders;
- hyperemia, edema and haemorrhage occur in testicular trauma;
- exudative orchitis (serous, haemorrhagic, purulent) appear as a
consequence of the traumas to which are added the infections with the
piogene germs;
- fibrous orchitis is the continuation of exudative orchits;
- granulomatous orchitis - in brucellosis of bulls. It occurs with the
appearance of outbreaks with a diameter of 1-3 cm, with caverification,
calcification or central purulent ramulation. (14, 19, 26, 30, 38)
3.2.27. Opening of the cranial cavity, evisceration and

examination of the encephalus
Opening of the cranial cavity can be preceded by decapitation.

Head detachment is done by sawing the upper cervical region at the
occipital joint. Afterwards, the head is fixed and the cranial cavity is
opened.
We recommend the decapitation without decapitation, the
intervention being more operative, and maintaining the links with the
cervical region ensuring the immobilisation of the head.
158
The opening of the cranial cavity is done by performing the
following sections in the bone wall:
- an anterior cross section on the line joining the posterior edges of
the frontal bone zygomatic apophyses (joining the posterior angles of the
orbits);
- two slightly convergent lateral sections, from the zygomatic
epiphyses to the lateral edges of the external occipital protuberance;
- a posterior transverse section in front of the external occipital
protuberance (parallel to the first section).
With the help of the chisel used as a lever, the calotte is removed
from the front and continuing to the occipital zone. Of the meningeal sheets,
duramater is usually attached to the inner face of the skull cap. After lifting
it and examining the remaining meningeal leaves (arahnoid and piamater)
they will be sectioned on the median line and the outer and posterior lines
through two incisions perpendicular to the first. The lamellae will turn
laterally. The encephalus will be examined in situ, then eviscerated from its
cranial portion: the fingers of the left hand are inserted under the frontal
lobes and the olfactory bulbs, and the optical nerves, the pituitary and the
hemispheres, the bulb and the cerebellum are cut with the scissors. The
encephalus is placed on a tray and examined immediately or after a 10%
formalin fixation for several hours. (3, 6)
159
3.2.28. Lesions of the encephalus
- meningoencephalic haemorrhages caused by serious cranio-

cerebral trauma, warfarin intoxication, classical pain;
- cerebral edema occurs in edema disease and intoxication. It is
manifested by a wet, glossy appearance of the encephalus and a deletion of
the cerebral grooves, which is hardly distinct from that of the cadaveric
autolysis;
- purulent meningitis, manifested by the occurrence of abscesses in
the nervous mass, is a lesion found in piobacillosis, salmonellosis,
listeriosis, streptococci, and intoxication with salt
- granulomatous encephalitis - in tuberculosis;
- parasitic encephalitis - in parasitic invasions of cysticercus and
sarcosporids.
The most important inflammation is lymphohistochemical
meningoencephalitis in neurotrophic and pantropic viroids, but they are
diagnosed only by histopathological examination.
3.2.29. Opening of the rahidian canal, evisceration and

examination of the spinal marrow
Workmanship is very laborious and requires a special instrument, so

it will be executed when an anamnesis imposes it. As with the encephalus, a
160
prefixation of a few hours is required, and then the cross sections are
executed through the regions of interest. (3, 6)
3.2.30. Opening and examination of the nasal cavities
After the incision of the soft tissues with the knife, a cross section
through the jaw is practiced in the plane of the first molar. The inspection
begins with the nasal septum, whose aspects are of particular importance to
the pig, then examines the aspects of the nasal cornea, the particularities of
the mucosa, the aspect of the surface deposits.
3.2.31. Lesions of the nasal and sinus cavity
- catarrhal rhinitis manifests with a congestive aspect of the mucosa

and the accumulation at its surface of a filthy yellowish-gray deposit. Due to
its similarity to mucosal carcass autolysis, it will only be diagnosed with
fresh corpses. Inflammation is caused by cold air streams in shelters,
disinfection in the presence of animals, contamination of air in the shelter
with mice, influenza, pest, infections with Pasteurella multocida and
Bordetella bronchiseptica;
- vesicular rhinitis - in the vesicular stomatitis of the pig;
- hemorrhagiconecrotic rhinitis - caused by trauma;
161
- dipheroid rhinitis (fibrinonerotic) - in Fusobacterium
necrophorum infection;
- purulent rhinitis produced by piogene germs of the genus
Arcanobacterium, Streptococcus, Pseudomonas;
- granulomatous rhinitis - in mycosis and tuberculosis;
- atrophic rhinitis, most important, is produced by Bordetella
bronchiseptica, most often in association with Pasteurella multocida. The
disease starts with a cataraural or purulent inflammation that is followed by
nasal corneal atrophy, nasal septal deflection, and later of the rat (crooked
sickness);
- sinusitis is the following inflammation of the nasal cavities and
mouth mucosa.
3.2.32. Evisceration and examination of the eyeballs
For the enucleation of the ocular globules, the musculomembranous

structures of the upper eyelid are initially cut for their discovery. The
conjunctiva, the muscles and the optic nerve and retro-ocular connective
tissue will then be sectioned.
It is recommended that the eyeball be prefixed in 10% formol or 4%
acetic acid for 24 hours and then examined by cutting it in a sagittal or
equatorial plane with a fine and sharp knife. (3, 6)
162
3.2.33. Examination the locomotor apparatus
Examination and lesions of the muscles
The volume of muscles, color, consistency, moisture on the surface

and on the sectional area will be followed.
3.2.34. Lesions of the muscles
- congenital hypoplasia: pigs are underweight at birth. It is caused

by stress, choline deficiencies and methionine, fusariotoxicosis;
- muscular atrophy occurs in policing, chronic diseases, as an
atrophy of inactivity in myelitis and neuritis;
- myodistrophy of nutrition: white, dry, white (white muscles
disease) areas appear in the muscle masses. The lesion is caused by
hipovitaminosis E and hyposelenose;
- stress-myopathy (PES) is common in adults and is manifested by
the discoloration and flaccidity of rich muscle masses at  48 hours after
sacrifice in slaughterhouses. It is caused by stress, especially by transport
stress and the brutalisation of animals before slaughter;
- jaundice - yellowing of the muscles, occurs in hemolyzing diseases
such as leptospirosis, intraglobular parasitis;
163
- siderosis - rust staining of the muscle region where injections of
iron-based anti-anemic preparations are given if they are overdosed;
-gas gangrene occurs in swine malignant edema. Muscle masses are
bulging, red-black, palpable, burette-like on the section;
- serous and fibrinous myositis have a traumatic etiology;
- purulent myositis, phlegmonous or aposteomatosic myositis is
produced by Arcanobacterium. pyogenes.
- eosinophilic myositis produced by parasites occurs in the
abdominal muscles in the form of green striae;
- granulomatous myositis occurs in tuberculosis, brucellosis,
actinobacillosis and in many parasitoses: trichinellosis, ascaridosis,
sarcocytosis, hydatidosis.
3.2.35. Examination and lesions of the joints
The degree of mobility and size is appreciated, after which the joint
is opened by cutting the capsule. The particularities of the synovial
membrane, the thickness of the capsule, the synovial fluid, and possible
pathological collections are appreciated. (3, 6)
164
3.2.36. Lesions of the joints
-coxofemural dezmorexia is observed in very heavy animals after

landslides. It is manifested by femoral head rupture, detachment of the
capsular ligament, haemorrhages in the articular cavity and in the adjacent
muscle masses;
- the erosions and ulcers of the joint head are seen in rickets,
osteofibrosis, rubella arthritis, piobacillosis and streptococci;
- serofibrinous arthritis occurs in rubella, myoplasmosis and
haemophilia;
- fibrinohaemorrhagic arthritis occurs in the form of polyarthritis in
pasteurellosis;
- purulent arthritis - in piobacillosis and brucellosis.
3.2.37. Examination and lesions of the bones
- fractures with traumatic etiology;

- chondroestal osteodestrophy; (Figure 2.18)
- congenital porphyria of piglets, translated by brown coloration of
the bones;
- serous and fibrinous osteitis have a traumatic etiology;
- purulent osteomyelitis, more frequent in Landrace pigs, is pricked
by Arcanobacterium pyogenes and Fusobacterium necrophorum;
165
- tumor hyperplasia of bone marrow, which appears as a lean meal,
occurs in leukosis of the swine in 90% of cases.
3.3.38. Lesions of the bones
- fractures with traumatic etiology;

- chondrocostal osteodestrophy; (Figure 2.18)
- congenital porphyria of piglets, translated by brown coloration of
the bones;
- serous and fibrinous osteitis have a traumatic etiology;
- purulent osteomyelitis, more frequent in Landrace pigs, is pricked
by Arcanobacterium pyogenes and Fusobacterium necrophorum;
- tumoral hyperplasia of bone marrow, which appears as a lean
meal, occurs in leukosis of the swine in 90% of cases.
3.2.39. Examination of the pancreas
The pancreas is examined by inspection, palpation and sectioning.
166
3.2.40. Lesions of the pancreas
- punctual haemorrhages occur in coumarin or strictin poisoning as

well as in haemorrhagic diathesis;
- hemorrhagico-necrotic pancreatitis is produced by the migration
of ascaride larvae;
- lymphohistiocitary pancreatitis with gray milky outbreaks occurs
in the plague.
3.2.41. Examination of the gastrointestinal tract
After the external examination of the serous, the stomach and

intestine open on the small curve, squeezes the food contents and examines
the mucosa. (3, 6)
3.2.42. Lesions of the stomach
- gaseous distension: in candidosis with acute evolution;

- gastroesophageal ulcer caused by hyperacidity, faintness, stress
occurs in the area of the heart as a 3-4 cm excavation of brown color. It
167
complicates with gastroragia and melena, sometimes with hemoperitoneum
and stercotonic peritonitis; (Figure 2.19)
- serous gastritis in the form of an edematous wall infiltration that is
thickened and gelatinous; occurs in edema disease;
- catarrhal gastritis - observe in acute tingling;
- haemorrhagic, diffuse or focal gastritis, occurring in the
pestilence, salmonellosis, anaerobic enterochimia, pig dysentery;
- dipteroide gastritis is found in the plague, salmonellosis,
treponemosis, necrobacillosis, candidosis;
- purulent gastritis - in piobacillosis.
- granulomatous gastritis - in chronic mycosis.
3.2.43. Lesions of the intestine
- congenital anomalies: anal imperfration, megacolon;

- topographic changes - are the consequence of irrigation, motility,
neurovegetative tonus, inflammation and trauma. They are represented by
invasion, torsion, cecum retroflex, volvulus. Evolves with venous stasis →
infarction → wet gangrene → stercular peritonitis;
- dilatation and transparency of the jejunum wall is encountered in
GET, but also in overactive anaerobic enterotoxia or candidiasis;
- catarrhal -haemorrhagic duodenitis - in colibacilosis;
- haemorrhagic colitis occurs in the plague, salmonellosis,
treponemic dysentery; (Fig.2.20; 2.21)
168
- diphtheroidic tiflocolitis, evolves in two forms: diffuse - in
salmonellosis and treponemosis; in outbreaks - peaty buds - in pestilence
(the first localization in the ileocecal valvule) and in balantidiosis.
(Fig.2.22)
- nodular colitis: seen in the colon wall by external examination.
Translucent nodules with 1 mm diameter (Pepey hyperplasia plaques) are
observed. The lesion occurs following various irritations of the intestinal
mucosa: parasites, salmonellosis, coarse fodder.
Fig. 2.1 CUTANEOUS ERYTHEMA Fig.2.2. CONDRO

(after Moreland 2009) OSTEODYSTROPH
(original A. St
169
Fig. 2.3. RIGHT HEART DILATATION Fig. 2.4. SUBENDOCARD
(original A. Stancu) (original A. St
Fig.2 5. PULMONARY EDEMA – ACTIV Fig. 2.6. CATAR

PULMONARY CONGESTION (original A. Stancu) BRONCHOPNEUMONIA- SPL
(original A. Stanc
170
Fig.2.7. FIBRINOUS Fig. 2.8. FIB
BRONCHOPNEUMONIA- RED HEPATISATION BRONCHOPNEUM
PHASE (original A. Stancu) HEPATISATION PHASE (o
Fig. 2 9. HEPATIC STEATOSIS Fig. 3.10. MILLIAR HE

(original A. Stancu) (after Morela
171
Fig. 2.11. FIBROUS INTERSTITIAL Fig.2.12. RED LIEN
HEPATITIS (after Morela
(original A. Stancu)
Fig.2.13. URINARY RETENTION Fig.2.14. RENAL STEATOSIS

CYSTS(after Moreland 2009) (original A. Stancu)
172
Fig.2.15. WHITE RENAL INFARCT Fig.2.16. RENAL ABCES
(after Moreland 2009) (original A. Stancu)
Fig.2.17. LYMPHOHISTIOCYTAR Fig.2.18. HAEMORRHAGIC

INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS
(original A. Stancu) (after Moreland 2009)
173
Fig. 2.19. HAEMORRHAGIC Fig. 2 20. HAEMORRHAGIC
DIFUSSE COLITIS (original A. Stancu) COLITIS SECTION ASPECT (original A.
Stancu)
Fig. 2.21. DIFTEROID TIFLITIS IN Fig. 2. 22. GASTRIC ULCERUS

OUTBREAKS (original A. Stancu)
(după Moreland 2009)
4. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS BY BOVINES
174
Recording corpses as well as taking the anamnesis is done according
to the same principles presented for all species. More than other species,
necropsy should be done as soon as possible after death because cadaveric
modifications are installed at high speed due to the large volume of the
abdominal cavity that allows maintaining high internal temperature and
large charge of digestive germs that diffuse into tissues and proliferate.
Necropsy can not be postponed, as can be the case with other species,
especially since it is not possible to properly chill the body, especially in
adult animals. In cases of force majeure, when the examination can not be
done immediately after death, it is possible to eviscerate and chill the
organs, especially the abdominal organs. The evolution of cadaveric
changes is so slowed. (3, 6)
4.1. External exam
Inspection of cattle corpses is done according to the protocol

described in mammals. The external examination provides important
relationships on the state of maintenance, conformation, aplombs, digestive
disorders (dirty posterior tract in cases of diarrhea), genital diseases
(distractions), bone fractures, hernias and events. (3, 6)
Regions with fine skin (peribucal, ugly, crown and interdigital,
mammary) will be examined in order to highlight possible outbreaks of
foot-and-mouth disease and other eruptive diseases.
175
The external examination will capture areas of depilation and skin
changes caused by mites and dermatophytes. Trichophythosis is a disease
that frequently affects calves and produces dry, depilated, protruding,
umbilical, entire body but more frequent in the head and base of the tail. To
confirm such lesions, skin rashes should be performed for the direct
microscopic examination.
Some diseases may have exclusively cutaneous or cutaneous lesions
to be so characteristic that diagnosis can be made through the mere external
examination of the body. However, necropsy needs to be complete.
Intoxication with alkaloids from (Claviceps purpurea) or ergotism is
manifested by acute laminitis, edema of the extremities, especially of the
posterior limbs and dry end gangrene (necrosis of the ears, limb skin and
tail).
Special attention is paid to the umbilical area in neonates because
umbilical infections are common. They can remain localized in the navel of
the umbilicus and are usually fibrinous or purulent. Often infection and
inflammation extends along the umbilical veins to the liver with the
appearance of hepatitis, along the umbilical artery with the formation of
abscesses or along the urethra with cystitis. Bacteria are common and occur
with polyserosities, polyarthritis, sometimes meningitis, fibrinopurulents.
The most common bacteria involved in these septicemia are E. coli,
Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Corynebacterium pyogenes. (3,
6)
176
Dry, matte hair is associated with chronic starvation and
dehydration. In calves, hair loss in the perineal region and the epidermis and
hair at the bottoms and nostrils can accompany severe prolonged diarrhea.
(3, 6)
4.1.1. General appearance of the corpse
Hypothypsea may be:

- congenital, calves are born with a weight of approximately 20 kg;
causes are the undernutrition of pregnant cows, dendendocrines,
mycotoxicosis;
- acquired, more frequent in calves for calves suffering from chronic
diseases; causes include hypogalamax, hippocampus, dyspepsia, diarrhea,
early weaning, feeding with coarse and cellulosic feed, vicious
microclimate.
Cachexia occurs as a result of the exhaustion of all fat reserves in
tissues; causes are secondary anorexia, low-value fodder, dendrococrine.
(14, 26, 30, 39)
4.1.2. Skinning of the corpse
177
The way the skin of mammals is skinned has been extensively
presented in Chapter One. In cattle, full skin may be used from the
beginning, or sequential skinning can be performed on body regions as they
are examined and opened.
The mothergland can be examined by inspection, palpation and
sectioning, in the body or on the necropsy table after it has been removed
along with the retromammary lymph nodes.
The examination of the corpse involves cutting the quarters on
the left side from the base of the mother to the tip of the nipples, with
interest in the entire parenchyma, the cistern and the nipples. After
examining these components, the sections will deepen extending to the level
of the right-hand quarter legs. (3, 6)
If the mothergland was detached, examine immediately, by
longitudinal section, at the level of the medial raf in two halves, left and
right. Then place it with the sectional area downwards with lateral-oriented
nipples. After the examination by inspection and palpation, each half is cut
in a vertical plane through the nipple. The retromacial lymph nodes are
serially divided. The symmetry is appreciated in the examination of the
udder. The cross-sectional area should be glossy and glossy, matte, matte,
lobular structure. The mucosa of the tank and nipple is white and finely
granular. (3, 6)
4.1.3. Lesions of the skin
178
Paracheratosis, a lesion considered specific to hypnosis, translates
into macroscopic aspects very similar to those in hyperkeratosis, only that
the modified areas are soft at palpation. The lesions can be located on the
head, perineum and posterior limbs.
Callosities (hooves) occur as a result of compression of the
yoke in the back of the neck, in circumscribed form and irregular edges.
Dry gangrene occurs in calves with localization on the tip of the
ears, tail, sometimes on the skin at the extremities of the limbs, and in adults
with the bone protrusions (eg coxal tuber, temporomandibular and
coxofemoral joints) due to the compression of the skin between the bones
and the surface support, bearing the name "decubitus";
Causes for calves are physical factors such as excessive cold,
mycotoxicosis (ergotism, fusariotoxicosis) infectious diseases chronic
leptospirosis. In adults - chronic, caective diseases, Achilles tendon
disengagement, which are accompanied by prolonged decubitus.
The affected areas are blackish, non-glossy and are delimited by a
ditch or line to the healthy areas.
Borhot eczema is common in fattening, with localized / generalized
localization being produced due to excessive consumption of borhot (beet,
potato), molasses, fungi infested fruits;
The affected areas have papulo-vesicular appearance, ending with
the gangrene of the pastern, the podal extremities and the tail.
179
Furunculosis represents the purulent inflammation of the hair
follicles and periphilic structures caused by infection with Staphylococcus
aureus; located on the udder and extremities.
Nutritional alopecia occurs 2-3 weeks after the introduction of milk
substitutes into use;
The affected areas are characterized by seborrhea, scabam, hair loss
in the form of tattoos, flanks and extremities of the limbs.
Leucodermia or acquired discoloration is characterized by skin
depigmentation ("white skin areas"), resulting in wounds, irradiation,
infectious or parasitic diseases.
Vitiligo is an endocrine discomfort that is externalized by skin
discoloration ("white skin areas"). (14, 26, 30, 34)
Fotodermatosis
They are produced by ingesting photocatalytic principles present in
buckwheat, buckwheat, alfalfa, clover, millet, St. John's wort etc .;
poisoning with corn, copper, Zn, photodynamic drugs. Usually appear in
depigmented areas where it is observed: erythema - edema - vesicular rash,
sometimes dry gangrene with bumps.
Dermatitis is inflammation of the skin and can be:

- nodular, with localization on the anterior limbs, nipple, chest
lateral parts, nodules that pass through the phases: necrosis, purulent
ramulation, fistulization or calcification; regional lymph nodes are not
affected;
180
- tuberculous is outlined by: calcified caseiated granulomas, licking
ulcers / nodosities and tuberculous granulomatous lymph nodes (central
localized granulomas = caecumification necrosis);
- actinobacillus - yellowish-white isolated / conglomerate nodules,
grayish-red fungi, fistula and pahidermia (thickening of the skin); pussy
grunjos on the section surface; actinobacillary granulomatous lymph nodes
(granulomas, central - necrotic-purulent);
- aspergillary is characterized by the presence of circulating nodules
/ circular plates spread throughout the body to abortes;
- parasitic, infestations with: Sarcoptes sp., Chorioptes sp.,
Psoroptes sp., Haematopinus sp., Hypoderma bovis, Ixodidae;
Depending on the causative agent, psoriasis can be observed, with
the exaggerated exfoliation of the stratum corneum; allergic dermatitis,
mosquito bites, flies, fleas; pruritic dermatitis, caused by different types of
wart; granulomatous dermatitis, reported in hypodermosis.
Exanthemas are lesions that are secondary to dermatoses
and can be:
- vesicular and vesiculoerosive occur in foot-and-mouth disease,
mucosal disease, bluetongue and infectious rhinotracheitis;
- vesiculopapular or papulocrustous with localization on the nipple,
perineal area, in smallpox.
Hypodermatosis translates to the presence of subcutaneous nodules

in the lumbar region, which are opened by fistulization.
181
Trichophysis, frequent by calves has two forms of
presentation: dry and furunculous (infiltrative).
- dry form with localization on the skin of the head, neck, dorsal
region, croup and tail - circular prominences covered with crust, whitish
gray ashes, stretched plaques where the skin is depilated and easily
depigmented;
- furunculous form is characterized by the presence of crevices with
grafts on which the microbial flora is grafted which causes a purulent
inflammation exteriorized by superficial or profound, isolated or confluent
folliculitis. (14, 26, 30, 34)
Cutaneous papillomatosis commonly found in the youth (on
the neck, nape, whole body), and in adults on the mammary gland where
pediculous tumors or sessile, variable, round, irregular, conidiform, are
observed.
Hernias are formed at the level of a natural ring or an
accidental break with localization: inguinal, umbilical, diaphragmatic;
Purulent or gangrenous omphalitis occurs due to lack of
umbilical cord hygiene at birth;
From the umbilical cord level, it can extend to blood vessels
(omphaloflebitis) and peritoneum, which is the main metastasis factor in
internal organs.
182
4.1.4. Lesions of the limb extremities:
- dermatitis: gangrene, verrucous, panartium or digital

phlegmon;
- laminites or pododermatitis: septic, aseptic or buccal; sole
abscess, bleeds; they may metastasize at the level of internal organs;
- by the ongloans: seims, exogulation, craving, interdigital
eczema;
- bursitis are also called hygrometers and are produced by
trauma, located at the level of the bone projections.
- jaundice occurs in: leptospirosis, mycotoxicosis,
intoxication in fattening youth, babesiosis, trematode infestations.
Circulatory disorders in the form of edema:
- cardiac, cyanotic, deciduous in the pectoral and salivary

region, citrine color; shows a mediastinal syndrome, traumatic
pericarditis;
- serohemorrhagic in anthrax, emphysematous coal, foot-
and-mouth disease, parainfluenza;
- serofibrinos with overactive evolution , localized
cervicocephaly encountered in pasteurellosis. (14, 26, 30, 40)
183
Limfonodulites can be:
- serous-serofibrinous in acute pasteurellosis,

mycoplasmosis;serum in acute pasteurellosis, mycoplasmosis;
- purulent in piogene germs such as Actinobacylus
pyogenes, Proteus vulgaris, E. coli;
- granulomatous specific for actinobacillosis and
tuberculosis.
Mammitis or mastites:
- catarrhal produced by infection with Str. agalactiae, Str.

dysgalactiae, Str. uberis; The mammary gland is enlarged in volume,
turgescent and presents nodules of various sizes at the base of the
nipples;
- serous and haemorrhagic have nonspecific etiology; The
mammary gland is enlarged in asymmetric volume with increased
consistency; on the section may be wet, glossy (serous mastitis), or
dry, red (bleeding mastitis);
- fibrinous, it is rarely observed and is observed in
colibacillosis in the cow being determined by A. pyogenes, Mother is
hypertrophied and on the section shows a fibrinous exudate,
abundant in the lumen of the mammary cistern;
- purulent (piobacillary) produced by piogene germs such as
A. pyogenes and Myocplasma sp. It is characterized by the presence
184
of a catarally-purulent exudate in acute form; abscesses or phlegm
with gray-whitish or greenish puros in chronic form;
- gangrenous, is caused by infections with Cl. perfringens,
A. pyogenes in combination with Staphylococcus sp .; The
mammary gland is hypertrophic, red-violet and on the section shows
serum hemorrhagic edema in subcutaneous connective tissue and
breast parenchyma;
- fibroblastic may occur as a result of chronic exudative
mastitis, following infection with Streptococcus sp. or Brucella
abortus, long-term antibiotic treatments administered intramammary
and is characterized by a reduction in the volume of the mammary
gland, the consistency being greatly increased;
- granulomatous is found in tuberculosis, mycosis,
staphylococcal infections and is characterized by the presence of
nodules (granulomas), both on the surface and on the section.
Tumors of the mammary gland:
- benign: papillomas (papillomatosis), adenoids, fibroids;

- malignant: carcinomas, rarely encountered; sarcomas. (14,
26, 30, 41)
185
4.2. Internal exam
4.2.1. Opening the abdominal cavity
The opening of the abdominal cavity is performed according

to the technique described in the horses. Examine the epiploon leaf,
covering all organs, except for the mesh and the clot. On the right,
subcostal, you can see portions of the liver and the duodenum. The
remaining parts of the abdominal cavity become visible after the
epiploon has been removed. Examination of organ topography,
diaphragm status, adhesions between the organs and possible foreign
bodies present in the abdominal cavity (liquids, blood clots, pus,
isolated foreign bodies). (3, 6)
4.2.2. Lesions of the abdominal cavity
Haemorrhagic diathesis
It occurs in infectious diseases: anthrax, leptospirosis,

streptococci (calves), salmonellosis, anaerobic enterotoxemia;
warfarin poisoning, plants such as ricin, autumn coat; mycotoxicosis
(fusariotoxicosis, stahibotriotoxicosis,); parasitoses such as
(babesiosis and licorrhea). (3, 6)
186
In the abdominal cavity multiple hemorrhages of variable
shape and size are seen in the tissues and organs.
Intestinal distopies
They are represented by jejunal invasions, jejunal volvulus,

ceco-colic torsion, abdominal movement, herniated or strangled
hernia leading to infarction. (3, 6)
Ascita (hydroperitoneum)
It occurs in heart failure, liver cirrhosis, hydronephrosis,

malignant tumors, and policing. In the abdominal cavity, there is a
large amount of clear, yellowish fluid presenting to the walls of the
abdominal cavity.
Hemoperitoneus is produced by traumatic breakage of
organs, aneurysm infarctions, warfarin intoxication, etc.
Peritonites have the following morphological forms of

presentation:
- serous in anaerobic enterotoxemia;

- serohemorrhagic, anthrax, hepatitis necrosis;
-serofibrinous, streptococcal calves, salmonellosis,
sporadic encephalomyelitis;
187
- fibrinous in chlamydia, also associated with perihepatitis
- fibrinous in case of massive fasciitis infestation;
- purulent located in the region of the network, and occurs in
the case of traumatic reticuloperitonitis produced by foreign bodies;
-fibroses are characterized by the presence of parieto-
visceral and viscero-visceral synoves which eventually lead to the
installation of adhesive peritonites;
-granulomatous can present an exudative form (caseous)
and one productive pearled form, fungus or conopidiform
appearance in tuberculosis. (14, 26, 30, 34)
4.2.3. Evisceration and examination of abdominal organs
Evisceration of organs begins with the double ligation of the

duodenum in the immediate vicinity of the clot. In the case of
jaundice, the collage test is performed before dividing the
duodenum. After slicing, the duodenum detaches slightly from its
bindings to the pancreas and the colon, then makes a double ligature
of the rectum and is sliced. Carefully separate the mesenter insert
and empty the entire intestinal mass. To ease the manipulation of the
intestinal mass, a double ligation is applied to the ileum, close to its
entry into the cecum and separates the small intestine from the large
intestine. The mesenter is cut at the level of its insertion on the gut
and the intestine opens. (3, 6)
188
Ligate the esophagus before it enters the rumen, then cut the
upper left rumen bag connection with the abdominal cavity travate.
Extract the stomach, preforms and spleen. When abdomen is
eviscerated, abnormal adhesions can occur, especially in the
traumatic network (traumatic reticulitis) and on the caudal part of
the upper left rumen sac (ruminal puncture). Before extending the
existing adhesions, the extent of these adhesions (fibrous adhesions,
fistula) and organs of interest are appreciated. (3, 6)
The examination of the spleen is done by appreciating the

shape, size and appearance on the section. Formal changes are
generally an apology of anomalies.
The gout that is called xanthinosis in the calves is secondary

to the kidney.
Circulatory changes are represented by:

- active and passive hyperemia;
- subcapsular haemorrhage in viral diarrhea, colibacillosis
in calves.
189
Inflammation of the spleen or splenitis:
- diffuse haemorrhagic is found in anthrax (splenomegaly,

pulp rash, blackish color), diplostreptococci, salmonellosis (elastic
spleen);
-purulent (apostomatotic) translates into the metastasis of
septic processes in ulcerovate endocarditis, endometritis,
subermatite, omphalitis;
- ihorosa appears secondary to traumatic reticulitis;
- lymphohistiocytar is specific in salmonellosis,
hemosporidiosis;
- granulomatous can be found in brucellosis,
echinococcosis.
Tumors are localizations of bovine enzootic leukosis and are
characterized by enlarged spleen volume and weight, the lymphoid
follicles being large and protruding on the section. (14, 26, 30, 34)
The examination of the prestomachs is made after their
evisceration, recording all adhesions, shape, size and state of
plenitude. Uncover the connection between the net and the
psalterium, between the psalterium and the glandular stomach and
between the rennet and the rumen, then place the organs so that the
right side of the rumen as well as the opening of the esophagus are
oriented upwards, and the clot and the psalterium on the left of
rumen. An incision is practiced to open both rumen bags starting at
190
the entrance of the esophagus. The clot is cut from the pilor, on the
small curve, until the psalterium is opened, then the mesh opens.
Particular attention is paid to the examination of the contents and
appearance of the mucouses of the prestomachs. (3, 6)
The rumen gaseous dilatations will be interpreted cautiously,
with the possibility of confusion with cadaveric tympanicism. The
anatomopathological characteristics of tympanic lifetime are
described in digestive diseases. (3, 6)
The psalterium of the cattles can be the seat of overloading
with dehydrated fodder. This translates into increased consistency,
cutting is difficult, and at opening, foil blades are adhered to each
other by a dense, dry binder. (3, 6)
The glandular stomach is rarely the site of lesions in adult
animals (parasitoses, displacements, ulcers), but newborns with
neonatal diarrhea syndrome frequently have petechiae, bruises and
ulcers. (3, 6)
The abdominal torsion occurs quite rarely. The diagnosis is

based on observation of topographic change and torsion-induced
lesions (strong congestion, infarction - wall). (3, 6)
The examination of the stomach necessarily involves
examining the content. The normal content of the stomach of infants
is represented by milk coagulum. Gastric content of straw, hay,
grains, and foreign bodies indicates that the calf could not feed itself
191
because of lack of vigor or because of the mother (agalaxy,
neglected mother, fallen udder or too much mammal). Sometimes
the stomach is empty or almost empty and fat deposits are absent.
These aspects indicate chronic starvation. (3, 6)
The most common intestinal lesions are those produced by
microbial germs. Macroscopic examination of the intestines often
reveals less specific lesions. (3, 6)
4.2.5. The lesions of the rumen
The ruminal timpanism is produced by transport overload;

prolonged stabbing; juice feeding (parcels and beet leaves), moldy
residue; hygroscopic feed, saponins.
Chronic ruminal meteorism can be produced by:
esophageal suboclusion, bloating, gastrointestinal lesions.
The ruminal indigestion:
- frothy, after unprocessed leguminous consumption, green
cereal meal, green corn and potatoes; the gases remain dispersed in
the mass of the contents;
- putrid, consumption of altered or low-carbohydrate fodder;
urea intoxication (ammonia-smelling ruminant content).
Ruminal hyperkeratosis, consequence of hippocampinosis
A.
192
Ruminal paracheatosis is produced by: mechanical and
chemical irritation, Zn deficiency and vitamin A, consumption of
granulated fodder.
Ulcers are caused by: ingestion of lush plants, fodder
contaminated with Mucor sp .; fodder treated with K, ammonium,
arsenic intoxication; paracheratosis lesions infected with F.
necrophorum.
Ruminitis:
- necrotic occurs in necrobacillosis;

- fibrinous, is produced by infestations with Candida sp.,
Mucor sp., Rhisopus sp., Absidia sp., Aspergillus sp .;
- edematous, encountered in: reticuloperitonite, eruptive
diseases, intoxication;
- vesicular and vesiculo-erosive in foot-and-mouth disease,
mucosal disease, chemical and mechanical irritation;
- haemorrhage produced by Trichostrongylus sp .;
- suppurative and hyperplasic is encountered in infant calves
in case of ingestion of hair (licorice) or aristeic of cereal grains;
- emphysematous is produced by borhot and roughage
feeding, which favor the development of gaseous bacteria;
-granulomatous disease occurs in chronic diseases: TB,
actinobacillosis, chronic mycoses;
193
- pseudopapilomatous in the form of whitish nodules
(ruminal mucosa), papiliformes, which have grown. (14, 26, 30, 34)
Reticulitis and traumatic reticulo-peritonitis is favored by

migrating through the wall of the network of sharp foreign bodies
present in feed (nails, wire, etc);
The pulping of the psalterium is caused by the excessive
consumption of chopped fodder, altered feed, toxic and atonia
preforms; The beak is enlarged, hard on palpation, the lamellae are
adherent to the content, they have black color due to hemorrhages.
4.2.6. Lesions of the abomasum
Peptic ulcers; are caused by vitamin-mineral deficiencies,

azotemia, trauma, mycosis;
Abomasatis can be:
- catarrhal caused by irritating or coarse food that favors the

development of bacterial flora that inhibits digestion;
-hemorrhagic in mycosis such as fusariotoxicosis,
stahibotriotoxicosis;
- fibrinous in Candida sp.
194
Enteritis:
- catarrhal produced in pancreatic-hepatic failure;

deficiencies, enzyme immaturity at birth, poor quality colostrum;
myodistrophy of nutrition; viral, bacterial, parasitic infections;
- haemorrhagic occurs in poisoning with As, insecticides,
urea, diseases such as: mucosal disease, anaerobic enterotoxemia
(has jejunal localization), coccidiosis, anthrax, leptospirosis, acute
salmonellosis;
- hemorrhagiconecrotic, massive coccidiosis;
- crupal occurs in: mucosal disease, subacute salmonellosis;
- difteroid, may develop diffuse or outbreak and may occur
in: anaerobic enterotoxemia (subacute-chronic), mucosal disease;
- diffuse granulomatous is specific in paratuberculosis-
specific, the mucosa being thickened with an accentuated cerebral
form.
Tumors of the intestines may be locations of the enzootic
bovine leukosis in the abomasum, intestinal walls and mesenteric
lymph nodes represented by:
- benign forms - fibroids, mixedomas, leiomyomas;
- malign forms - sarcomas and adenocarcinomas. (14, 26, 30,
34)
195
4.2.7. Evisceration and examination of the liver
The liver is cut from its normal bundles, carefully examining

eventual adhesions to adjacent organs. In ruminants, particular
attention is paid to bile ducts, which may be the site of parasitic
lesions. The sections on the liver are practiced on the visceral face,
perpendicular to the bile ducts, in each lobe. (3, 6)
4.2.8. Lesions of the liver
Hepatic steatosis is a lesion in: ketoneemia, poisoning of the

most diverse, phytopharmaceutical and medicinal, with inorganic
substances (P, Cu, As) with mold and fodder fungus; in the case of
excess silo; diseases leading to autointoxication (gastroenteritis,
pyrometer); maternal-fetal toxicosis in neonates; infectious diseases
(calf diplostreptococcus, leptospirosis);
Dietary hepatosis occurs in cattle youth from fattening in
hiposelenose and hippocytaminosis E; Liver enlarged, brittle,
yellowish, only in certain areas or across the organ.
Areactiv necrosis occurs in deficiency in sulphated amino
acids, in urea intoxication, aflatoxicosis.
196
Hepatitis can be:
- parenchymatous or acute toxic encounters in poisoning

with P, phosphates, Cu, As, urea, lupine, aflatoxins etc .; The liver is
enlarged in volume and weight, yellowish or rust (similar to
"autumn leaf"), uniform or in focus; friability is increased, both on
the surface and on the section;
- necrotic occurs in visceral necrobacillosis, necrotizing
hepatitis, septicemic leptospirosis, metastatic from necrotico-
ulcerative ruminant to the youth of fattening; We observe necrosis
outbreaks of varying sizes, ash-yellowish of friable consistency;
- purulent in outbreaks (apostomatotic), occurs due to
metastases given by omfaloflebite, metrites, pyelonefrite,
subermatite; single or multiple abscesses are observed;
- lymphohistiocytar appears in salmonellosis, malaria
bluetongue;
- hypertrophic hepatic cirrhosis chronic inflammatory
degenerative, circulatory, inflammatory; chronic myotoxicosis;
salmonellosis in calves; The liver has a smooth surface, increased
consistency, yellowish, gray color, depending on degenerative
changes that accompany conjunctival hyperplasia;
- fibrous interstitial hepatitis may have two forms of
outbreak and diffuse presentation; It is found in fasciolosis and is
characterized by hemorrhagic-necrotic lesions in the acute phases of
197
invasion and migration of larvae by Fasciola sp .; multiple or diffuse
interstitial hepatitis in the scarring phase (whitish tracts at the liver
surface); angiocollitis and lithiasis in the localization phase; bark
angiocolitis - in Dicrocelium sp.
-granulomatous occurs in chronic diseases (TBC),
parasitosis and some mycosis; Depending on the etiology they have
the following aspect: in TBC - granulomas of different sizes with a
caseiated or calcified center; in echinococcosis, cystic granulomas
are observed which produce atrophy by compression of the adjacent
liver tissue; in mycosis - mycotic granulomas have three areas
(central area, necrosis in which are found mice, medial area,
epithelioidogyangiant, peripheral area, nonspecific mesenchymal).
- Biliary calculi occur as a result of angiocollitis,
cholecystitis, parasitosis, etc.
Tumors - adenoids, carcinomas, localizations of L.E.B. (14,
26, 30, 34)
4.2.9. Evisceration and examination of organs in the chest

cavity
Opening the chest box is done immediately after the

abdominal cavity has been opened. Inspection of the thoracic cavity
and pericardial sac is done when they are opened in terms of
topography of organs, content, adhesions or other changes. (3, 6)
198
Evisceration and examination of organs in the thoracic cavity
may or may not be preceded by evisceration of the abdominal cavity
organs. It is preferable for the organs of the abdominal cavity to be
opened at the end in order not to dirty the body with their contents.
(3, 6)
Evisceration is done according to the mammalian technique,
starts with the tongue, then the pharynx, the larynx, the esophagus,
the trachea, the pulmonus and the heart. Before the cervico-thoracic
cervix is eviscerated, double ligaments will be applied to the venous
cavity, the aorta and the esophagus, near the diaphragm. (3, 6)
4.2.10. Lesions of the chest cavity
Pericarditis:
- necrotic (necrobacillosis);
-serofibrinous (emphysematous coal);
-fibrinous, pasteurellosis, enterotoxemia, salmonellosis,
neonatal colibacillosis;
-purulent (traumatic reticulitis);
-fibroadesive (chronic acupuncture);
- granulomatous, tuberculosis.
Subepicardial haemorrhages: bruises and swellings are
reported in anaerobiosis, mucosal disease, intoxications and febrile
illnesses.
199
Pleuritis and pleuresies:
Pleuritis:
- necrotic in visceral necrobacillosis;
-granulomatous in tuberculosis and aspergillosis in youth;
-fibroadesive in the chronication of acute forms.
Pleuresies:
- serohemorrhagic septicemia, emphysematous charcoal;
-fibrinous, subacute-chronic pasteureloid, salmonellosis,
diplo-streptococci;
- purulent, infections with pyogenic germs, eg A. pyogenes.
Granulomatous diaphragmatic is less common in bovine

tuberculosis.
4.2.11.Examination of the tongue is aimed at
highlighting viral eruptive lesions, ulcers, granulomatous
inflammatory inflammation of actinobacillosis.
4.2.12. The actinobacillary glossitis is a chronic
inflammation specific to actinobacillosis characterized by the
presence of gray-yellow excavations, submucosa nodules,
crateriform ulcers, fistula. It may evolve as a localized or diffuse
form, when it is called a wood tongue. (14, 26, 30, 34)
200
4.2.13. Examination of the larynx
Opening the larynx, after a preliminary examination of the

shape, cuts the larynx and trachea into the upper line, easily
removing the rings. Then examine the content and appearance of the
mucosa.
Diphtheria of calves is characterized by laryngeal necrosis
and ulcers. Ulcerated outbreaks are covered with cheesy exudate,
smelly smell. Laryngeal edema has varying degrees of evolution,
until laryngeal occlusion. Usually Fusobacterium necrophorum is
identified from the lesions, but it is not always possible to establish
the primary or secondary involvement of this germ. The lesion can
be associated with severe bronchopneumonia. (3, 6)
4.2.14. Laringotracheitis
- vesiculous, the respiratory malignant form of foot-and-

mouth disease;
-edematous, in acute pasteurellosis, type 3 parainfluenza;
-haemorrhagic, in infectious rhinotracheitis;
-fibrinous, infectious rhinotracheitis, diphtheria of calves,
gangrenous cortisum;
201
-granulomatous, occurs in tuberculosis, aspergillosis and
actinobacillosis.
4.2.15. Examination of the esophagus
Opening the esophagus is longitudinal and can reveal foreign

bodies, traumatic ulcers or erosions and linear ulcers specific for
BVD: Bovine diarrhea (BVD) has erosions and ulcers in the
digestive tract or only in some segments. For virus detection and
cultivation the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes are harvested and
sent to the laboratory because the virus has affinity for lymphoid
tissues. (3, 6)
4.2.16. Lesions of the esophagus
- paracheatosis dilations and obstructions through foreign

bodies;
- post-traumatic gangrenes;
- erosions and linear ulcers with the brown base, delimited
by congestive-haemorrhagic areas, in mucosal disease;
- esophagus can be the place of cantonation for cysticercus
and sarcosporidies.
202
4.2.17. Examination of the lungs
It is done according to general rules by: inspection,

palpation, sectioning and proof of docimasia. Pulmonary sectioning
begins with longitudinal sectioning and examination of the trunk and
pulmonary arteries. Then the heart is detached, then examined
separately, opened to the bronchi and pulmonary parenchyma after
the general technique. Tracheobronchial and mediastinal lymph
nodes are examined. (3, 6)
4.2.18. Lesions of the lungs
Pulmonary atelectasis occurs due to aspiration of fetal

fluid at birth, obstructions in the bronchiole, collections of fluid in
pleural sacs that produce prolonged compressions on lung tissue.
Lung emphysema may be:
- alveolar by loss of pulmonary elasticity due to inhalation of
toxic gases or the consumption of toxic plants;
- interstitial, specific lesion that occurs in synovial virus
pneumonia, parainfluenza, hyaline membrane pneumonia.
203
Active congestion occurs in the case of vicious
microclimate, intoxication, or may be the onset of an inflammation.
Lung edema, commonly produced by allergens, mycotoxins,
various infections.
Bronchopneumonias:
-necrotic, occurs in visceral necrobacillosis;
-crupal, it is seen in pasteurellosis, contagious
pleuropneumonia;
-purulent, is produced by piogene germs, migration of
foreign bodies in the network;
-gangrenous is also called ab-ingestis and is favored by
aspiration of food delivered to the bucket, ruminal fluid in resting
animals, exudates from the previous airways; can also be found in
infectious diseases such as: gangrene, infectious rhinotracheitis,
diphtheria; is characterized by the presence of gray-green foci with
fluid content, which emanates a fuzzy odor.
- lymphohysiocytary occurs in type 3 parainfluenza,
adenoviruses and reovirosis in youth, synovial pneumonia,
chlamydia,
-granulomatous occurs in chronic diseases such as
tuberculosis, echinococcosis, dictiocytosis
Pulmonary tumors are expressions of bovine enzootic
leukosis. (14, 26, 30, 34)
204
4.2.19. Examination of the heart
It consists in the appreciation of the shape, especially the

transverse diameter and the shape of the apex. The cutting of the
cord is done in order: the left cord, the right cord with the
examination of the vessels and the valve system. In cattle, more than
other species, pericardial sac lesions can occur. These lesions may
be accumulations of pericardial (serous, fibrous, purulent or fibrous,
traumatic) fluids or tuberculous proliferative pericarditis. (3, 6)
The opening of the cardiac compartments is done starting
with the ventricle and the left atrium, then with the right one.
Separate and examine the origin of the large vessels (the aorta and
the pulmonary artery) with the sigmoid valves. In adult animals, the
most common lesions are valvulopathy. (3, 6)
The most common congenital heart defects are persistence of
the interventricular aperture, interatrial hole persistence, persistent
arterial canal, and tetralogy Fallot. (3, 6)
Yellow striations and myocardial mineralization are common
in white muscle disease. The lesions are more obvious in the
myocardium below the left ventricular endocardium. (3, 6)
Valvular endocarditis is produced more frequently by C.
Pyogenes, streptococci and staphylococci and is ulcer-divergent.
Necroticopurulent myocarditis outbreaks occurring in the
case of septic embolism with bacteria have the appearance of
205
irregular, yellowish areas, visible through the endocardial
transparency or the sectional area. (3, 6)
Inflammation of the gangrene from Clostridium chauvoei
infection can only be located at the level of the myocardium.
In very young calves, the heart valves frequently have
hematic chicory that resorves over time and has not been associated
with disease progression. (3, 6)
Myocardial atrophy occurs in animals with chronic diseases

(infectious, parasitic, neoplastic), exhaustive, in malnourished
conditions, in old animals. The cord is dimmed, dark brown. The
consistency is slightly increased, the absence of adipose tissue in the
coronary trench and the interventricular septum.
Miocardoses can be:
- fatter seldom observed (myocardial steatosis) occurs in
animals subject to fattening, in poisoning with phosphorus, copper,
lupine arsenic, etc .; the heart is enlarged in volume and weight,
yellowish, diffuse or circumscribed by brittle consistency;
-granular infection occurs in infectious, infectious diseases,
toxic, debilitating, the myocardium being gray, wholly or only in
certain areas, lacking gloss and brittle consistency;
206
-hyaline occurs in calves in the disease of white muscles
having causes vitamin-mineral deficiencies (Vitamin E and / or Se),
intoxication, tedious transport, the myocardium presents grayish-
yellow areas, alternating with normal myocardial areas, consistency
is very friable and glassy look;
- myocardiosis and calcareous endocardiosis is caused by
hipovitaminosis D, hypercalcaemia, hypomagnesaemia,
hyperparathyroidism.
Circulatory changes are congestion, haemorrhage and
sometimes infarctions; have a polyfactorial etiology: toxic,
infectious, nutritional.
Vilous epicarditis, chronic epicarditis.
Myocarditis:
-parenchymatous disease occurs in infectious diseases
(aphthae fever- occurs in the form of tigral cord, malign catarrhal
fever), toxic, poisoning with P, Cu; difficult to differentiate from
granular myocardosis;
- necrotic occurs as a result of the metastasis of the podbic
necrobacillosis and is characterized by grayish-yellow areas of
different sizes, dry, brittle and well-defined;
- haemorrhagiconecrotic is encountered in emphysematous
coal and is characterized by the presence of red-brown brownies,
alternating with gray-yellowish, friable and thrilling areas at
palpation;
207
-purulent is of metastatic nature, and occurs in
omphaloflebites in calves, adult nephrite animals and purulent
endometrites; translates to the presence of abscesses of various
dimensions on the surface and depth of the myocardium;
-granulomatous occurs in diseases such as: tuberculosis,
sarcosporidiosis, cysticercosis, echinococcosis and is characterized
by the presence of infectious granulomas (nodules with squamous
center) or cystic parasitic granulomas;
-fibrous can be considered as a form of termination of other
forms of myocarditis, myocardial infarction, etc .; is characterized
by the presence of grayish-white areas of increased consistency upon
palpation.
Thrombotic endocarditis is also called verrucous.
Tumors:
- atrial sarcomas are characterized by the presence of whitish
white, lean, protruding foci;
-fibromas and fibrosarcomas etc. (14, 26, 30, 34)
208
4.2.21. Evisceration and examination of genito-urinary
organs
Before being eviscerated, the topography of the organs, the

connections with the neighboring organs and the basin inspection are
examined.
The kidneys are eviscerated with the rectum and the urinary
bladder in case of changes requiring their maintenance in one piece.
Otherwise, separate kidneys, then bladder. When the uterus is not
pregnant, it is removed in one piece: the rectum, the uterus and the
bladder. For this purpose, the ischium and the pubis are bilateral
sectionated, the tissue surrounding the organs is separated and the
skin is cut around the anus and the vulva. In animals in an advanced
gestation state it is more difficult to evacuate these organs in bulk.
The kidneys compare to each other, because bulls may have
unilateral renal injuries. The kidneys are sectioned on the large
curve, taped over their entire surface, and then examined.
Decapulation is difficult for interstitial nephritis, and the surface of
the organ appears with whitish spots that may look scarred. The
lesions continue in the cortical or even medullary form of whitish
striations. More frequent alterative lesions, hemorrhagic-necrotic or
noncotic-purulent lesions at basilar and medulla (Corynebacterium
renale). Examine the shape and size of the kidney papillae, basin,
and fat store. (3, 6)
209
Congenital polycystic kidney can be seen in calves. If the
lesion is unilateral, the normal kidney will be hypertrophic and if the
lesion is bilateral, calves die quickly after birth or are born dead.
4.2.22. Lesions of the kidneys
Fat necrosis is present in endogenous and exogenous

intoxications, mycosis such as ochra- and rubrotoxicosis.
Xanthinosis (renal gout) causes causes of excess protein in
females in advanced gestation; consumption of molded fodder; long-
term therapy with chemotherapies, water shortage, colostrum-free
calves; infectious diseases such as mucosal disease, parainfluenza.
Amyloidosis occurs in various immunopathies, malignant
tumors, tuberculosis, the kidneys being enlarged in volume, yellow
color, cortical, presence of translucent millipedia nodules.
Hemosporidiosis translates into a rusty pigmentation of the
kidney, associated with jaundice and splenomegaly; It occurs in
babesiosis, poisoning with copper, the color is blackish-blue.
Haemorrhages is caused by: trauma, intoxication (with
warfarin,), mycotoxicosis, diseases such as leptospirosis,
hemosporidiosis.
Glomerulitis:
- cystic chronic production due to nephron stasis;
210
- purulent as a consequence of infections with piogene
germs.
-hyperplasic occurs in allergies and immunopathies;
Acute parenchymatous tubulonephritis is the consequence
of intoxications with raticides, insecticides, urea and CuSO4.
Nephritis:
- interstitial hemorrhagic, in streptococcus of calves,
leptospirosis;
-purutent, consequence of metastasis of septic processes in
the heart, nails and umbilicus;
-limphohistiocitary, occurs in leptospirosis, colibacilosis,
malignant bluetongue;
-fibrous, is the chronication of acute lesions;
-granulomatous disease, there are long-term diseases: TB,
actinobacillosis, echinococcosis.
Pyelonephritis is more common in females and is secondary
to septic processes in the inferior genito-urinary tract.
Renal leukosis is expressed by nodular or diffuse tumor
proliferation.
The detached bladder is examined in terms of plenitude of
consistency and thickness of the wall. Then it opens, starting from
the neck, to store and harvest some of the content. Bull urine must
be clear and alkaline. It detaches the rectum from its connections
with the uterus. The uterus is placed in a normal position and
211
examined from the ovaries, oviducts, uterine horns, cervix and
vulva. (14, 26, 30, 34)
4.2.23. Lesions of the bladder
- haemorrhages are present in mycotoxicosis, infectious

diseases such as: streptococcal disease in calves, adult bluetongue;
- urocitites are caused by infections and calculus and can be:
bluish, haemorrhagic, fibrous, purulent, emphysematous;
- chronical bladder haematuria are frequent in
subcarpathian areas is determined by male fetal consumption; is
characterized by epithelial and vascular-conjunctival proliferation,
tumor-like.
The ovaries represent the site of some cystic degenerations,
sometimes accompanied by hydrosalpinx.
Genital infantilism (genital tract hypoplasia in heifers) has
as its causes: vitamin-mineral, protein, energetic policing; hipotiro-
idismul; the presence of persistent yellow bodies; premature
follicular cystitis.
Edema of the genital tract is caused by myotoxic
estrogenism caused by zearalenone.
Ovarian hypoplasia has hereditary causes and poor
nutrition.
212
Follicular cystic degeneration is accompanied by a
mucometer and a hydrometer. Differential diagnosis is
recommended for congenital paraovaric cysts, luteal cysts,
chistydenomas.
Tuberculous ovaritis is the most common of ovarian
inflammation.
Salpingitis:
- catarrhal occurs in reticuloperitonitis, trauma;
- purulent infection-induced infection with A. pyogenes;
- fibrous appears as a follow-up of the chronology of
exudative forms;
- granulomatous can be miliary or nodular and occurs in
tuberculosis. (2, 14, 26, 30, 34)
4.2.24. The uterus is examined from the vagina; examine

the intact flower, then open the uterine horns, examining the content
and appearance of the mucosa. Normally, the vagina in the taurine is
empty and the cervix closed. The size and consistency of the uterus
is appreciated. The uterine lining has longitudinal folds, grayish-red,
wet and glossy. From place to place we can see the traces of
carunculi, in the form of small umbilical ridges. In order to
accurately assess the physiological state of this device, the ovaries
are examined not to interpret the stage of estrus as pathological. In
the early postpartum days, the mucosal lining appears dark red and
213
is covered with viscous, gray-red or ash-yellowish ash, which are
loose. (3, 6)
4.2.25. Circulatory disorders of the uterus
- endometrial hyperpigmentation may be functional or

pathological;
- haemorrhage caused by trauma;
- infarction of the wall, occurs due to torsion, placental
retention, uterine prolapse, laborious labor, etc.
Inflammations of the non-pregnant uterus are represented
by endometrites that may have the following forms of presentation:
- catarrhal and serous, both being consequences of estrogen
syndrome;
- purulent due to infection of the endometrium, resulting
from disturbed traumas, placental retention and prolapse; Horn or
uterine horns are increased in volume, pasty; the dilated uterine
cavity contains purulent red-brown purulent (in placental retentions),
white-chest (in streptococcal infections); the uterine wall is
thickened, and the uterine mucosa is covered with fibrinopurulent
deposits; the presentation form may be apostomatotic (multiple
abscesses) or phlegmonous (diffuse purulent infiltration into the
uterine wall);
214
- catarrhal-purulent, in trichomonasis and genital
campylobacteriosis;
- gangrenous, in the case of anaerobic flora complications;
- limfohistocytar, granulomatous appear in tuberculosis and
genital mucormicosis.
Inflammation of the pregnant uterus - endometritis,
metrites.
-haemoragico-necrotic is produced by Brucella sp. with
abortion during 6-8 months of gestation;
-purulent produced by A. pyogenes and Trichomonas. fetus;
-fibrino-necrotic produced by Campylobacter fetus, with
abortion in the 5th month of gestation, murmur of the genera:
Aspergillus, Candida, Mucor, Penicillium, etc.
Endometrites, cervicitis, puerperal vaginitis evolve with
bluish, necrotic, purulent forms and are caused by complicated
bacterial and fungal infections; breaks, cuts of the genital tract and
cervix that occur after forced extractions of the fetus, placenta, and
after uterine shedding.
Vulvovaginitis:
- necrotic and pustular, present in infectious rhinotracheitis;
- seropurulent, trichomonasis;
- purulent produced by piogene germs after untreated
placental retention;
215
- crupal, in the gangrenous corige;
- granulomatous specific in tuberculosis.
Tumors:
- genital papillomatosis, can be seen on the vulva-vaginal
mucosa; (14, 26, 30, 34)
4.2.26. Examination of the male genital apparatus is

done in the sea, according to the typical described in horses. The
preputial bag is being examined for microbial or parasitic infections.
Testicles are examined for their shape, size, color, testicular
scholarship, and then on the section. The sections are transversal
across the large axis, serially and across the thickness.
Testicular hypoplasia has as genetic causes a recessive gene

as well as a deficiency in Zn.
Corneous metaplasia of epididymal mucosa is produced by
hipovitaminosis A.
Hyperemia, testicular haemorrhage, serous and
haemorrhagic orchitis are the result of trauma.
Granulomatous orchitis may be associated with vaginalitis
in TB, actinobacillosis, brucellosis and candidiasis, as well as after
216
spermatocele (the accumulation of sperm that dilates the epididym);
Chronicity is followed by atrophy and testicular sclerosis.
Testicular tumors develop Sertoly cells, Leydig islets,
germinal epithelium, conjunctivo-vascular stroma.
Varicocella and torsion of the sperm cordon are rarer
lesions.
Castration funnicullitis is the result of infection of the
testicular cord.
Hematomas, located on the dorsal face of cavernous bodies,
are caused by trauma.
Balanopostitis:
- catarrhal, in trichomonasis;
- vesiculo-erosive or pustular, in infectious rhinotracheitis;
- purulent, in infections with piogene germs; while they may
lead to phimosis (narrowing of the preputial ring) and paraphimosis
(strangulation of the gland by the inflamed fever).
Transmittable papilloma and fibropapilloma has mucosal
localization of the gland or the base of the penis.
217
4.2.28. Examination of the central nervous system
In order to ease the opening of the skull, the horns are cut
and removed, then the shifting is done. Cattle are carefully examined
for leptomemings, which may be the site of tuberculous lesions.
Evisceration and severing of the central nervous system is
performed after general technique. Particular attention is paid to
ovine, cerebral trunks that may be the site of listeriosis lesions or
spongiform encephalopathy. In order to detect listeriosis outbreaks,
sometimes very small, the bulb is transversally, serially cut into
slices as thin as possible. However, sampling for histopathological
examination is mandatory. (3, 6)
Intrauterine infection with BVD induces cerebellar
hypoplasia, hydranencephaly in calves.
Bacterial meningitis is characterized by the appearance of a
troublesome exudate in the sulcus. Most cases of newborn
meningitis are the result of umbilical infections complicated with
bacteremia. (3, 6)
After the brain evisceration, the nasal cavities and sinuses
will be opened and examined.
Catarrhal inflammation, up to purulent, in the upper
respiratory mucosa is common in cattle respiratory diseases. In the
case of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, nasal and tracheal lesions
are bluish and cataract-purulent, then ulcerative and difteroide. (3, 6)
218
The purulent inflammation of the frontal sinuses may be a
complication of ecclesiastes. Infections of the frontal sinuses rarely
complicate meningitis and encephalitis. In the case of suspected
spinal cord injuries, it is discarded and examined according to the
technique described above.
By bulls will be examined: the intercostal nerves, those at the
base of the heart, the sciatic nerve and the brachial plexus to
diagnose neurofibromatosis. (3, 6)
4.2.29. Lesions of tht central nervous system
Cerebral cortex necrosis (calf polyencephalomalacia /

cerebro-cortical necrosis) specific to fattened youth; hipovitaminosis
B1, localized in occipital and temporal lobes.
Meningoencephalomyelitis
-haemoragic, occurs in infectious diseases such as anthrax,
botulism;
-thromboembolic disease is produced by Haemophilus
somnus in intensively-grown cattle and translates into a
fibrinopurulent exudation in leptomening, hemorrhages and
abscesses in the nervous substance; the diagnosis is based on the
microscopic examination;
- purulent, in infections with piogene germs;
219
-granulomatous infection in Mycobacterium bovis infection,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. (14, 26, 30, 34)
4.2.30. Exam of the locomotor apparatus
The muscles are examined for color, presence of bleeding,

inflammation and general development.
In the white muscle disease the affected fibers are pale,
yellowish or white chalk if they are mineralized. Muscle necrosis
and even abscesses occur at the injection site of irritating, unusual or
too large drugs. (3, 6)
Joints are examined for evidence of possible inflammation.
Arthritis can evolve alone or in combination with polyserosites. For
the bacteriological examination, the articular fluid is harvested using
a sterile syringe or sterile pads. (3, 6)
The most common congenital defect of the osteomuscular
system is arthrogryptasa, which may be of hereditary origin or may
be the consequence of the consumption of plants such as lupine,
sorghum, Astragalus, Oxytropis. (3, 6)
4.2.31. Lesions of the muscle
220
Congenital myodistrophy is characterized by the extension
- abduction of the hind legs with the bullet arcing.
Local amyotrophy is caused by: lack of movement, arterial
thrombosis, peripheral nerve damage.
Miodistrophy of nutrition, also called white muscular
disease, has localized dorsal, dorsal, intercostal and diaphragmatic
muscles; It occurs due to deficiency in Se and vitamin E during
gestation, after birth and before puberty; It is influenced by the
antagonists Se and vitamin E.
Muscle haemorrhages occurs due to trauma, warfarin
intoxication, septicemic infections.
Traumatic myositis is more common in juvenile fattening
due to hyperextension.
The Achilles tendon rupture and desinsertion are also
diseases that are also produced in young people in fattening due to
productive labor in poor nutrition and hygiene; or the excessive
effort produced in the jump to mount the mount.
Tenosynovites:
- serofibrinos produced by exercise and trauma, and
exteriorized by the relaxation of the bag rests;
- fibrinous, micoplasmosis-mediated, chronic bacterial
infections;
-purulent may be primary caused by open and secondary
trauma, omphaloflebitis, phlegmonous subermatitis, panartists.
221
4.2.32. Lesions of the joints
Erosions and ulcers of the joints that result from the use of
defective fodder or histaminemia.
Circulatory disturbances caused by trauma: hydrarthrosis,
haemarthrosis, haemohydrarthrosis.
Traumatic arthritis can be:
- closed, contain serous or serum-haemorrhagic exudates;
- open, contain purulent exudate, chronication leads to the
formation of osteophytes, welding of ankylosis epiphyses.
Infectious arthritis:
- serofibrinous, in mycoplasmosis, streptococci in calves;
- fibrinopurulent in calf pasteurellosis;
- metastatic purulent after omfaloflebite, septic processes
with localizations in various organs (uterus, endocard).
Deforming and ankylosing arthritis is established as a result
of the chronicling of exudative forms, permanent stabbing on hard
floors; brucellial infection with graft-borne localization;
phosphochalcine deficiency. (14, 26, 30, 34)
222
Rickets occurs frequently in calves raised in the intensive

system and not exposed to ultraviolet rays. Also, the vitamin D
insufficiency in food, acidosis, silos, beet leaves, which are poor in
phosphorus, promotes rickets.
Rickets calf bones of the anterior limb joints thickened, and
replacement of cartilage epiphyseal fibrous tissue, bone shortening,
low traction resistance, leading to bending and fractures of bone
diaphysis.
Osteomalacia occurs in adult animals and is a state of
hypophosphorymia caused by excessive consumption of dried
beetroot, beet leaves, molasses, borage. Lactation and gestation are
favorable conditions.
Bone trabeculae are demineralized in the central area and are
surrounded by osteoid tissue. To diagnose the diagnosis, take the
microscopic exam.
Osteoporosis is a bone disease characterized by
demineralization, fed low-fodder consumption,
hyperparathyroidism, physiological and mycotoxic
hypoestrogenism. It occurs more frequently in stabbing and occurs
in adults.
There is a delay to stopping skeletal development,
chondrocytes are small, osteoid maturation is high, and
223
mineralization is reduced. It favors delays in tooth eruption and
eruption and dental panel abnormalities. (14, 26, 30, 34)
5. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN OVINE DISEASES
5.1. The external examination is similar to that of cattle
Hypothypsea can be:

-congenital, encountered in lambs from sheep that were fed
both quantitatively and qualitatively during the gestation period; the
lamb's weight at birth is about 1kg;
-perinatal occurs as a result of hypogalacia or agalaxy of the
mother sheeps;
- tardive, occurs in breeding and fattening young people,
having similar causes as in the other species, the body having a
much reduced size (subpoderal), the muscles being much reduced
compared to normal; the internal organs meet hypotrophies (liver,
kidney and pancreatic, digestive tract and lymphoid organs); the
224
most obvious ones are encountered at the thymus level. Supernatural
is the only hypertrophied anatomical formation. (30.31)
Cachexia - is associated with chronic polyparasitism, has the
same causes and morphoclinic manifestations as in other mammals.
The eventrations are characterized by deformations in the
abdomen region due to the penetration and movement of the viscera,
through a crack of the peritoneum and abdominal muscles, into the
subcutaneous connective tissue.
They are more common in gemelar pregnancies.
Omphaloflebites occur after infection of the umbilical cord
with beta-hemolytic streptococci and staphylococci, and represent
the inflammation of the umbilical cord (veins, arteries, connective
tissue). Serious forms of metastasis occur in the internal organs. (14,
26, 30, 34)
5.1.2. Lesions of the skin, mucous membranes,

subcutaneous connective tissue, external lymph nodes and
mammary gland
Albinism of sheep is produced by an autosomal recessive

gene that prevents tyrosinase synthesis; the lambs have white coat,
pink eyes, even if they are born of colorful races; the melanic
pigment is missing from the skin, horns, ongloans.
225
Melanotrichia was described in Merino sheep, the cause
being a recessive autosomal gene; is character rized by the
appearance of black wool yarns; Melanocyte agglomeration leads to
the formation of melanomas, tumors at high risk of malignancy.
Alopecia can occur both in newborns as a consequence of
poisoning of both mothers and adults, following parasitoses, eczema
and exanthema.
Malophagia has polideficiency causes.
Facial and podal parakeratosis is common in lambs due to
deficiency in vitamin A and zinc.
Exanthemas may have several forms of morphoclinical
presentation:
- vesiculo-erosive and crustous are found in foot-and-mouth
disease and have a mammary and a posterior localization;
- papulo-vesiculo-crustous is found on the glabra skin in
variolitis;
- papulo-pustulo-crustous, in contagious ectima.
Dermatitis may have several forms of morphoclinical
presentation:
- vesiculo-pustular is produced by the migration of silylloid
larvae, and is associated with abscesses and granulomas in the
hypoderm with ventral toraco-lumbar localization;
- pustulo-crustous with frontal and dorsal-lobar area present
in dermatophila, differential diagnosis of contagious ecstasy and
226
cutaneous cut (produced by Phaenicia sericata, Wohlfhartia
magnifica and Lucilia sericata);
- parasitic: the psoroptic scab located on the skin with long
wool; sarcophytic head wrinkle - localization on lips and eyelids;
coriopic scab - localization on the limbs, nipple and scrotum skin by
males; trichophytosis; traumatic-toxic dermatitis (papules-vesicles -
brownish-white scrub) - in scab; hyperkeratosis with exfoliation and
alopecia - in trichophytosis, with facialand podal localization.
The rot of the heels is caused by infections with
Bacteroides nodosus and F. necrophorum. (it can also produce
supurativ laminitis).
Inflammation of the eyeballs and their annexes: keratitis,
uveitis, conjunctivitis, keratoconjunctivitis, produced by trauma,
irritation, allergic reactions, food and infectious causes. (14, 26, 30,
34)
Lesions of the bucal mucosa are represented by:
- ulcers, in ergotism;
- vesicles, erosions, haemorrhages, produces by physical,
chemical, toxic causes.
Stomatitis can be:
- crupal, frequently encountered in candidiasis in newborn
lambs, it expresses the debilitating and toxic states of the mother
sheep;
- vesicular in aphthous fever and vesicular stomatitis;
227
- ulcerous is characteristic in catarrhal fever (blue-tongue
disease) erosions, tongue bleeding, palatinous vein, gums, tongue is
swollen and has a blue color;
- diphtheroid, malign catarrhal fever, contagious ectima,
infection of the plaques with F. necrophorum.
The jaundice encounters in fasciolosis, leptospirosis,
chronic poisoning with CuSO4, lambs in pyelonephritis produced by
Str. zooepidemicus beta-hemolithic.
Cephalic edema, the consequence of infection of traumatic
plagues (bacterial swelling of the head in rams) in
stabotriotrixicosis.
Generalized edema is common in chronic, pulmonary, and
advanced cachexia.
Serous and serohaemorrhagic infiltrations are present in
diseases such as anthrax, malarial catarrh, and have a creature in
emphysematous coal.
Limfonodulites may have several forms of presentation:
- caseous produced by C. ovis characterized by the presence
of a yellowish-green powder;
- hyperplasic, in salmonellosis, toxoplasmosis and
hemosporidiosis;
-granulomatous actinobacillosis.
Tumors of lymphonodes - lymphosarcoma and
reticulosarcoma; sheep leukosis can be found (mandibular lymph
228
nodes, inguinal lymph nodes); these being up to 10-fold in volume,
with a slowness on the section, with haemorrhages and intratumoral
necrosis.
Mammitis can be:

- catarrhal-purulent, lesion characteristic of contagious
agalaxy;
- purulent, in infections with C. pyogenes, C. ovis, in chronic
myoplastic myoplasm;
- gangrenous - the gangrene of the sheep and goats produced
by Staph. aureus; the mammary gland is greatly enlarged in volume,
it has red-violet color, on the surface of the surface it exhibits serum
hemorrhagic edema, which infiltrates subcutaneous connective
tissue and glandular parenchyma; the gangrenous area is eliminated
over time; (Figure 3.1)
- granulomatous tproduced by Candida albicans fungal
infection;
- fibroplastic appears to follow the chronication of acute,
exudative mastitis; the mother is diminished in volume, having a
much higher consistency, a squeak is seen at the cutting; (14, 26, 30,
34)
229
5.2. Lesions of the large cavity
Hemorrhagic diathesis is an infectious disease: anthrax,

leptospirosis, foot-and-mouth disease, pasteurellosis, anaerobic
enterotoxemia type C; poisoning with CuSO4, mycotoxicosis:
(fusariotoxicosis, stahibotriotoxicosis); parasitosis (theileriosis).
Accumulations of noninflammatory liquids - represented
by ascites, hydrotorax, hydropericard meet in massive parasitic
infestations, cachexia, corneal renal diseases, myopathy of nutrition,
bacterial edema of rams.
Peritonites can be:
- serous, anaerobic enterotoxemia, necrotizing hepatitis,
Bradsot;
- serohemorrhagic, in anthrax;
- serofibrinous, in hydropericarditis, anaerobic
enterotoxemia;
- fibrinous, in acute fasciolosis (migration to the liver).
Mesenteric lymphonodulites can be:
- hyperplasic, in salmonellosis;
-granulomatous, diffuse with slowness, paratuberculosis.
Pericarditis can be:
- necrotic, in necrobacillosis;
- serous, in emphysematous coal;
230
- serohemorrhagic, in anthrax;
- fibrinous, in pasteurellosis, streptococcus lambs.
Calcification of endocardium occurs in hypercalcemia,

myopathy of nutrition, mycotoxicosis.
Subendocardiac haemorrhages (suffusions) are present in
haemorrhagic diathesis, acute salmonellosis, anaerobic
enterotoxemia and agonism.
Ulcerovegetant endocarditis occurs in lambs and is
produced by Streptococcus fecalis, and in adult Listeria
monocytogenes.
Wax necrosis (Zenker type) occurs in youth nutrition
myopia; outbreaks of dry necrosis in the myocardium also
sometimes occur in malignant catarrh fever. (14, 26, 30, 34)
Myocarditis can be:
- parenchymatous, (tiger), specific for foot-and-mouth
disease;
- necrotic, in visceral necrobacillosis;
-purulent, in listeriosis, streptococci, and as metastases in
omphalomas and omphaloflebites.
231
5.2.2. Lesions of the respiratory apparatus
Laryngotracheitis :
- edematous: pasteurellosis, bacterial head swelling in the

ram;
- catarrhal, nonspecific etiology, viral infections;
-difteroid, in lamb necrobacillosis and diphtheria;
Pulmonary congestion is favored by vicious microclimate,
increased humidity, sudden changes in temperature, high
concentrations of noxious substances such as ammonia. It is
characterized by pulmonary relaxation, bright red or red-black color,
pasty consistency, a large amount of blood is leaking on the section;
docimazia is negative, in active congestion, and between two waters
in passive congestion.
Pulmonary red infarcts are found in Pasteurellosis with
localization in the diaphragmatic lobes. It is characterized by the
presence of compact red-black areas on the section have a conical
shape with a base pointing to the pleura. Depending on evolution,
the surface has a different shape: surface proemine in acute
evolutions and are declivity in the parenchyma structure in chronic
evolutions.
232
Pulmonary edema
- non-inflammatory (stasis, toxic);
- inflammatory (toxin-infective).
It is caused by heart failure, infections. It is characterized by
the loosening of the tissue, the highlight of the lobar drawing, the
pasty consistency, on the section presents a whitish whitish liquid,
the docimasia is between two waters.
Bronchopneumonia:
- necrotic, specific for visceral necrobacillosis in lambs;
- crupal or fibrinous, pasteurellosis;
- purulent, in streptococcies and caseous lymphonodes;
- gangrenous (aspiration or foreign body), paralysis of
swallow muscles in myopathy of nutrition;
- lymphohistiocytar, pneumotropic virosis (PI3, neonatal
reo-and neonatal rotaviruses), chlamidosis, Maedi visna;
- lobular, ovine parainfluenza (Fig.3.3, 3.4)
- cystic granulomatosis - echinococcosis (Fig.3.5)
-verminous - dictiocytosis (Figure 3.6).
Tumors: pulmonary adenomatosis, leucosis, metastases.
(Fig.3.7, 3.8) (14, 26, 30, 34)
233
5.2.3. Lesions of the liver and bladder
Hepatic steatosis, commonly found in gestation toxemia,

especially in the case of bigelemic fetuses, is favored by the
deficiency of carbohydrates, microelements, amino acids. Hepatic
steatosis is also common in copper sulphate intoxications, with
photosensitive plants, heavy metal derivatives, mycotoxins.
It is characterized by a yellowish color, glossy appearance
and friable consistency.
Areactive necrosis is encountered in septic poisoning,
mycotoxicosis.
Hepatitis can be:
- parenchimatous, encountered in poisoning with arsenic
substances, mercury, CuSO4, plants, ketoneemia or gestation
toxemia; It is characterized by a yellow-rust (similar to autumn leaf),
diffuse or in focus, both on the surface and on the section, the
consistency is friable;
- necrotic in small outbreaks (milliar) in listeriosis (in
fetuses and neonates), salmonellosis, paratuberculosis in lambs;
(Fig.9)
- necrotic with large outbreaks of: necrotizing hepatitis,
visceral necrobacillosis, Campylobacter abortion; (Fig.10)
234
- apostomatotous: sepsis sepsis listeriosis in neonates,
streptococci, metastasis of purulent subermatitis, omphaloflebite
metastasis;
- granulomatous, in small outbreaks in paratuberculosis, in
large outbreaks of tuberculosis;
- fibrous interstitial: occurs through the migration or
localization of trematodes or larvae of Cysticercus tenuicollis; is
characterized by a reduction in the volume of the liver, the surface is
irregular, and numerous white stones are the traces of trauma caused
by parasites, or the bile ducts thickened by the proliferation of
connective tissue. (14, 26, 30, 34)
Hepatic cirrhosis occurs as a consequence of chronic
degenerative processes, following circulatory disorders,
inflammation and extensive necrosis. It is more common in chronic
fasciclosis and chronic mycotoxicity.
5.2.4. The bladder lesions are represented by:

- gallstones occur consecutively to parasitic infestations;
- haemorrhages and edema of the bladder wall in
mycotoxicosis;
- cholecystitis and angiocollites may be acute or cornice, and
they are caused by the irritant action of the parasites located in the
bile ducts and the biliary bile; in the case of chronic barkal colangitis
235
the bile ducts are thickened, especially on the visceral face of the
liver, of increased consistency;
Tumors of the liver
- adenomas, adenocarcinomas;
- localization of the ovine leukosis;
- metastases have other organs as their starting point. (14, 26,
30, 34)
Congenital abnormalities - splenic hypoplasia in

hypotropic lambs (Coman, 1989), the spleen is reduced in volume
and weight, poor in nodules and laryngeal periarteria, and the
conjunctive stroma is hyperplasic.
Spleen atrophy, commonly found in caecal animals, who
have undergone nutrition disorders. It can also be found in the case
of compressions from neighboring organs.
Passive or stasis congestion is encountered in chronic heart
failure or spleen torsades.
Spleen haemorrhages occur in the form of:
- bruises and subcapsular petechiae, in toxic infections;
- haematomas, in the case of trauma.
Infarctions may occur consecutively with ulcerovagnetic
endocarditis; are characterized by grayish-yellowish areas, slightly
236
decaying to the surface of the parenchyma; on the section have a
triangular shape with the base pointing towards the edge, and the
point pointing to the hill.
Splenitis or lienitis can be:
- necrotic, which occurs as a consequence of metastasis of

the necrocyte necrosis;
- haemorrhagic, found in: anthrax and is characterized by
splenomegaly with pulp rash; acute salmonellosis; toxemia, bacterial
infections; hemosporidioze;
- purulent, in the form of abscesses of different sizes in
streptococcal omphaloflebitis in lambs by metastasis; mixed
(purulent-casuous) outbreaks can also be observed in caseous or
pseudotuberculous lymph nodes;
- lymphohistiocytar may be in the form of outbreaks in lamb
salmonellosis, and diffuse in hemosporidiosis;
- granulomatous, in cysticercosis.
Tumors of the spleen: are found in leucosis and are
characterized by a spleen enlargement of several times, the spleen
follicles are highlighted, have a whitish color and a slowness on the
section; there may be tumor metastases having other organs as
starting point: lymphosarcomas, hemangiomas, fibrosarcomas,
leiomyosarcomas. (14, 26, 30, 34)
237
5.2.6. Lesions of the digestive tract
The torsion of the glandular stomach can occur after

obstruction of the sternum.
Prestomachal timpanism more encountered in lambs than
fertilizers following the anaerobic fermentation with Cl. perfringen.
Ruminal paracheratosis: Zn deficiency and vitamin A;
exclusive fodder with finely chopped or grained fodder, and is also
referred to as concentrate disease; is characterized by the increase of
ruminal papillae, of high consistency, brownish brownies (Fig.3.11)
Ruminal haemorrhages and necrosis, Staphyltoxicosis-
specific lesions.
Fibrous reticulitis, ruminitis, omasitis and abomasitis,
meet in candidiasis.
Abomasitis:
- haemorrhagic, blue-tongue disease or bluetongue of sheep
and goats;
- emphysematous, anaerobic infection: Cl. perfringens, Cl.
septicum, Cl. novyi;
- haemorrhagic infection with Cl. perfringens (type C);
- haemorrhagico-necrotic in bradsot;
238
- granulomatous can be found in paratuberculosis and is
characterized by thickening of the abomasum wall; the mucosa has
numerous cerebral-form irregularities.
Enteritis:
- catarrhal, encountered in neonatal diarrhea with reovirus
and rotaviruses; colibacillary and anaerobic enterotoxemia,
parasitosis (coccidiosis, cryptosporidiosis);
- diffuse catarrhal haemorrhage, is observed in anaerobic
enterotoxemia, malarial fever, salmonellosis, coccidiosis, mycosis
arsenic intoxication; (Fig.3.12)
- crupal, the underactive form occurs in stabiototrioxicosis;
- diphteroid, occurs in anaerobic enterotoxemia (type B);
- diffuse granulomatous, occurs in paratuberculosis and is

associated with hyperplastic mesenteric mesenteric. (Figure 3.13) (6,
14, 23, 26, 30, 34, 41)
Macular or diffuse renal melanosis, in lambs, black color in

outbreaks, or diffuse.
Fat necrosis is characteristic of gestational enterotoxiemia
and may accompany some serious intoxications and infections.
239
Bleeding black parenchyma in chronic poisoning with CuSO4; red
bluish, in anaerobic enterotoxemia.
Nephritis:
- haemorrhagic interstitial infection present in toxic,
- purulent, in streptococci and listeriosis in lambs;
- haemoglobinuric, chronic intoxication - Copper; (Figure
3.14)
- limphohistiocitary, in leptospirosis, adenoviruses.
Pyelonephritis can be ascending / descending, caused by
infection with Str. zooepidemycosis (beta hemolytic) and
polybacterial infections.
Acute toxic nephritis is noted in drug poisoning (CuSO4);
in enterotoxemia with Cl. perfringens type D or soft kidney disease.
It is favored by hyperglucid rations, milk substitutes; the kidneys in
the first hours are dystrophic (ash-whitish) so that they soon soften
(hence the name of the disease) and eventually turn into a brownish-
red magma.
Kidney tumors - nodular or diffuse localization of ovine
leucosis; nephroblastomas may also be encountered.
Hydronephroses can be uni- or bilaterally produced by
calculus, scarring stenosis, intraureuric tumors.
240
It is characterized by increased dilatation of the basin and
renal calicons due to accumulation in excess of urine; the dilation
may comprise the entire kidney that can be transformed into a bag
full of urine.
Urolithiasis occurs in rams from fattening, caused by
nutritional imbalances by Ca / P ratio change; is characterized by the
presence of urinary sand and whitish whiteish bile stones, made of
struvite crystals.
Bladder haemorrhages is common in poisoning, infection,
calculus.
Urocystitis can be: catarrhal, haemorrhagic,
pseudomembranous, purulent and proliferative being caused by
mechanical, toxic, infectious and parasitic causes.
Urinary bladder tumors are rare: benign tumors:
papillomas, fibroids; malignant tumors: carcinomas,
adenocarcinomas.
The urethra calculation can be found in the rams, and they
cause their obliteration.
Urethrites can be bluish, purulent, haemorrhagic and
ulcerative. (14, 26, 30, 34)
241
Vulvo-vaginal edema occurs due to placental retention,

mycotoxic oestrogenism, delayed involution of the uterus after
calving. It is characterized by swelling and flushing of the vulva and
vagina.
Haemorrhages and necrosis of vulvovaginal mucosa results
from distractions due to microbial complications.
Granulomatous vulvovaginitis occurs in mycoplasmosis
and is characterized by the presence of nodules and ulcers in the
vulva.
Metritis can be:
- necrotic and purulent occurs in listeriosis,
campylobacteriosis, chlamidosis and mycosis;
- haemorrhagico-necrotic production of abortion in
brucellosis;
- granulomatous millar in brucellosis;
- lymphohistiocytar, in leptospirosis, accompanied by
abortion.
Tumors:
- of the ovaries are less common and are represented by:
fibromas, adenomas, sarcomas, cystic adenocarcinomas;
242
- uterus is represented by: leiomyomas, fibromas,
leiomyofibromas, sarcomas, adenocarcinomas, ovine leucosis
localizations. (14, 26, 30, 34)
Testicular hypoplasia appears to be due to deficiencies in

the maintenance and feeding of the young for reproduction; is
characterized by the reduction in size of the testicles; lack of
differentiation of the seminal line.
Testicular atrophy is favored by malnutrition,
hipovitaminosis E, compression, pituitary hypofunction, senility,
and is characterized by the decrease in volume of the testicles after
the sexual maturity.
Orchites, periorhites, purulent (in acute evolution) and
fibrous (in the chronic) are found in mycoplasmosis.
The ram orchiepididymitis can be uni- or bilateral. and is
encountered in Brucelloza; is characterized by the presence of gray-
yellow outbreaks with creamy content, sometimes with epididymal
calcification zones; the lesions also extend to the testicles; the
necrotic outbreak may fail.
Testicular tumors may comprise Leydig interstitial cells,
Sertoli cells or germ-epithelial cells. (14, 26, 30, 34)
243
5.2.10. Lesions of the central nervous system
Poliencephalomalacia or cerebral cortex necrosis occurs in

deficiency in vitamin B1 and is characterized by cerebral edema,
increased cephalosporidic fluid, gray matter atrophy, cerebral
ramosis.
Enzooic ataxia of lambs - may be primary / secondary,
cause: congenital or postnatal hypocalcaemia; excess of sulphates
and molybdenum in food or in the environment; is characterized by
the yellow blob of cerebral and medullary white matter, with the
appearance of microcavities with a grayish-yellowish gelatinous
content.
Cerebral necrosis - necrobacillosis. (Fig.3.15)
Meningoencephalitis:
- haemorrhagic, in septicemia; (Figure 3.16)
- purulent, in streptococci, listeriosis, colibacillosis and is
characterized by the presence of small yellowish focal areas,
delimited by a congestive haemorrhagic area (Fig 3.17)
- cystic granulomatous - of parasitic nature, in cenurous,
produced by Coenurus cerebralis, and has two phases, acute or
migration and chronic or cystic (Fig.3.18)
In the acute phase, prickles develop in the hemispheres,
cerebellum and the cerebral trunk, atrophy occurs by compression of
244
the nerve and bone; locations in the canal can also occur. Due to
irritation of the blood vessels at the surface a reddish odor is
observed. (14, 26, 30, 34)
5.2.11. Lesions of the locomotor apparatus
Rickets is favored by deficiency in vitamin D and

hypocalcemia. It has the effect of delayed tooth eruption, enamel
hypoplasia, and prognosis.
Osteomalacia is favored by hypophosphorymia, phospho-
calcic imbalances, and is characterized by long bones with enlarged
marrow cavity, narrow cortical and spongy bone. It favors the
occurrence of fractures.
Osteofibrosis, less common, is characterized by the
replacement of bone tissue with fibrous tissue; is favored by the
excess of phosphates in the food (bran);
It is characterized by deformation of the jaw and nasal bones
("big head disease"); bones have low weight and low consistency,
tooth decay is common in osteofibrosis.
Calcification of tendons and ligaments is found in enzootic
calcination, favored by plants such as Solanum melacoxylon and
Trisetum flavescens.
245
Nutritional myiodistrophy is favored by hipovitaminosis E,
deficiency of sulfuric amino acids and Se; is present for up to three
months and is localized to the pelvic limb muscles, intercostals,
rarely to the myocardium, the affected muscles are discolored,
white-yellow, with increased friability. (13, 14, 16, 26, 30)
Arthritis can be:

- serofibrinous, in contagious agalactia of sheep and goats;
- fibrinous, in chlamydia;
- fibrinopurulent, in rujet;
- purulent, in streptococci in neonates (polyarthritis),
colibacillosis in lambs, subdermatitis and caseous lymphadenitis in
adults;
- ankylosing (spondylosis) as a result of chronic exudative
arthritis is characterized by thinning of the intervertebral disc
accompanied by ventral herniation; In the advanced stages of the
disease, bone proliferation occurs on the edge of two neighboring
vertebrae, which by welding performs welding, producing articular
ankylosis.
The tumors of the joints may be extensions of the bone tumor

process: condroms, condrosarcomas, osteomas, osteosarcomas (14, 26, 30,
34)
246
Fig.3.1. FIBRINOUS PLEURITIS Fig. 3.2. GANGRENOUS MAMITIS
Fig. 3.3. LOBULAR Fig.3.4. LOBULAR

BRONCHOPNEUMONIA (original BRONCHOPNEUMONIA (original A.
A. Stancu) Stancu)
247
Fig.3.5. VERMINOUS Fig.3.6. CYSTIC GRANULOMATOUS
BRONCHOPNEUMONIA BRONCHOPNEUMONIA
(after Moreland 2009) (after Moreland 2009)
248
Fig.3.7. PULMONARY ADENOMA Fig.3.8. PULMONARY ADENOMA
(original A.Stancu) (original A.Stancu)
Fig.3.9.HEPATIC MILLIAR NECROSIS Fig.3.10. NECROSIS IN LARGE

(after Moreland 2009) OUTBREAKS
(after Moreland 2009)
Fig.3.11. HAEMOGLOBINURIC NEPHRITIS Fig.3.12. CEREBRAL NECROSIS

(after Moreland 2009) (after Moreland 2009)
249
Fig.3.13. HAEMORRHAGIC Fig.3.14. PURULEN
MENINGOENCEPHALITIS MENINGOENCEPHA
(after Moreland 2009) (after Moreland 200
Fig.3.15. CYSTIC GRANULOMATOUS Fig. 3.16. RUMINAL PARACH

MENINGOENCEPHALITIS (after Moreland 200
(after Moreland 2009)
250
Fig. 3.17. DIFUSSE GRANULOMATOUS ENTERITIS Fig. 3.18. HAEMORRHAGIC
(after Moreland 2009) (after Moreland 200
6. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN HORSES
The corpse is identified by many details (sex, age, color and

color specificity, matrix number, property, etc.). Also note the date
of death, the position in which he died, the conditions in which the
body was conserved, and some anamnestic data on the onset of the
disease, the evolution, the clinical signs, the treatment applied.
The position of the corpse for the necropsy exam may be

dorsally decoupled, right-sided laterally on the right, right side, or
suspended by the rear train.
The most commonly used method, due to the fact that it does
not require any special equipment and is convenient, is the
positioning in the right lateral decubitus. This positioning is used as
a model in describing the stages of necropsy in the following. (3, 6)
251
6.1. External corpse examination
The general inspection by the body of the body will provide

information on the state of maintenance, the appearance of the hair,
the appearance of the aplomb, the development and symmetry of the
muscles, the conformation, the general appearance of the spine, the
appearance of the joints, the abnormal head and limb positions, etc.
(3, 6)
Determining the stage of cadaveric rigidity is done by

checking the mobility of the lower jaw, limbs and tail.
The examination of the tegument refers to the presence of

traumatic or decubital wounds, swelling, alopecia areas, tumors, etc.
Examination of the eyeballs and conjunctival mucosa follows

the transparency of the cornea, the color of the conjunctiva and the
possible deposits.
Examine the contents of the oral cavity (food remains,

foreign bodies) and carefully examine the labial, gingival, lingual,
palatine veins and teeth. The position of the tongue can indicate the
part that the animal agonized and died.
252
Examination of the nasal mucosa, as it is visible in the
external examination, refers to the color, the gloss, the possible
deposits, the minus and the tissue pleats. The shape of the nasal
bones and perinasal skin is examined concurrently. The examination
of the ears consists of examining the integrity of the conch and the
contents of the external auditory conduct.
Examine the perineal tegument and the degree of prolapse of

the anus. It will differentiate, if necessary, rectal cadaveric prolapse
from that of life. Cadaveric prolapse will be associated with other
cadaveric changes (tympanism, emphysema) and lifetime prolapse
will be associated with congestion, edema, necrosis and ulcers of the
rectal mucosa.
The males examine the appearance and content of furo and

the appearance of the penis. Testicular examinations in intact males
will track the presence of testicles in their bags, symmetry and
mobility.
In females, the vulva and vestibule are examined for the

appearance of skin, mucosa, and possibly normal or pathological
content. Examine the breast, mother's consistency and mammary
secretion if necessary.
The hoof test looks at the appearance of the corneous walls

as shape, integrity, crown appearance and soles. (3, 6)
253
6.1.1. External lesions
Hypotrepsy is caused by the same causes and has the same

morphological manifestations as the other species.
Rickets is more rarely encountered at 4-9 month foals, as

phosphocalcic metabolism is different from other domestic animals,
homeostasis being dependent on other factors. There is a shortening
of the diaphyses with the chest deformity. Due to these deformations
it may induce secondary respiratory insufficiency.
Osteomalacia occurs as a result of the imbalance between

the rate of mineralization and the osteoid tissue osteoarthritis by
osteoblasts. It is rarely encountered. Phosphorus deficiency and
vitamin D are the cause of this disease. Long bones and ribs that
become spongy and give low intensity trauma are affected.
Osteofibrosis occurs due to osteoclastic resorption that

exceeds the rate of bone turnover, so the free spaces are filled with
fibrous tissue. Ca: P ratio of 1: 3; oxalate-rich plants (beets) that
chelate calcium in the intestine and cause secondary
hyperparathyroidism are the causes of this disease. (3, 6)
254
It also carries the shedding of "big head disease" due to its
particular appearance. Maxillas are thickened with reduced
intermandibular space. (3, 6)
Tendinous retractions may be congenital or acquired, and

lead to abnormal positions of limbs with aplomb defects. (14, 26, 30,
34)
6.1.2. Lesions of the skin
Albinism, a form of congenital skin acromia, has as its cause

an autosomal recessive gene that induces the synthesis of tyrosinase
synthesis, an enzyme that plays a major role in melanin formation.
We observe the depigmentation of the skin, the iris, the retina and
the vagina.
Hypermelanosis is a disease found in horses. There is a

passage of melanin pigment from the skin into subcutaneous
connective tissue and superficial lymphonodes.
255
In the Lipitan breed, a significant proportion of horses that
have been going on for 20 years are carriers of melanoma tumors
(melanomas have a high degree of malignancy - malignant
melanomas).
Alopecia or atrichia is caused by chronic ergotism and can

be associated with tail gangrene.
Urticaria occurs consecutively to allergoses, and is

characterized by the presence of red papules that are produced by the
massive release of histamine.
The gangrene is produced at the level of the bone

protrusions after a prolonged decubitus. Dry gangrene is
characterized by the presence of dry, friable black areas, bounded by
a congestive haemorrhagic ditch.
Callosities (ham and saddle wefts) are formed in body areas

that come in contact with harnesses and are characterized by
thickening in the epidermis with irregular contours.
Folliculitis and acne are the consequence of infecting areas

that come in contact with the hog with piogene germs, and are
characterized by the presence of small pustules, fixed by a hairpin
and surrounded by a red ring.
256
Furunculum is the purulent inflammation of the hair follicle
and periphilic structures produced by staphylococci.
Dermatitis:
- phlegmonous is favored by microtraumatism of the

tegument infected with strepto-staphylococcus or F. necrophorum
and is characterized by the presence of subcutaneous abscesses
which open through the fistula and have ihorous odor;
- granulomatous is rare and occurs in tuberculosis; it is

characterized by the appearance of nodules, ulcers, regional
limpangitis-lymph nodal hyperplasia (on a slowness-free section);
- parasitic, occurs in the cutaneous form of oncocercosis,

located on the white, back line, with the appearance of crust-
ulcerative dermatitis; in the habronemosis in form by summer
wounds; in parafilia and is characterized by summer bleeding; in the
sarcoptic scab and is characterized by predominantly papulo-
vesicular dermatitis with exfoliation and folds of the skin.
Trichophylatia has different manifestations depending on

the etiological agent:
- T. verrucosum gives hyperkeratosis posters with

exfoliations and depilations;
- T. equinum has a moth-like appearance;
257
Umbilical lesions:
- purulent omphaloflebitis produced by transplacental

infection with S. abortus equi and postnatal with Str. Zooepidemicus
and favored by non-compliance with the rules of hygiene in calf and
umbilical cord segments;
Hoof lesions:
- aseptic laminitis is also called furburus, is caused by fodder

with high histaminogenic effect;
- gangrenous dermatitis can be produced by F.

necrophorum and is located at the crown level and Clostridium
genus localized in the interscapular region.
Skin tumors:
- cutaneous papillomatosis with various localizations; (4.1;

4.2)
- carcinoma, basalioma, melanoma tumors (benign

melanoma, malignant melanoma);
- benign melanoma is also called nevocitoma and appears as

a single or multiple neoformation, poorly defined, of high
consistency and blackish brown color;
258
- malignant melanoma appears as a variable neoformation,
brownish-brown, localized subcutaneously, in tail region, perianal,
etc. (14, 26, 30, 34)
6.1.3. Mucosal lesions
Conjunctival haemorrhages in the form of bruises and

petechiae are present in: equine infectious anemia, leptospirosis,
viral arteritis. .
Periodic ophthalmia is also known as recurrent irido-cyclo-

coroiditis and is encountered in chronic leptospirosis manifested by:
pupil deformity, keratitis, calcification of the lens and ocular
globular atrophy accompanied by blindness.
Conjunctivitis:
- catarrhal-purulent, with nonspecific etiology;
- vesiculo-pustular, in smallpox;
- granulomatous, in hornememosis.
Necrosis, edema with folds and crevices of the skin of the

lips; erosion-ulcers of the oral mucosa; hippopotamus aspect, are
characteristic lesions for stabiototriotoxicosis.
259
Ulcers, erosions and rhagades of the lips occur in
fusariotoxicosis.
Stomatitis:
- vesiculo-pustular, in smallpox;
- crupal, in candididosis by foals;
- ulcerative characterized by the presence of grayish-black

stinging on the gums and associated with negricular diarrhea in
mercury poisoning also called saturnism. (14, 26, 30, 34
The way the skin of mammals is skinned has been

extensively presented in Chapter One. On horseback, it is possible to
resort to complete skinning from the beginning, or sequential
skinning can be done on body regions as they are examined and
opened.
If anamnesis, clinical diagnosis or general body examination

suggests or clearly indicates serious illnesses such as anthrax, morve
or rabies, it is forbidden to skin and open the body, the necropsy
examination being limited to sampling for laboratory examinations.
260
Samples to be harvested will be presented in the following
subchapters. (3, 6)
Regardless of the positioning of the corpse, it is advisable to

perform the full body flaying to carry out the necropsy, providing a
complete examination of the skin and the subcutaneous connective
tissue, as well as a gain of time.
There are cases where rapid organ harvesting and harvesting

(eg brain) is needed. In these cases sequential skinning is preferable.
(3, 6)
When the body is positioned on the right side, the skin is

initially made on the left side of the body, and after the evisceration
of all the organs, the right side will be skinned. In this case, the skin
is median, ventral, starting from the intermandibular space to the
perineum, bypassing the navel to the newborn, the mother and the
external genitalia. The skin is removed separately or with the limbs
on the left side. Removal of the limbs is done by cutting the internal
musculature of the spine and the adductors followed by coxofemoral
disarticulation and cutting of the spines muscles. (3, 6)
The appearance of subcutaneous conjunctve tissue, adipose

deposits, muscle development, the possible presence of bleeding,
edema, inflammation, and tumors is appreciated.
261
The mammary gland is uncrossed by an incision that leaves
the base and goes through both halves, cutting the entire
parenchyma, including the nipples. (3, 6)
The males progressively dissect the furo with the penis,

detach from the insertion on the abdominal wall, and unfold
themselves posterior without cutting them. (3, 6)
6.2 Opening and examination of the abdominal cavity
The opening of the abdominal cavity is performed according

to the described techniques, cutting the abdominal wall along the
white line and at the level of the left hippocampus.
The general examination of the abdominal cavity is

characterized by the presence of abnormal contents such as liquids,
gases or solid bodies. The presence of gas is sensed from the point
of the abdominal wall. Gases can come from the intestine or can be
rotting gas.
262
In the case of liquids, the amount, color, transparency,
consistency (liquid, viscous, filantine, gelatinous) and odor are
appreciated.
In the case of stomach rupture, usually produced on the large

curvature, the serous and muscular are retractable, and the mucosa
and submucosa remain unchanged, appearing as a double wound,
overlapped.
It is necessary to distinguish postmortem or agonist

topographic disorders from intravital. Intravitreal disorders are
always accompanied by intestinal infarction. The affected part of the
intestine appears in dark red to black with edema and necrosis of the
mucosa, the intestine being friable (appearance of a rotten cloth). (3,
6)
The diaphragm exam will assess the serous surface, integrity,

concavity, and puncture to check for pleural vision. (3, 6)
Haemorrhagic diathesis occurs in diseases such as: viral

arteritis, leptospirosis, infectious anemia, gastric (septicemic form),
263
stahibotriotoxicosis, anasarca, where ecchymoses and serous spots
are observed.
Peritonitis:
- serous, in neonatal colibacillosis;
- serofibrinous, in the onset of the setariosis;
- purulent, in omphaloflebites and plaques of the abdominal

wall infected with piogene germs;
- gangrenous, given by anaerobic germs, and characterized

by the presence of a greyish or blackish content in the peritoneal
cavity, with a reflex odor, sometimes with many bubbles of gas;
- stercoral, after stomach rupture or through perforations of

the digestive tract;
- fibrous and / or fibro-adesive, by chronic exudative forms

and subacute setarosis, characterized by the presence of visceral
visceral viscero-visceral sinuses, which produce adhesive
peritonites;
- granulomatous, rarely found in the marsh.
Peritoneal tumors are rarer and are represented by lipomas

and locus of equine leukosis. (14, 26, 30, 34)
6.2.2. Opening the chest cavity
264
Cutting the diaphragm insertion on the left-hand wall is done
carefully so that any pleural fluid can be harvested and examined.
The opening of the chest box is done by cutting the left

costal wall in the chordocostal joints and at the level of the
superstructure. In the first instance, the chordrosteal joints are cut,
preferably with a saw. The costal wall forcing the costover-tear
joints will be cut. This is how the entire chest box is exposed.
Pneumothorax is the result of the perforating trauma of the chest
wall and the accumulation of gas from digestion in the pleural
cavity. It may be unilateral or bilateral, accompanied by pulmonary
atelectasis by compression or death (especially bilateral). (3, 6)
Pleurisies:
- serous or serohemorrhagic, encountered in viral arteritis;
- serofibrinous or fibrinopurulent, in viral pneumonia due to

complications;
- purulent, in infectious bronchial pneumonia of the fangs, in

the gourmet
6.2.3. Opening the pericardial bag
The opening of the pericardium does not make any

difference to those presented in the general part. More frequently
265
than other species, hemopericardium can occur, which is usually the
result of rupture of the aorta in the horse.
The rupture is conditioned by degenerative lesions of the

media and is occasioned by intense efforts. The rupture occurs at the
aortic trunk at any level starting from the aortic valvular ring to the
brachiocephalic trunk. Haemorrhage may have several locations:
pericardium, the most common haemorrhage localization,
hemopericardia, atrioventricular nodule and Hiss fascicle,
interventricular septum and right ventricle (aortic fistula) and aortic
wall, with the formation of dissect aneurysm which in turn break.
Spontaneous rupture of the pulmonary artery is less common than
the rupture of the aorta. (3, 6)
Hemopericard, hydropericard, chilopericard, appear as a

consequence of breaking the large vessels at the base of the heart or
chest.
- serous
- fibrinous
- purulent, caused by piogene germs.
Heart lesions:
266
Cardiac dilatation occurs in chronic pulmonary disease and
the chronic form of infectious anemia.
Cardiac hypertrophy occurs in racing horses or traction

horses, subject to sustained effort;
Protidic myocardosis (granular) is encountered in infectious

diseases (leptospirosis), and intoxication, the myocardium is
increased in volume and weight, and has a grayish white color.
Hyaline myocardosis meets in myodistrophy of nutrition to

the flesh;
Parenchymal haemorrhages in the form of bruises, bouts or

subepicardial patches are found in most septicemic diseases.
Zenker type wax necrosis is characteristic of youth

nutritional myopathy due to the deficiency of vitamin E and Se.
Myocardial infarction is encountered in infectious anemia

under the subacute form, viral arteritis and atherosclerosis of the
coronary arteries.
Myocarditis:
- purulent is met in gourm, piosepticemia of flies,

streptococcus of flies or as a consequence of metastasis of infectious
polyarthritis.
267
Endocardial calcification occurs as a consequence of
hyperparathyroidism, hypercalcemia and vitamin D overdose.
Endocarditis:
- verrucous in the form of thrombus, of different sizes, with

irregular surface, on the surface of the parietal or valvular
endocardium;
- ulcero-vegetant in: infectious anemia, gourmia,

streptococci and piosepticemia of the flies; metastases from
omphaloflebitis;
- nodular, parasitic nature, produced by Strongylus vulgaris

larvae;
- fibrous, is a chronicle of simple and verrucous endocarditis,

the endocardium is opaque and whitish.
Myocardial tumors rarely found in leukosis in the horses, in

the form of lymphosarcomas. (26, 30)
6.2.4. Evisceration and examination of cervico-thoracic

organs
268
Evisceration of organs begins with evisceration of the
tongue, pharynx, larynx, esophagus and trachea after general
technique. Due to the narrow intermandibular space and the
considerable amount of horse language, evisceration of the tongue is
made more difficult than in other species, especially in rigid bodies.
(3, 6)
Guttural pouches are normally devoid of content, with

smooth, glossy and transparent mucous membranes. Ulceration
caused by mycotic arthritis of the maxillary artery or internal carotid
artery leads to fatal bleeding in the gut.
During the evisceration of the cervical organs, the thyroid

and parathyroid will be examined and histopathological samples will
be taken. Salivary glands, lymph nodes, large blood vessels and
vaginal nerves will also be examined.
The cervical organs gradually descend from the cervical

inserts and eviscerate in one piece together with the pulmonary and
cord after double ligations on the large vessels and the esophagus
near the diaphragm. (3, 6)
Examination of the thoracic organs does not necessarily

differ from that described in mammals in general.
6.2.5. Lesions in the chest cavity
269
Pneumothorax may occur as a result of perforating trauma
to the chest wall and the accumulation of digestive gas in the pleural
cavity. It may be unilateral or bilateral, accompanied by pulmonary
atelectasis by compression or death.
Purulent rhinitis encountered in the gust of the flies, in the

form of abscesses, phlegm, ulcers.
Granulomatous rhinitis occurs in the marsh, and occurs in

the form of variable granulomas, which can form primary ulcers; by
confluence of primary ulcers, ulcers are formed on stretched
surfaces that are scarred and have a stellar appearance.
Tumors of nasal cavities are rare (papillomas, adenoids,

adenocarcinomas, fibrosarcomas).
Laryngeal edema is caused by irritants (gases, irritants);

allergic factors (serum sickness, urticaria); infectious factors
(pasteurels, B. anthracis), and is characterized by thickening of the
laryngeal mucosa, which has a yellowish-like appearance, which
leads to a reduction in the laryngeal lumen and asphyxia.
Laringotracheitis:
- catarrhal in case of vicious microclimate, viral infections;
- purulent in the gourm at the foals;
270
- granulomatous, in the morve.
Chronic alveolar emphysema occurs in animals subjected

to prolonged exercise and having the digestive tract overloaded with
feed. (Fig.4.3)
Pulmonary edema may occur in infectious diseases

(tetanus, infectious anemia), or intoxications.
Bronchopneumonia:
- catarrhal, of infectious localization in the cranial lobes and

characterized by a uniform red-cherry color of the affected areas,
obvious lobular pattern, increased consistency; In chronic
evolutions, the color becomes grayish-white; docimazia is positive
in both situations;
- necrotic is characterized by frosty gray-yellowish

outbreaks, and occurs in necrobacillosis;
- fibrinous has a 9-11-day staged evolution: congestion;

hepatic red, gray; resolution and characterized by mosaic
(pasteureloid) appearance;
- haemorrhagic, occurs in anthrax sometimes in viral

arteritis;
- purulent in the gourmet, infectious bronchopneumonia of

the fangs;
271
- gangrenous or "ab ingestis" is produced by aspiration of
food in the airways and is characterized by greenish-green outbreaks
with the emanation of a ihoros smell;
- lymphnositiocytar is found in viral infections (flies

adenovirus), or bacterial (chlamydia and mycoplasmosis);
- granulomatous as compact granulomas in bacteriosis

(tuberculosis, morrow), mycosis (aspergillosis), parasitosis
(strongilatosis and hornemosis) and cystic parasite granulomas in
echinococcosis.
- fibrous is established as a result of the chronication of

acute, bluish, fibrous, lymphohistiocular bronchopneumonia.
Pulmonary tumors:
- benign: adenomas, fibromas, hemangiomas, condroamas;
- malign: carcinomas and sarcomas (26,30,34)
6.2.6. Evisceration and examination of abdominal cavity

organs
Evisceration of the small intestine. The duodenum mesh is

cut, near the ligaments of the small colon with the duodenum,
double ligaments are applied to the colon and the duodenum. Divide
272
the duodenum into the junction and the end of the jejunum is held in
hand, stretching the mesenter, which is cut with the knife or scissors
when inserted into the small intestine. Separate the jejunum and the
ileum to the cecum, where a double ligature is applied to 10 cm of
the valve, and then severed. During evisceration of the jejunum and
ileum, the degree of fullness of the mesenteric vessels, the serous
aspect, the volume and the consistency of the intestine are
appreciated. (3, 6)
On the opposite side of the insertion of the mesenter,

brownish-black, well-defined, circumscribed, irregular in shape, in
the order of centimeters in diameter, can be seen under the intestinal
serum (jejunum, ileon, sometimes colon ascending). These
pigmented areas are the result of haemorrhages caused by silyl
migration or parietal tension. The color is given by
hemoglobinogenic pigments and the name is the hemomelasma of
the ileum. In chronic forms hemorrhage areas become fibrous.
The small colon is eviscerated starting from the rectum.

Apply a double ligature in the vicinity of the rectal ampoule, cut and
separate the small colon of the mesenter until near the previously
applied ligature, along with the duodenum, and place on a tray. The
small colon can be ejaculated with the rectum and anus after the
latter has been detached from the perineum. (3, 6)
273
Evisceration of the ascending colon and cecum is done by
separating them from the abdominal cavity organs. Thus, the base of
the cecum and the initial part of the small colon are separated. Then
the ligament of the rectum and duodenum is cut, the anterior part of
the mesenter with the large vessels, the connective tissue linking the
base of the cecum and the upper right angle of the colon with the
abdominal wall. (3, 6)
Separation of the pancreas is done carefully not to break

the wall of the intestine. Pancreas is seen through serous, serous,
where a buttock is made, then the fingers are dilated and the entire
organ is separated.
Examination of the mesenteric artery. With his left hand

he pulls the small colon, divides the ligament that binds it to the
duodenum and discovers the anterior root of the mesenter with the
vessels that pass by. It is known that frequent aneurysms and
parasitic thrombarthritis are present in this artery and its branches.
To examine the mesenteric artery, remove the left kidney, cut the
aorta 5 cm anterior and posterior to the origin of the mesenteric.
With the origin of the mesenter, the part of the abdominal aorta with
the mesenteric artery and its ramifications is removed. (3, 6)
Of the intestinal strongils, only Strongylus vulgaris affects

the arterial system. Verminous arterial lesions are often referred to
as incorrect aneurysms due to the increase in external diameter but
274
this increase is due to thickening of the arterial wall and not to
lumen growth. Rarely, aneurysms may occur, saphorect or fusiform,
as a result of arterial wall atrophy. (3, 6)
Larvae injure arterial intima that thrombosis subsequently

develops. Following mesenteric artery thrombosis, intestinal
infarction may occur. Coronary thrombosis usually affects the right
coronary and leads to myocardial infarction. Similar consequences
follow the verminous valvular endocarditis but the location is rarer.
The brachiocephalic truncated embolus is particularly important
when the embolus contains larvae that will then migrate into the
brain producing encephalomyelia. Renal artery thromboembolism
produces kidney infarctions and, more rarely, larvae passage into the
urine.
Chronic endometrial inflammation, with thrombosis and

perpetual conjunctive organization, results in thickening, fibrosis
and mineralization of arterial walls, the formation of sinuous
luminescence, with a non-homogeneous caliber, with thrombus
masses in which the larvae can be identified. (3, 6)
Evisceration of the spleen is performed after examination of

the hill and vessels. Divide the ligaments that bind it to the left
kidney, diaphragm and stomach.
275
Evisceration of the stomach and duodenum is done after a
preliminary examination of the degree of plenitude and the
relationship with neighboring organs. Separate the ligament that
connects the stomach with the diaphragm, then cut the esophagus
and separate from the connective tissue. Divide the ligament of the
kidney and mesenter duodenum by eviscerating the stomach with the
duodenum. (3, 6)
When the situation so requires, the duodenum can be opened

on the spot to examine the permeability of the collage and the
pancreatic duct. The permeability of the bile duct is determined by
the massage of the liver in the direction of the hill. (3, 6)
6.2.7. Lesions of the digestive system
Stomach dilatation occurs in indigestion by overload,

fermentations, intoxications, stahibotriotoxicosis; The stomach wall
is thin, the mucosa atrophied with the disappearance of the folds;
The stomach rupture on the large curve is accompanied by steric
peritonitis that is deadly.
Topographic changes of the stomach:
276
- displacements and torsion, followed by tympanism by gas
accumulation and infarction, due to stasis congestion;
- transdiaphragmatic hernia occurs in the horse by

removing the diaphragm produced by overloaded stomach
compression; the stomach walls are infected with a red-violet
coloration.
Gastritis:
- catarrhal, non-specific, caused by intoxications, parasites

and foreign bodies;
- haemorrhagic, traumatic, as a result of the ingestion of

sharp foreign bodies accompanied by melen;
- purulent, apostomatotic or phlegmonous in the gangle of

the flies or as complications in gastrophilosis and parascariosis;
- dipteroide, is observed in the case of aspergillus sp.
- hypertrophic, following: chronic exudative forms,

excessive administration of coarse or moldy feed and is
characterized by thickening of the gastric wall; the mucosa has
numerous irregularities;
277
- granulomatous is rare, can be observed in the horseshoe
habonemosis.
Stomach tumors:
- benign, may be papillomas and fibroids;
-malign, carcinomas are more common with cardiac

localization, sarcomas being rarely encountered. (14, 26, 30, 34)
Topographic changes of the intestines commonly found in

the horse due to neurovegetative disorders, digestion of the digestive
tract, and especially after food.
- the volvulus, knotting around the mesenter, pedicular

tumors encountered more frequently in the jejunum and the down
colon, as a consequence of which infarction zones develop; (Figure
4.4)
- the intrusion consists in the penetration of a segment into

another segment: they can be found at the level of the jejunum,
ileum and check;
- torque or twisting a segment around the longitudinal axis;
- umbilical hernias encountered at the flesh, inguinal stones

encountered in the stallion.
278
The edema of the I and III anses, of the caecum peak are
encountered in viral arteritis.
Obstructive changes:
- coprostase, consists of accumulation and stagnation of

feces in the intestinal lumen accompanied by necrosis and
detachment of the intestinal mucosa, causes exaggerated
consumption of dried fodder in conjunction with the lack of water;
- obstruction of caecum and colon of meconium seen in

neonates;
- obstruction of the ileum due to compression of the

intestinal contents during weaning.
Enteritis:
- catarrhal, in colibacillosis at foals;
- haemorrhagic, viral arteritis, salmonellosis, enterotoxemia,

anthrax and may be localized or diffuse;
- purulent, in infections with piogene germs;
- diphtheroid, seen in viral arteritis and aspergillosis;
- granulomatous nodular, aspergillosis and strongiloses and

diffuse form in paratuberculosis, less common.
279
Tumors of the intestines, rarely encountered, can be:
- benign: fibromas, mixomatomas, leiomyomas;
-malign: sarcomas and adenocarcinomas.
Liver evisceration is performed by the diaphragm ligament

section, the diaphragm hepatic capsule adhesions, then the falciform
ligament and the teres ligament (oblique vein ligament). The
coronary ligament is reached, it is cut as the ligaments of the right
lobe of the liver with the right kidney and the diaphragm. (3, 6)
The liver can be eviscerated, especially in small subjects,

simultaneously with spleen, stomach, duodenum and pancreas,
sometimes even with the diaphragm.
This method has indications in the topographical changes of

these organs.
After the liver, the pancreas is eviscerated. (3, 6)
Examination of the liver. Once bile duct permeability has

been verified, the blood vessels are examined, the hepatic artery and
the port vein are sorted, then the shape, color, surface, and edges of
the liver are examined. It appreciates the length, width and weight of
the liver. The sections in the liver are made on the visceral side so
that the bile ducts intersect, and consistency on the section. (3, 6)
280
Older horses frequently encounter an atrophy of compression
of the right lobe. With age, the decrease in volume and lipofuscin
deposition occurs, giving the liver a darker color, known as the
brown atrophy of the liver. (3, 6)
6.2.8. Lesions of the liver
Atrophies can be:
- localized appear as a result of compressions produced by

abscesses, parasitic cysts, tumors, compact granules, etc .; Liver is
reduced in full volume (generalized atrophy), or only in certain areas
(localized atrophy);
- generalized, in cow animals suffering chronic diseases, in

old animals, in inanimate states, etc .;
Fatty hepatosis occurs in poisoning, the liver being enlarged

in volume and weight, the tensioned and glossy capsule; The color is
yellowish, the friable consistency that favors liver leaks most often
deadly.
281
Hemosiderosis is a lesion characteristic of infectious
anemia, but can also be found in other diseases that produce massive
hemolysis such as babesiosis; The liver has a higher consistency,
brownish-brown color; The diagnosis is based on the microscopic
examination.
Stasis (muscad) liver, passive congestion occurs in

infectious anemia due to severe heart failure. Larger liver in volume
and weight, thin and tense capsule; cyanotic color; the frizzy
consistency, a large amount of black blood drains on the section; the
appearance of the liver varies depending on the stage of evolution of
the stasis: in acute stasis, the liver has a red-cherry or blackish color,
in the chronic stasis, the lobular drawing is obvious (center =
cyanotic, mediolobular = yellow, periphery = red-brown); defines
the appearance of liver in the cocardial or muscad liver (chronic
stasis). (3, 6)
Areactive necrosis is found in stabotriotrixicosis.
Hepatitis:
- parenchymal, consequence of intoxications and viral

hepatitis;
- necrotic, occurs in rhinopneumonia;
282
- purulent, occurs in: gourm, streptococcus and
piosepticemia of the flies, infectious bronchopneumonia;
- fibrosis (cirrhosis), is established as a result of chronic

degenerative, circulatory and inflammatory diseases;
- granulomatous tuberculosis, larvae and larval strongyloses.
Hepatic tumors have a rather high incidence and are

adenomas, adenocarcinomas. (14, 26, 30, 34)
6.2.9. Evisceration and examination of the kidneys

and suprarenal glands will be preceded by a careful examination of
the vascular and urinary tracts followed up into the pool. If there are no
changes, remove the kidneys and adrenal glands with a portion of the
ureter. A circular section of the aperitone is made around the kidneys, is
isolated with the adrenal gland, the ureters are cut and eviscerated. In case
of changes in the ureters or if an anamnesis shows an illness of the
excretory device, the kidneys will eviscerate with the basin organs. (3, 6)
Evisceration of basin organs requires the cutting of pubic

symphysis, then bladder, genital and rectal removal.
The kidneys first examine the left kidney, then the right
kidney. The size and shape is appreciated. The right kidney has a
heart shape and the left bean bean. The kidney capsule is white-gray,
transparent and easy to detach from parenchyma. After removal of
283
adipose-connective tissue, the length, width and thickness of the
organ is measured. For slicing, the kidney is immobilized with the
left palm of the palm on a flat surface and the section is made on the
large curve. Examine the contents and appearance of the mucosal
membrane of the renal pelvis. The mucosa must be smooth and
white-gray. In horses, there is always a misty, glassy, yellowish-
yellow mucus in the basin. (3, 6)
Renal hemosiderosis is characteristic of infectious anemia

and is characterized by a rusty color of the kidneys.
Steatosis kidney steatosis is caused by intoxications, toxico-

septicemic diseases.
Renal amyloidosis is more common after hyperimmune

actions, the kidneys being enlarged in volume, yellowish in color,
and in the section has glassy, translucent focal areas, the cortical
area.
Subcapsular haemorrhages occurs in poisoning with

coumarin derivatives.
284
Purulent glomerulonephritis is reported in gourd,
streptococci, pilosepticemia of flies, omphaloflebitis, purulent
endometritis and ulcerovegetant endocarditis. The kidneys are
enlarged in volume and have small, yellowish-yellowish
microbeads, sometimes surrounded by a red ring, on the surface and
on the surface in the cortical area.
Interstitial haemorrhagic nephritis is present in the acute

evolution of leptospirosis. The kidneys exhibit both the cortical and
the medial red-violet focus on the size of a millet grain.
Interstitial lymphohistiocular nephritis occurs in

leptospirosis and infectious anemia, subacute evolution; presence on
the surface as well as in the cortical kidney of gray-whitish
outbreaks, which are under the capsule; on the cross-sectional area,
the whitish outgrowths have a slowness character and appear in the
form of strips, parallel, of the same color as the outer, cortical and
renal medulla. (3, 6)
Purulent pyelonephritis represents the purulent

inflammation of the basin and renal parenchyma and is produced by
piogene germs. (3, 6)
Hydronosephrosis is excessive dilation of the pelvis, renal

parenchyma is thin, due to excessive accumulation of urine. It
occurs due to ureters being removed by scarring stenosis, calculus,
285
intraureural tumor, etc. The rectangle and the kidney calves are
dilated by the degree and duration of the obstruction. (3, 6)
Urolithiasis is more common in males than in females, with

calculations being in 99% of cystine cases, over which calcium
carbonate crystallizes. Renal calculi are rough, causing irritation on
their way to the gate of elimination. (3, 6)
Bladder calculosis is accompanied by irritation,

haemorrhage, inflammation and obstruction of the urethra at the
level of the ischiadic flexure by stallions.
Urocystitis:
- catarrhal appears as a follow-up of bladder calculus;
- haemorrhagic, evolves with hematuria and occurs in

some mycotoxicosis.
Tumors can be:
- benign: adenomas; bladder papillomas;
- malign: carcinomas; adenocarcinomas;
6.2.11. Examination of abdominal cavity organs
286
The spleen is set downhill, length, width, thickness and
weight are measured. The color should be blue-gray, slightly
wrinkled, glossy and transparent. The consistency is full and the
splenic corpuscles on a red-brown background are visible on the
section. The spleen lymph nodes, the spleen and the spleen vessels
are examined. The spline is longitudinally sectioned from the base to
the top, over its entire thickness. (3, 6)
Congenital abnormalities, spline accessories may be noted.
Spleen atrophy occurs: in caecal horses, undernourished,

senile; by compression.
Amyloidosis of the spleen occurs in horses used for the

production of hyperimmune sera and vaccines. The deposition of
amyloid occurs at the periphery of the lymphoid follicles. On the
section there are small tanslucian nodules of the size of a millet
grain, (amyloid focal lymph node = "sago"). (26, 30)
Congestion of stasis, in chronic heart failure and in spleen

torsion.
287
Haemorrhages and infarctions in viral arteritis and
infectious anemia.
Splenitis can be:
- diffuse haemorrhagic in babesiosis;
- haemorrhagico-necrotic, anthrax carbuncles;
- purulent, frequent in the gourmet, streptococcus of the

fangs and in the case of metastases;
- hyperplasic, is established in salmonellosis,

fusariotoxicosis, isomic hemolytic anemia, babesiosis;
- granulomatous, in tuberculosis, strongiloses.
Splenomegaly, is seen in infectious anemia (acute and

subacute forms), and metastasis of melanosarcomas.
Tumors of the spleen:
- hemangioma, lymphosarcoma, reticulosarcoma,

fibrosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma;
- localized leukosis of the horses: lymphoid, plasma-cytoid,

leukemic and aleukemic forms. (14, 26, 30, 34)
The pancreas exam is done in terms of shape, size, color and

consistency. Cut the head of the right and left lobes of the pancreas
288
by checking the amount of blood flowing, the color, the consistency
and the drawing of the pancreatic tissue. (3, 6)
The suprarenal glands are examined by detaching them from

the surrounding fatty tissue, assessing shape, size, and weight. Then
cross sectionally and seriously. In young animals, the cortical
substance is poor in lipoids, therefore it has a reddish color, while in
adults, because of the abundance of lipoids, the color is yellow-
matte or yellow-ocher.
The stomach and duodenum have a smooth, white-gray,

bright surface. Examine form and volume, wall consistency and
serous aspect. Measurements are made on the large and small
curvature of the stomach, from the heart to the chest. (3, 6)
The stomach is opened by one of the techniques described in

the general part. The character of stomach content is appreciated by
the amount of gases, liquids, semi-liquids, compact masses, foreign
bodies (blood, ball, foreign bodies, etc.) and odor. The thickness of
the gastric wall is estimated on the section. The esophagus of the
gastric mucosa has a whitish color, while the gastric mucosa is
velvety and may be reddish-gray to light-red. (3, 6)
Examination of the small intestine. It is known that usually

the small intestine is white-yellow in color and is approximately
289
uniformly calibrated. Serous should be on its smooth and transparent
length. (3, 6)
The opening of the intestine is done with the enterotom, the

longer arm is inserted into the lumen, dividing the mesenter insertion
line. Fluid, grayish-cloudy, almost odorless small intestine content.
Examination of the large intestine. Divide the cecum

ligament ligament into the ventral segment of the large colon,
examine the vessels, lymph nodes, and open the chest. The serum of
cecum and colon should be glossy, smooth and transparent. (3, 6)
Through a 2 cm section of the mesenter insertion space, open

the upper part, apply the shoulder of the ceuum. The content of the
large intestine in horses, usually has a consistency of porridge in the
cecum and colon, while the crotch will form in the small colon.
Typically, the large intestinal mucosa is smooth, red-gray and
glossy, and the lymphoid follicles can be observed with the naked
eye. (3, 6)
6.2.13. Evisceration and examination of genital and urinary

organs
Male genital apparatus. The genito-urinary organs are

placed on the necropsy table with the dorsal face up (the rectum
occupies the upper position). Examine the penis and penis gland and
290
examine the permeability of the urethral canal with a probe. The
urethral canal opens with a buttoned scissors. The urethra must be
empty, with the lumen equal, and the mucus smooth and glossy. At
the same time, the cavernous body of the penis is examined through
transversal sections.
Examination of urinary bladder, ureters, glands and testes

will be done according to general methodology. In castrated animals,
wounds, and testicular cord abutments will be carefully examined.
(3, 6)
Anorchitis, lack of testicles in the stallion.
Cryptochitis, testicular retention in the abdominal cavity or

their migration pathway, the testicles being diminished in volume
and with increased consistency.
The pasty edema of the prepuce, the scrotum with the

extension to the perineal and subadominal area, meets in the
dourine.
Orchites and periorhites:
291
- serous or hemorrhagic may appear as a consequence of
testicular testicular contusions;
- vesiculo-erosive in durin;
- purulent meet in diseases caused by piogene germs, more

often in the gourmet;
- fibrous, is the form of healing of exudative orchids, and is

followed by testicular sclerosis;
- granulomatous, found in tuberculosis.
The pustulous exanthema can be seen on the gland, penis,

furous and is found in the coital.
Balanopostitis usually occurs after trauma or post castration

and may have several morphological forms of presentation:
- catarrhal, non-specific, is characterized by a slight

congestion and the presence of a breech discharge;
- erosive, encountered in durin;
- vesiculo-pustular, characterized by reddish pustules

sometimes with yellowish tinge, is encountered in the villous coital
exanthema with localization at the gland, where small gray-whitish
vesicles are observed, the breakage of which forms erosions;
- purulent, produced by piogene germs;
292
- granulomatous, occurs in hornemosis in the form of ulcers
that can ulcerate.
Phimosis, is a stenosis of the foreskin opening that prevents

the penis from coming out.
Paraphimosis, is a strain of the preputial opening behind the

gland and the penis, which no longer penetrates the preputium
sheath.
The lesions of the vaginal sheath are represented by

circulatory changes:
- hydrocele represents a transsudate accumulation in the

vaginal cavity and is caused by compressions of inflammatory fluids
and tumor processes;
- chylocele is an accumulation of lymph in the vaginal

cavity;
- haematocele represents a build up of blood in the vaginal

cavity, both of which are caused by trauma; the vaginal cavity is
increased in volume and has a fluctuating consistency.
Vaginalitis are inflammatory processes that appear

secondary to orchids, epididymites and peritonitis, can be:
- acute, serous, fibrous, haemorrhagic;
293
- chronic, fibrous or fibroactive.
Lesions of the spermic funicule:
- varicocele is the testicular vein dilation;
- funiculitis is a septic complication (Staphylococcus aureus)

that occurs after castration and can be located intrascrotal, inguinal
or abdominal; The funiculus is enlarged, roughly upon palpation, the
castration wound without a scarring tendency, with a leaking
purulent exudate; is called the mushroom of castration.
Penis tumors are melanomas and sarcomas.
The female genital apparatus.
The size, wall thickness, and contents of the uterus are

appreciated, especially if death occurred shortly after parturition.
In the assessment of uterine content the estral cycle is taken

into account. During the heat, the lining of the uterus is swollen, red
and covered with a glass mucus.
Topographic changes most commonly encountered are

uterine prolapse and uterine torsion, aspects readily diagnosed by
circulatory profound changes. In the case of torsion, the direction
and degree of torsion shall be indicated.
294
Examination of the rectum. The content of the rectum and
the appearance of the mucosa are appreciated. Percutaneous wounds
of the rectum are readily diagnose, tracking rectal explorations. The
rectal rupture, after exploration, is located at the rectum's entry into
the abdominal cavity, approximately 30 cm from the anus.
Peritonitis occurs after rectal rupture or, if it is located later,
periarthrial abscesses occur. (3, 6)
Genital infantilism is the lack of development of the entire

female genital apparatus and occurs due to hormonal imbalances.
Ovarian lesions:
Congenital ovarian abnormalities are rare.
- ovarian hypoplasia can be observed in females maintained

under zoo and inadequate nutrition, the ovaries are small in size;
being constituted only from conjunctivo-vascular tissue, devoid of
germinating epithelium.
Ovarian atrophy consists of a reduction in the ovary

volume after sexual maturity, caused by hormonal disorders, sterility
or compression exerted by cysts, tumors, etc .;
295
Ovarian cysts can be:
- follicular, is formed due to the absence of LH that induces

cystic degeneration of the follicle, being caused by policing, toxin-
infective, metabolic diseases; It is characterized by the presence of
thin and translucent vesicles containing a slightly yellowish, serous
fluid;
- lutheal, rarely occurring, is formed due to insufficient LH

secretion, which causes partial granulation of luteinization; the
thickness of the walls is uneven, the content has a slight reddish
tinge, rich in progesterone;
- yellow body cyst, is formed from a Graaf follicle in which

ovulation occurred but luteal transformation was incomplete; the
center of the yellow body has a cavity filled with citrine liquid,
which is surrounded by a thick and uniform wall;
- persistent yellow body cyst, invasion of the yellow body of

warmth or gestation, leads to a hormonal imbalance; is characterized
by the presence of prominent yellowish nodules, the persistent
yellow body differs from the physiological yellow body by
microscopic examination.
Ovarian haemorrhages may be infectious, mycotoxic, or

may occur by enucleation of the persistent yellow body.
296
Ovaritis:
- serous and haemorrhagic, traumatic or hormonal;
- purulent, infections with piogene germs;
- fibrous, chronic ovarian osteoarthritis.
Ovarian tumors are rarely encountered;
- benign fibromas, adenomas;
- malign represented by sarcomas, cystic adenocarcinomas.
Uterine lesions
The uterine rupture is caused by distortions;
Uterine torsion and uterine prolapse, due to circulatory

stasis they produce, promote infarction of the uterus.
Infarction of the uterus is characterized by thickening of

the walls, red-violet color sometimes to blackish with odor, fluid
content, red-black with repellent odor.
Uterine haemorrhages:
- metrorrhagia is the removal of blood through the vagina to

the outside;
297
- haematometer consists of the accumulation of blood in the
uterine cavity.
The most common plancentitis are serous and

haemorrhagic accompanied by abortion and seen in equine
rhinopneumonia and salmonellosis.
Metritis:
- catarrhal with nonspecific etiology, characterized by the

presence of a whitish deposit on the surface of the uterine, congested
and edematous mucosa;
- necrotizing, is produced by staphylococci in combination

with the necrosis bacillus;
- purulent, produced by piogene germs and characterized by

the presence of abscesses or pus only in the uterine cavity;
- gangrenous, installs as a trauma to the uterine wall

associated with anaerobic germs; the uterus is edified, creamy and
has an increased friability with a red-brown content with a fuzzy
odor;
- hyperplasic, represents the chronication of acute metastases

and is formed by accentuated lymphohistiocular proliferation; may
develop in the form of wall thickening, retention microchips or
thinning of the uterine lining in chronic development.
298
Tumors of the uterus are less common in the mare:
- benign: fibromas, leiomyomas or mixed;
- malign: sarcomas and adenocarcinomas.
Cervical, vaginal and vulvar lesions
Vaginal haemorrhages can be observed following

distortions.
Vaginal prolapse can be encountered both before and after

calving in the old lambs.
Vaginitis can be:
- serous, purulent, ulcerative, and meet in dourine.
Vulvovaginites can be:
- necrotizing occurs as a consequence of complications with

necrosis bacillus; affected areas are covered by grayish-yellowish
membranes;
- vesiculo-pustular, occurs in the coital exanthema and is

characterized by the presence of reddish pustules, sometimes with
yellowish tint, which can cause erosion and ulcers if broken.
299
- gangrenous is produced due to the intervention of
anaerobic germs (Cl. perfringens, Cl. septicum) following
distortions, and is characterized by the crepid edema of the vulva
and the adjacent regions releasing a ihorous odor;
The pustulous exanthema of the vulva appears in the

varicose veins and the viral coital exanthema.
Tumors can be:
- benign: fibromas, papillomas, leiomyomas, mixedomas and

polyps;
- malign: sarcomas, melanosarcomas. (14, 26, 30, 34)
6.2.16. Evisceration and examination of the nervous system
The general technique for cutting the calotte and eviscerating

the encephalus is perfectly valid for the horse.
In suspected cases of leptomening or encephalitis, smears are

performed or cerebrospinal fluid is harvested under sterility
conditions for sowing and smear just before the cranial box is cut.
After removal of the meningel, the shape, size and symmetry

of the two cerebral hemispheres, sulcuses and gyruses are
appreciated.
300
Segmentation of cerebral formations is generally transverse.
(3, 6)
6.2.17. Lesions of the nervous system
Choroid plex cholecysteatosis occurs in older horses and

translates to the presence of cholesterol and cholesterol esters in the
coroid plexus in the form of small sized nodules that produce
compressions on lateral ventricular walls.
Circulatory disorders: congestion, edema and

haemorrhage, caused by physical, toxic, infectious factors, etc.
- congestion of the encephalus consists of dilation of the

meningoencephalic vessels accompanied by the accumulation and
stagnation of the blood (passive congestion) and without blood
stagnation (active congestion) in the meningocephalic vessels;
- cerebral edema, characterized by a wet and shiny

appearance of the encephalus, due to the presence of gray fluid in
the hemispheres of the cerebral hemisphere, is a lethal lesion;
301
- cerebral haemorrhages occurs as a result of vascular
rupture; following trauma or illness such as: gourm,
stahibotriotoxicosis, infectious meningoencephalitis; is characterized
by the presence of petechiae or blood vessels depending on the
severity of the bleeding.
Hydrocephalia is the excessive accumulation of

cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space or cerebral ventricles;
is characterized by the accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid which
leads to atrophy by compression of the nervous tissue.
Encephalomalacia is a wet necrosis of the encephalus

produced by mycotoxins of undetermined origin, with lethal
evolution.
Meningoencephalitis:
- haemorrhagic occups in viral arteritis and not

characterized by bleeding infiltration in association with
ramification of the nerve;
- purulent produced by piogene germs and characterized by

abscesses of different sizes;
- lymphohistiocytar is caused by viruses that have only

tropism, or even for the central nervous system, can be found in
toxoplasmosis.
302
Nervous system tumors are: glioma, angioblastoma,
sarcoma, etc. (14, 26, 30, 34)
6.2.18. Examination of nasal cavities and sinuses
Nutrition miodistrophy is also known as white muscular

disease, occurs more frequently in the first few weeks of life, less
commonly seen in weaned flies and adult horses. It is caused by
deficiency in vitamin E and selenium. The affected muscles are
discolored, they have a similar appearance to the fish, dried and
waxy meat. (3, 6)
Muscle hematomas are traumatic lesions, coumarin

derivatives poisoning, hippocytaminosis K, or diseases such as
classical haemophilia of the fangs that occurs due to the absence of
coagulant protein VIII.
Myoglobinuria is also called myoglobinuric myopathy,

and it is usually found in well-behaved horses that have been
subjected to effort after a few days' rest. Favorable factors are
carbohydrate-rich diet, rest, effort, etc. The morphopathology is
303
characterized by necrobiosis and fragmentation of muscle fibers,
then the release of myoglobin and its elimination by the kidney. (3,
6)
The affected musculature has a yellowish color due to the

high content of lactic acid, and hemorrhages or muscle rupture are
seen on the section.
Myosites can be:
- serous, fibrinous and fibrino-haemorrhagic installs as

following traumas as localized process or toxin infections as a
generalized process;
- purulent and the phlegmon of the grab, are produced by

piogene germs that graft onto contusions, harnesses, or Onchocerca
cervicalis; appears as swelling without precise, edematous, and
fluctuating consistency, with fistulas of different sizes being
installed over time;
- fibrous, it is a chronic inflammation that appears to be a

form of ending acute inflammation and is characterized by the
presence of white pearls that have a high consistency, cutting them
with a certain difficulty.
Muscle tumors:
304
- benign: fibroamas, rhabdomyomas, lipomas;
- malignt: rabdomiosarcoame, liposarcoma.
Tendinitis and tenosynovitis are caused by mechanical,

infectious and parasitic factors and can be:
- serous, serofibrinous, haemorrhagic and purulent in

which the tendon is enlarged in volume, flaccid and exudate in the
peritndinous space, aspect characteristic of the exudative tendencies;
- fibroblastic where the tendon has a high consistency and
has peritendinous connective tissue;
- granulomatous, produced by parasites of the genus
Onchocerca, and is characterized by the presence of nodosities on
the tendon of limb flexor tendons and at the level of muscle fractures
and aponevroses.
6.2.19. Spinal column and rahidian marrow examination
Remove the spine muscles as close as possible to the bone base. The
opening of the vertebral canal is similar to that shown in the dog. When the
muscles are cut, a thorough examination is performed. The color and
symmetry of muscular development are appreciated. Every change is
recorded and followed in deep plans. (3, 6)
305
Once the spinal canal is opened, its interior is appreciated in terms of
uniformity, color and content. The spirituous mud must have a firm
consistency, and the drawing of the gray matter should be observed on the
section. (3, 6)
6.2.20. Examination of the locomotor apparatus
Extensive examination of the limbs is required when required by an

anamnesis or inspection. In general, examination of the limbs is reduced to
a thorough inspection of them. In the shown situations, deep, longitudinal
and transverse incisions in the musculature are practiced. Synovial tears
open, longitudinally section the tendons, open the joints, examine the
synovium, the articular capsule, the articular cartilage. Muscle development
is appreciated, and on the surface of the section, color and structure.
Skeletal musculature in horses is dark red to reddish-brown. (3, 6)
Bone marrow, in adult and well-maintained animals, looks fat and

yellow. Normally in the humerus and femur can be found red bone marrow
islets. This aspect should be considered when interpreting lesions from
infectious horse anemia or other diseases with chronic regenerative anemia.
In senile and cowhide animals, the long bone marrow has a slightly pink-red
and slightly yellowish appearance. (3, 6)
306
6.2.21. Lesions of the locomotor apparatus
Muscular atrophy occurs due to inactivity in cahectic animals and in

elderly animals.
Nutrition miodistrophy is also known as white muscular disease,

occurring more frequently in the first few weeks of life, more rarely seen in
weaned flies and adult horses. It is caused by deficiency in vitamin E and
selenium. The affected muscles are discolored, they have a similar
appearance to the fish, dried and waxy meat. (3, 6)
Muscle hematomas are traumatic lesions, coumarin derivatives
poisoning, hippocytaminosis K, or diseases such as classical haemophilia of
the fangs that occur due to the absence of coagulant protein VIII.
Myoglobinuria is also called myoglobinuric myopathy, and it is
usually found in well-behaved horses that have been subjected to effort after
a few days' rest. Favorable factors are carbohydrate-rich diet, rest, effort,
etc. The morphopathology is characterized by necrobiosis and
fragmentation of muscle fibers, then the release of myoglobin and its
elimination by the kidney. (3, 6)
The affected musculature has a yellowish color due to the high
content of lactic acid, and hemorrhages or muscle ruptures are seen on the
section.
Myosites can be:
307
- serous, fibrinous and fibrino-haemorrhagic installs as following
traumas as localized process or toxin infections as a generalized process;
- purulent and phlegmon of the withers, are produced by piogene
germs grafting on the lesions resulting from contusions, harnesses, or
Onchocerca cervicalis; appears as swelling without precise, edematous, and
fluctuating consistency, with fistulas of different sizes being installed over
time;
- fibrous, is a chronic inflammation that appears as a form of ending
acute inflammation and is characterized by the presence of white pepper
areas that have a high consistency, cutting them out with some difficulty.
Muscle tumors:
- benign: fibroamas, rhabdomyomas, lipomas;
- malign: rabdomyosarcoamas, liposarcomas.
Tendinitis and tenosynovitis are caused by mechanical, infectious
and parasitic factors and can be:
- serous, serofibrinous, haemorrhagic and purulent in which the
tendon is enlarged in volume, flaccid and exudate in the peritndinous space,
aspect characteristic of the exudative tendencies;
- fibroplastic in which the tendon has a high consistency and has
peritendinous connective tissue;
- granulomatous, produced by parasites of the genus Onchocerca,
and is characterized by the presence of nodosities on the tendon of the limb
flexor tendons and at the level of the muscles and aponevroses.
308
6.2.22. Lesions of the joint
Osteocondrosis is chronic arthropathy, characterized by

depolymerization of articular cartilage, being favored by traumatic
factors, synovial fluid excess, etc.
It is characterized by the presence of erosions and ulcers in

the articular cartilage, the bone is discovered, with haemorrhagic
areas or with necrosis processes.
Hydartrosis and haemarthrosis are circulatory disorders of

a traumatic nature and are characterized by the presence of
transsudate and / or blood in the articular cavity.
Arthritis is caused by traumatic and infectious factors and

can be:
- exudative: serous in which the presence of a yellowish

liquid, sometimes with a reddish tint, is observed; fibrinous in
which shows synovial cloudy fluid with fibrin flocs; purulent in
which purulent collections of different dimensions are observed;
- deformant characterized by proliferation, condylos and

osteophytes;
- ankylosant disorder characterized by the proliferation of

osteophytes in the articular cavity or their periarticular union.
309
- the purulent polyarthritis and politenosinovites, in the case
of omphaloflebitis metastases.
Bone marrow fetal islands are characteristic of equine

infectious anemia and are translated by the presence of red islands of
different sizes.
Bone haemorrhages are usually of a traumatic nature can be

superficial and profound.
Bone fractures can be opened and closed.
Osteoperiostitis is caused by increased trauma and can be:
- serous, fibrinous or fibrinohaemorrhagic, in severe

trauma, the affected region having a red-cherry color, low
consistency especially in the spongy bones;
- purulent, following streptococcal infection in the flesh, and

characterized by purple subperiosteal or cartilage collection.
Hyperostoses (exo-, eno- and osteophytes - osteitis osteitis)

occur as a result of mechanical stress for long periods in abnormal
positions. It is characterized by well-defined bony excisions of
310
different sizes at the surface of the bone called exostosis, to the
medullary channel called enostoses, or near joints called
osteophytes.
Tumors:
- benign: condromas, osteomas;
- malign: condrosarcoamas, osteosarcomas. (14, 26, 30, 34)
311
Fig. 4.1. AURICULAR Fig. 4.2. AURICULAR
PAPILLOMATOSIS (original PAPILLOMATOSIS (original
A.Stancu) A.Stancu)
Fig. 4.3 CRONIC Fig. 4.4.

ALVEOLARY PULMONAR INFARCTISATION THAT
EMPHYSEMA OCCURED AFTER A
(original A. Stancu) VOLVULUS (after Moreland
2009)
7. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN DOGS
The purpose of necropsy is to determine the cause of death,

the discovery of the incidence of the disease and its effects on the
312
environment as well as the retrospective study of the diagnosis. (3,
6)
The general technique of necropsy follows the same general

principles of necropsy. Major differences are related to the fact that
as far as pets are concerned, the emotional involvement of the
owners leads to a series of changes in the technique in keeping the
outer aspect of the body as intact as possible for burial. Dogs are
also sometimes in the service of military institutions that have
certain requirements regarding necropsy, sampling and laboratory
examinations and how to draw up the act of necropsy. Cosmetic
necropsy is recommended in such cases. (3, 6)
7.1. Cosmetic necropsy
Making the classic, complete, necropsy technique is often

unacceptable for dog and cat owners who want to know the causes
of the animal's death. In these cases, the investigator doctor must
meet two major requirements, namely the most complete
examination of the body and keeping its integrity as intact as
possible in order not to hurt the sensitivity of the owner. (6)
In this regard, it is necessary to carefully plan incisions that

will be made for the reconstruction of the body after necropsy. As a
313
general rule, the chosen technique and all the incisions to be made
will be very clear, in agreement with the owner. Obtaining the
anamnestic data, the instrument used, and examining the animal's
exterior does not imply any differences from the usual technique. (6)
At the opening of the body, the organs to be examined must

be taken into account and, as a general principle, the incision lines
must be as short as possible and be as apparent as possible after
suturing.
The examination will be done in the dorsal position, the body

being maintained in this position by a helping person or by
supporting with different objects.
The opening of the abdominal cavity will only be from the

Xifoid appendix to the umbilical scar. Examine the general
appearance of the cavity and puncture the diaphragm to check the
pleural void.
Separate the diaphragm insertion into the costal wall, section

the trachea, esophagus and blood vessels at the anterior part of the
thoracic cavity and extract the thoracic organs after cutting the distal
esophagus and the large vessels at the diaphragm crossing.
The evisceration of the abdominal organs begins with the

liver, spleen, stomach and duodenum, the small and thick intestine
by dividing the mesenter into each segment.
314
The kidneys detach and extract from the cavity. The bladder
flies and, if necessary, detaches and extracts.
The eviscerated organs are examined according to the usual

protocol. Cavities are drained from any liquids and washed if
necessary.
Evisceration and examination of the brain is only performed

if anamnesis indicates the progression of central nervous
manifestations. For the offset, the skin is cut over an inter-trasversal
line that continues to the atlas level. The skin and the muscles
develop by facilitating access to the cap. Slicing the calotte and
eviscerating the brain will be done by the classical method.
After the necropsy, the body must be restored. The

eviscerated organs return to the cavities to reconstitute their form.
Another possibility is to fill the cavities with absorbent paper.
The sutures must be continuous and the hair trim will mask
the suture lines. The coat must be cleaned of blood or other
biological materials. (3, 6)
7.1.1. External exam
315
At the external examination, weight, maintenance status (eg
obese, weak, caectic), cadavers, appearance of hair, skin, mucous
membranes, eyes and body holes will be noted.
Describes tattoos, scars, cutaneous tumors, bone

malformations, surgical incisions, etc. Occasionally eyeballs are
required for histopathological examination. In this case the eyelids
catch together with a forceps and with a scalpel, the eyelids are
incised around the orbit. The dissection of the eyeball is performed
with a scissors by cutting the optic nerve and extrinsic muscles. At
this time, the lacrimal gland is being examined and harvested. The
eyelids can be removed or left together with the eyeball. (3, 6)
The removal of the extrinsic muscles of the eyeball followed

by the injection of about 0.25 ml of formol into the vitreous humor
and the 10% formalin fixation of the whole ocular globule. (3, 6)
Cachexia is caused by poor nutrition, poor maintenance

conditions, chronic diseases, etc. It is characterized by a severe
emer- gency of the corpse.
316
Fetal discondroplasia is a generalized congenital
abnormality characterized by limb ossification disorders in limb
bones. The most common is found in dogs from the Baset breed.
The members are short and thick.
Rickets occurs in the puppy and has a caudal etiology, the

major cause is phosphocalcitin deficiency, to which is added
hipovitaminosis D. It is characterized by poor body development,
deviation of the bones (crossed or brackish), on the inner face of the
ribs notes a thickening of the bone protuberances (chondrostanal
warts); the articular extremities are greatly increased, with thin
cartilage, the fragility of the bones is greatly increased.
Osteofibrosis, consists of replacing bone tissue with fibrous

tissue, is favored by excess phosphorus and low Ca intake. It is
characterized by the deformation of the bones of the head; the jaws
are rubbery, the branches of the mandible are close, the bones are
easily cut, and the teeth move in the alveoli. (14, 26, 30, 34)
7.1.3. Lesions of the skin, aparent mucosa ,

subcutaneous connective tissue, external lymphonodes and
mammary gland
Dystrophic disorders are represented by:
317
- hyperkeratosis is more commonly seen in old dogs in the
region of jars, plantar beds, skin of the jawbone, microbial
complicated skin, when the skin of the plantar bottoms and the
bottoms region is thickened, indolent, with numerous crevices;
- cutaneous amyloidosis has exogenous causes (infections,

foreign substances) or endogenous (extensive tissue damage);
- melanosis (macula or diffuse) is promoted by aging,

hypothyroidism, and is characterized by brown-black coloring of
tissues, uniform - diffuse melanosis or in outbreaks - macular
melanosis;
- albinism rarely encountered, the cause is the complete

absence of melanin pigment in the body; the albino individuals have
the depigmented iris; (14, 26, 30, 34)
Piodermatitis is also called intertrigo, it is inflammation of

the skin and occurs especially in obese dogs at the level of creases or
folds, characterized by reddish areas with depilated areas covered by
a bad smell of seropurulent exudate. (3, 6)
Folliculitis and furunculosis occur frequently in interdigital

and occipital regions, in puppies, secondary to demodecy.
Folliculitis is characterized by the presence of small pustules
centered on a hairpin and surrounded by a red ring; Furunculosis is
318
the purulent inflammation of the hair follicle and of the peripolytic
structures. (3, 6)
The vesiculo-pustulous exanthema occurs in distemper,

youth, with localizations on the inside of the thighs and the abdomen
is characterized by the presence of small vesicles or pustules
especially in regions with fine skin. (3, 6)
The phlegmonous dermatitis is located in the cephalic

region as a result of complicated trauma.
Circumcised squamous dermatitis, with depilation, occurs

in microsporia and dry trichophythia;
The microsporia is located on the head, neck, limbs, rarely

on the dorsal-lumbar region, the ventral face of the abdomen and the
inner thigh and is characterized by erythema, depilation, grayish-
yellowish scar and purulent lesions in cases where they appear
complications;
Trichophythia is characterized by erythema, scarring, scalp

and facial alopecia.
Pruritic dermatitis occurs in Aujeszky's disease, in the

pruritic area there are self-injuries, sometimes with the tearing of
tissues.
319
Exudative otitis is encountered in candidiasis and is
characterized by polyploid proliferations, pigmented in yellow,
covered with whitish exudate in chronic evolution.
Tumors of the external auditory canal are rare and are

represented by ceramic gland tumors. (3, 6)
7.1.4. Lesions of the bucal cavity
Dental caries caused by nutrition of hyperglucid diet.
Ulcers and mucosal erosions are met in poisoning with

mercury, uremia, hippocytaminosis C, dental plaque; affected areas
are greenish and well defined.
Stomatitis:
- catarrhal- nonspecific etiology;
- crupal - present in candidosis;
- ulcerative, in leptospirosis, uremia, hipovitaminosis C; is

characterized by the presence of superficial or profound ulcers,
localized on the gums, the tongue sides, or on the inner face of the
cheek; the ulcer's bottom is red and often covered with a yellow-
320
brown deposit; in uremium and hippocytaminosis C has a
hemorrhagic background;
- purulent, with abscesses and phlegm, produced by piogene

germs;
- gangrenous, in leptospirosis, distemper, Rubarth hepatitis

following complications;
- granulomatous glossite foreign body inert.
Tumor of the bucal cavity:
- bucal papillomatosis, occurs more often in puppies and is

characterized by the presence of pediculous neoformations with a
smooth or vegetative surface with a narrow but deep implantation
base, usually of small size;
- epulis, boxers and bulldogs, unopposed conopidiform, on

the edges of the gingiva; (Fig.5.1)
- Sticker sarcoma, rarely occurs at the buccal level, localizes

on the lips, tongue, gums and has caopidiform appearance with
necrotic and ulcerated areas. (14, 26, 30, 34)
7.1.5. Lesions of the eyeballs
321
Catarrhal and / or purulent conjunctivitis and ulcerative
keratitis are caused by mechanical causes, nonspecific infections,
distemper (ocular form).
In case of distemper, conjunctival catarrh, ulcerative

keratitis, perforation of the cornea, sometimes panophthalmia,
sometimes the lesions can include the optic nerve.
7.1.6. Lesions of the nasal cavity
Mixomatous nodules, polyps-like lesions, are produced by

Cryptococcus neoformans;
Tumors - the most common are carcinomas, especially in

adult dogs, in the form of nodular neoformations, ulcerovegetante,
with broad base (sessile), section on the section have a slanted
appearance, whiteish color, in the central area presents an area of
necrosis with or without hemorrhagic infiltration.
Edema can be:
- generalized occur in hypothyroidism, allergies,

toxoplasmosis;
322
- localized with different causes depending on the affected
area:
- in the limbs, in congenital kidney abnormalities, in

neonates;
- at the face and subadominal, in nephrite;
- peripharyngeal, serohemorrhagic, in glutantrax and acute

pasteurellosis;
- decliv, cyanotic, in heart failure. (14, 26, 30, 34)
7.1.7. Lesions of the lymphonodes and mammary glands
Purulent lymphonodulitis is encountered in streptococcal

infections, localized in the mandibular region, may be asocial with
purulent pharyngitis.
Tumors are rarely encountered and may be located in canine

leucosis, affect mandibular, prepectoral lymph nodes, and have
symmetrical localization;
Mammary gland lesions most commonly encountered are

tumoral processes: adenomas and adenocarcinomas, and rarely
fibroids and fibrosarcomas.
323
The incision is made on the ventral, medial, from the

mandibular symphysis to the perineum and the internal limb. The
circular sections are made, as in other species, at the level of the
metacarpian and metatarsal regions, at the level of the muzzle,
perineal and around the foreskin. The skin is completely removed.
At the owner's request, skinning is not performed; In this case, the
so-called cosmetic necropsy will be carried out. (3, 6)
Examine the tissues found on the skin, note the amount and
color of the subcutaneous fat.
Starting from the sternum, the internal musculature of the

buttocks is cut, only to allow the limbs to swing and thus maintain
the dorsal position of the corpse.
Examine the brachial plexus and axillary space. Then

examine the prescapular lymphonode (superficial cervix). It is
trapped in the connective tissue under the omotransvers and
brachiocephalic muscles. Examine axillary lymphonodes, which
are dorsally restrained by deep pectoral muscles.
324
Inguinal lymphonodes, which are immediately located
cranically in the pubic area, are examined in the adipose tissue
covering the inguinal canal.
For hip disarticulation, soft tissues are cut and removed

around the coxo-femoral joint. With a sterile scalpel, the articular
capsule is cut at the femur grip. With a clip, the capsule is raised to
highlight the joint.
If synovial fluid is altered, a cytological smear can be

performed with a sterile swab. The swab is inserted into the joint
fluid, and then run on a clean microscopic blade. Air drying and
coloring follows. Liquid can also be taken for microbiological
examination, either with another sterile swab or with a syringe.
With a scalpel cut the round ligament (at the end of the
femur) and remove the femoral head from the acetabular cavity to
fully examine the joint. Any abnormal or exudate tissue is collected.
The thyroid and parathyroid exam is performed during or

immediately after skinning. The ventral muscles of the trachea are
removed by cross-sectioning at the chest entrance and dislocated to
the head. Thyroid lobes and adjacent parathyroids are located
laterally by the first tracheal rings.
325
The identification and examination of the salivary glands
(mandibular, parotid and sublingual) and mandibular lymph nodes is
followed by the collection of histopathology samples if necessary.
For best results, bone marrow is harvested as early as during

necropsy. The femur, ribs, sternum and vertebrae are accessible for
medulla collection for cytology and histopathology.
Using a saw, the femoral head is removed by cutting the

neck. The red bone marrow is collected for cytology examination
using a dry hair brush from the femoral neck and then applied to a
clean blade. For the histopathological examination, marrow is
harvested from the femoral neck (or head) or even bone parts in the
formol. Another method is to remove a small segment of the femoral
body with a bone cutter. A red marrow segment is then collected and
fingerprints are made, and the remaining segment is inserted into a
label labeled and in formol for histopathological examination.
Harvesting the marrow from the ribs involves harvesting a

short coastal segment from the distal part with a saw. The smear is
done with a brush or, for histological examination, the entire
segment is fixed. The techniques presented are also suitable for other
broad bones. (3, 6)
7.1.9. Opening and examining the abdominal cavity
326
A ventral, median incision is made from the xifoidian
appendix to the pubis. The abdominal wall is incised bilaterally, on
the hypocondrial line and anterior to the pubis.
At this point, urine sampling can be done for the exam.
Removing abdominal viscera to highlight and examine

adrenal glands is done as quickly as they quickly enter autolysis. For
highlighting, it is carefully dissected the conjuctive adipose tissue
perirenal. For the structural examination (cortical, medullary) there
are transversal sections from which are harvested for
histopathological examination. (3, 6)
Haemorrhagic diathesis (haemabdomen) occurs in

haemophilia, coumarin rashes poisoning, acute aflatoxicosis,
327
leptospirosis, Rubarth hepatitis, acute salmonellosis. It is
characterized by the presence of multiple hemorrhages of varying
shapes and sizes in various tissues and organs (Fig.5.6)
Haemolytic jaundice occurs in leptospirosis, infectious

hepatitis, rubratoxicosis. It is characterized by a yellowish coloration
of tissues, with the exception of nervous tissue and articular
extremities.
Ascitis is found in liver cirrhosis, sclerosing pneumonia,

histoplasmosis. It is characterized by the accumulation of yellow
citrine fluid (transsudate) in the abdominal cavity.
Poliserosites can be:
- serous, serum-hemorrhagic or serofibrinous, in infectious

hepatitis;
- granulomatous can be found in several forms: - productive

and / or exudative, occurs in tuberculosis, evolves with seroviginous
and purulent pleuropericardites and granulomatous lymph nodes
with diffuse or caseloaded appearance;
- nodular form, with serohemorrhagic exudate, in the

cavities, occurs in the infection of Nocardia, Streptomyces.
Peritonitis:
328
- purulent occurs due to complications of posttraumatic
complications or complicated laparotomies;
- gangrenous after digestion of the digestive tract; is

characterized by a grayish-greenish, even blackish coloration of the
peritoneum, on the section there is a horn exsudation, at the
boundary between the healthy and the affected area;
- productive / exudative, occurs in tuberculosis, and is

characterized by the presence of nodules of different dimensions or
diffuse thickening of the visceral sheets and the epiploon with the
presence of exudate.
7.1.11. Opening and examining the chest cavity
Checking the intratracheal negative pressure is done by

making an incision in the tendon portion of the diaphragm. You can
hear the aspiration suction and you can see the diaphragm relaxing.
If sepsis is suspected, cord blood is harvested under aseptic

conditions in a sterile syringe and transferred to a culture medium.
Separate the diaphragm at the insertion site on the chest wall.

The opening of the chest box is by one of the procedures outlined in
the general part.
329
Examination of the parietal and visceral pleura, the
intercostal ribs and the muscles. (3, 6)
- serous
- fibrinous of infectious nature;
- purulent, found in infections with piogenic germs

(streptococci, staphylococci).
7.1.12. Evisceration of organs in the chest cavity
The thoracic organs are examined in situ, then eviscerated.

Chest organs are extracted into a single block, including tongue,
larynx, trachea, esophagus, heart, aorta and pulmonary. Evisceration
of this block begins with the evisceration of the tongue, by cutting
the intermandibular muscles, in addition to each branch of the
mandible. To ease this procedure, it is possible to cut with a
sawtooth to simulate the mandibular. Examine the oral cavity, teeth,
pharynx and larynx, tonsils.
330
Cross the esophagus, the aorta, the vein cavity across the
diaphragm. The distal esophagus may be ligated or peeled before
sectioning to prevent reflux of gastric contents.
The thoracic organs sit on a mass large enough. Examining

the language. Using a scalpel or scissors, the esophagus opens across
the length. Examine mucous and muscular.
Medium retropharyngeal lymphonodes are located which are

located near the dorsal-lateral side of the pharynx. (3, 6)
7.1.13. Opening and examining the organs of the pelvic

cavity
The obstructed pelvis hole is located. Previously the ischium

is cut (with the saw) and the pubis posterior bilaterally. The
dissected bone removes the remaining bone. (3, 6)
Evisceration and examination of the urogenital part
Genital and urinary organs can be eviscerated together or

separately.
331
Examine the perineum and cut it. The kidneys are released
from the lumbar area, then traction and dissection, the ureters are
eviscerated with the kidneys, to the bladder. The incision and
overflow of the capsule in the hill area is performed for ureter and
renal examination. (3, 6)
The kidneys
It is cut to the basin level. The incision at the level of the

basin extends to the ureter, observing possible abnormalities. The
renal parenchyma is serially divided and samples are collected that
include cortex and kidney papules. If poisoning is suspected, at least
6 cm3 of kidney tissue is harvested and frozen for toxicological
exams.
Follows the examination of the bladder, urethra and prostate.

With a scissors, the bladder and urethra open on the ventral, to the
penis (male) or to the urinary (female) urine. Carefully examine the
bladder, urethra and bladder trigon, for neoplasia, urolithiasis and
others. If needed, samples can be taken.
In the case of masculine genital organs, the testes, the

epididym, the sperm cord, the prostate are examined.
332
In the case of female genital organs, a scissors are used to
open the vulva, vestibule, vagina and uterus to oviducts. Examine
oviducts and ovaries.
Both bats and males frequently encounter veneric tumors

(rotundocellular sarcomas) located on the genital mucosa, with or
without oral implantation. (3, 6)
7.1.14. Lesions of the urinary and genital apparatus
Renal atrophy, caused by urinary retention cysts, renal or

parasitic lithiasis due to the localization of Dioctophyme renal.
Hydronephrosis, occurs in prostate or bladder carcinoma,

and occurs by stopping the calculations at the base of the penile
bone or prostate hypertrophy.
It is characterized by the presence of a large amount of urine

in the basin, the renal parenchyma is much reduced in volume due to
compression, in more severe forms the whole kidney is transformed
into a urine bag that produces total renal atrophy through
compression.
333
Renal haemorrhages may occur in: uremia, mycotoxicosis
(aflatoxicosis) intoxication with raticides.
Renal white infarction, renal artery atherosclerosis occurs.
Nephrites can be:
- lymphohistiocytar encountered in leptospirosis, plaque,

Rubarth's disease, uremia;
- granulomatous, of mycotic nature (aspergillosis).
Urocystitis:
- catarrhal, haemorrhages, fibrinohaemorrhagia;
Tumors - bladder carcinoma (Fig.5.2) (7, 14, 26, 30)
7.1.15. Evisceration of digestive organs
The stage begins with examination of the anus and rectum

and incision of the tissues around the anus.
Separate the diaphragm (upper attachment) and evacuate the

digestive organs and the spleen by tracing and dissecting the
mesenter, near the insertion site, to the dorsal wall of the abdominal
334
cavity. This will preserve mesenteric lymph nodes attached to their
digestive segments (3, 6)
Continuing the dissection of the abdominal organs is done

up to the pelvic gut. All digestive organs, along with the spleen and
the anal sac, are eviscerated with the associated glands.
The central spine examination is performed.
Iliac lymph nodes are located ventrally located by lumbar

vertebrae 5, 6 or 7, near the aorta ramification. The longitudinal
abdominal aorta opens and the incisions extend to the iliac arteries.
(3, 6)
7.1.16. Examination of the heart
The pericardial bag is opened according to the general rule

presented in the general part. If there are exudates in the cavity,
samples will be taken for the cytological and bacteriological
examination.
The general heart examination follows the external contour

(rounded in case of cardiac dilatation), epicardial appearance,
myocardial aspect through the epicardial transparency and the
external appearance of the large vessels. (3, 6)
335
Opening the right heart. With a knife or scissors, cut the
ventricular wall from the base of the auricus to the top of the cord.
Then cross the auricle, opening the right atrium. Remove the
cruciate clot from the atrium and examine the tricuspid
(atrioventricular) valve. Continue with the pulmonary valvular
section. Papillary muscles and tendon cords are examined and
broken. Remove coagulants and wash with physiological saline.
Examine atrial and ventricular endocardium, tricuspid and
pulmonary valves, and myocardium.
The pulmonary artery is longitudinally incised, including

intrapulmonary branches, and the presence of thrombus, parasite,
and the like. (3, 6)
Opening the left heart. With a knife or scissors, cut the

ventricular wall from the base of the auricus to the top of the cord.
Insert a knife into the atrium and cut it. The coagulum is removed
and the surface of the parietal, valvular endocardium, and
myocardial appearance examined.
By cutting the mitral valve, near the interventricular septum,

the aortic valves and the aorta are also cut.
The aorta opens longitudinally. Aortic examination includes

examination of valves, coronary artery apertures, aortic sub- and
postvalvular space, constrictions (stenoses), dilations, persistent
336
arterial canal and others. After that, the cord can be removed from
the lung. (3, 6)
Right cardiac dilatation occurs in chronic pulmonary

emphysema, myocarditis, valvulopathy. The right cord wall is much
thinner and exceeds the atrioventricular ditch.
Obstruction of the right ventricle and / or pulmonary artery

can be produced by Dirofilaria imitis (Fig.5.3)
Serofibrinous pericarditis occurs in uraemia and infectious

hepatitis.
Atrial and aortic thrombosis may occur following

fibrillation.
White myocardial infarction is caused by pulmonary

arteriosclerosis, hyalinosis, amyloidosis.
It has a characteristic appearance both on the surface and on

the section. At the surface of the myocardium there is a yellowish
outbreak with irregular edges, bounded by a red (congestive-
hemorrhagic) girdle in the acute forms, and by a whitish (fibrous
337
reaction) in subacute-chronic evolutions. The section has a triangular
shape, with a large base to the periphery of the organ, and the tip to
the oblique vessel.
Myocardititis can be:
- lymphohistiocytar, occurs in infections with haemolytic

beta streptococci, canine parvovirosis, uremia etc .; is characterized
by the presence of grayish-whiteish nodules with slimy, variable or
diffuse infiltration;
- granulomatous is caused by pulmonary metastases in

aspergillosis.
Myocardial tumors are found in the form of carcinomas

such as traces of thyroid metastases or salivary glands
Congenital elastosis is present in puppies;
Calcification of endocardium occurs in puppy pups and

uremia in adult dogs.
Subendocardial suffusions- septicemia, acute intoxications

(Fig.5.4)
Endocarditis may be:
338
- ulcerative, occurs in the first phase of nephritis with
localization, and is characterized by the presence of ulcers in the
atrial endocardium;
- verrucous, occurs in uremia, advanced stage of disease,

streptococci and allergic states; is characterized by the presence of
verrucous formations on the surface of the non-irregular, isolated or
confluent surface of the valvular and / or parietal endocardium of
different sizes;
- ulcerovegetant, is encountered in infections caused by

haemolytic streptococci, with localized especially in the left cord; is
characterized by the presence of conidiform and non-irregular
surfaces of different dimensions on the bicuspid valvular
endocardium, they are grayish-yellowish color and are friable (4, 5,
32)
7.1.18. Examination of the respiratory apparatus
The examination of the respiratory device is done according

to the general rules. With a scissors, the cricoid cartilage is cut, the
trachea extends longitudinally to the primary bronchi. Examine the
339
mucosal surface and tracheobronchial lymph nodes located at the
tracheal bifurcation. All pulmonary lobes are carefully inspected and
flicked. The lobes dissect by opening the middle bronchi. (3, 6)
Infectious laryngotracheitis is caused by respiratory

tropism viruses, bluish-like appearance, sometimes complicated by
intervention of bacteria where the exudate becomes mucopurulent
with pulmonary enlargement in case of distemper.
Bronchitis are predominantly exsudative, complicated with

pulmonary caverns in case of TBC. They may also be of parasitic
nature, produced by parasites of the genus Capillaria and are
characterized by the presence of a catarrh exudate, and obstructions
of airways.
Pulmonary anthrax is a mineral dystrophy in dogs living in

industrial areas, heavily polluted with coal dust. The lungs show
isolated or confluent black points at both inspection and section.
Pulmonary emphysema is less common and is observed in

elderly dogs. On the surface of the lung there are prominent areas of
pale pink palpitant palpation.
340
Pulmonary edema occurs in caloric shock, tingling,
leptospirosis, ANTU intoxication, aluminum phosphide.
The lungs are enlarged in volume and weight, reddish color,

very obvious lobular drawing and pasty consistency. A sparkling
liquid is observed at the cutting, the docimasia is between two
waters.
Bronchopneumonia can be:
- catarrhal, occurs in the case of inappropriate microclimate,

infectious laryngotracheitis, tonsillitis, salmonellosis; the lungs are
enlarged in volume and weight, have reddish-violet color, increased
consistency, wet appearance, brownish secretion on the section;
docimazia is positive;
- gangrenous, is caused by accidental aspiration of liquids; is

characterized by the presence on the surface and on the section of
gray-green foci with fluid content, ihoros, sometimes with the
formation of caverns, positive docimasia;
- hyperplasic, or lymphohistiocitary, occurs in: virosis,

chlamidosis; is similar to bluetongue pneumonia, the differential
diagnosis is based on limited localization in the cranial and medial
lobes;
341
- granulomatous, occurs in: tuberculosis, actinobacillosis,
aspergillosis and cryptococcosis; the primary outbreak is located on
the back of the posterior lobes in the form of small sized
granulomas, but which can reach a diameter of 2-3 cm, on the
section they are homogeneous, or they have a central zone of
ramolisment, the tubercular outbreaks have a similar appearance
granulation tissue;
Pulmonary tumors are carcinomas, and represent 75% of

the primary lung tumors. (14, 26, 30, 33, 34)
7.1.20. Examination of liver and pancreas
Examination and collection of representative samples of the

pancreas, possibly in a piece, with mesenter and duodenum, is done
as quickly as possible to prevent autolysis. The duodenum opens to
highlight duodenal papillae (major and minor papillae). Verify bile
duct permeability by gently pushing the bile vesicle and observing
342
the ball ejection at the duodenal duct. Then bile the bladder, examine
the mucosa and collect samples if necessary.
The liver detaches from the abdominal organ block, then

opens the port vein and is examined for thrombosis. The sections
that are made at the liver are serially spaced 1 cm apart. Samples for
histopathological examination should be up to 0.5 cm thick, and in
case of suspected intoxication, a bile is collected and frozen and at
least 6 cm3 of liver tissue. (3, 6)
7.1.21. Lesions of the liver and bladder
Fatty hepatosis is encountered in acute aflatoxicosis,

uremic poisoning, leptospirosis, distemper.
Passive hepatic congestion is favored by the stasis of the

hepatic veins or the cave vein.
Milliar necrosis can occur in mycotoxicosis, leptospirosis.
Hepatitis can be:
- parenchymatous, in poisoning;
- necrotic, in cytostatic poisoning;
343
- haemorrhagic in Rubarth hepatitis; the liver is enlarged,
and there are small hemorrhages and gray-yellowish necrosis under
the liver capsule;
- fibrinous perihepatitis characteristic of Rubarth hepatitis,

characterized by a serofibrinous exudation at the peritoneum, due to
the hepatic lobes being adherent to each other;
- purulent, in streptococci;
- lymphohistiocytar may have two forms: diffuse and

nodular; the diffuse form occurs in histoplasmosis, and is
characterized by a uniform grayish-white uniformity of the liver, a
weak aspect on the section and increased consistency; nodular form
occurs in hemosporidiosis;
- atrophic cirrhosis, occurs in mycotoxicosis, cardiac failure,

uremia.
It is characterized by a significant reduction in liver volume

and weight, it has a yellowish-brown color, the consistency is much
higher, perceived as a screech at the sectioning; the surface of the
liver is irregular; Depending on the appearance on the surface, there
are three forms of cirrhosis: the presence of yellowish, variable size
nodules from a millet grain in granular cirrhosis, the presence of
nodules 3-4 cm in nodular cirrhosis or the surface of the organ is
incised of numerous lice, in lobar cirrhosis;
344
- granulomatous, in TBC;
- parasite occurs as a result of trauma caused by the

migration of larvae of Opistorchis sp.
Edema of the bladder wall is characteristic of Rubarth

hepatitis and is characterized by edema of the bladder wall; (8, 9, 14,
26, 30, 34)
Colecistis can be:
- catarrhal, in the case of excess hyperproteic food,

hyperlipidic;
- lymphohistiocytar, in salmonellosis;
- parasitic, in capillary and opisthoch.
Tumors: adenomas, adenocarcinomas, hemangiomas are

more common.
7.1.22. Examination of the spleen
The spleen is extracted from the abdominal block and is

divided longitudinally throughout the whole meal or series.
345
Anomalies are recorded and representative samples are collected. (3,
6)
The spleen rupture has traumatic etiology, the spleen has

swollen edges, strongly edematous with the presence of a sero-
hemorrhagic infiltrate if rupture occurs during life; postmortem - and
unmanaged and needless, postmortem, being of a neoplastic and
infectious nature.
Torsion is less common and occurs at the same time as a

stomach rupture.
Red lienal infarcts occur in Rubarth hepatitis and

autoimmune hemolytic anemia seen in puppies.
Splenomegaly is encountered in barbiturates and chloroform

poisoning, as a result of congestive processes.
Splenitis can be:
- diffuse haemorrhagic in Rubarth hepatitis and

salmonellosis;
346
- hyperplasia, in distemper, histoplasmosis and
hemosporidiosis;
- granulomatous, in brucellosis.
Splenic tumors are represented by: haemangiomas and

hemangiosarcomas concomitant in many cases with cardiac
localization at the right atrium; lymphoma, in dogs over 10 years,
and rare localizations of canine leucosis. (14, 26, 30)
7.1.24 Examination of epiplone and mesenter
The epiplone is examined by attaching to the stomach. The

mesenter is examined together with mesenteric lymph nodes.
Lemons are harvested, if necessary, in individual boxes. (3, 6)
7.1.25. Examination of the gastrointestinal tract
347
The mesenter dissects at the insertion level on the intestinal
wall. This work makes the intestine stretched out on the table of
necropsy in order to open it.
With a sloping scissors, the distal esophagus and the stomach

open on the large curve, from the heart, to the breasts and the
duodenum. The stomach opens by deflecting the edges of the
section.
Examine the mucosa and collect about 60 ml of gastric

contents for the toxicological examination (it can be frozen). Avoid
washing the mucosa with water or scrubbing with the dissection
instrumentation as histomorphological artifacts will occur. If
washing is necessary, it will be done with physiological saline or
formol.
The longitudinal section of the duodenum continues with the

other intestinal segments up to the rectum.
Examine the intestinal mucosa, the anus and the adjacent

glands (perianal). Harvest samples for histological examination.
A good method is to separate a 10 cm segment of the

unopened gut, to lightly wash the interior with physiological saline,
to ligate the ends, and to inject formalin into the lumen, to a slight
distension of the segment. (3, 6)
348
7.1.26. Lesions of the digestive system
The lesions of the esophagus
- stenoses produced by foreign bodies;
- traumatic perforations produced by foreign bodies;
- esophageal nodules with a fibrous structure produced by

Spirocerca lupi infestation;
- megaesophagus, appears hereditary at the Foxul sarmos;
- paralytic dilation;
- tumors - sarcomas, carcinomas.
Stomach lesions:
- torsion occurs through obstruction of the hair;
- dilation is favored by excessive bone intake;
- foreign bodies can be encountered in case of suspicion of

ravage;
- ulcers are favored by irritating food; deficiencies in

selenium, zinc, vitamins, or may occur in starvation;
349
- gastritis: may be: catarrhal, in mycotoxicosis, distemper,
ascaridosis, endogenous intoxications; haemorrhagic in outbreaks in
the case of rabies, diffuse haemorrhage in parvovirosis, leptospirosis
and intoxication; corrosive, produced by irritant chemicals, in
azotem, mycosis.
Intestinal dystopies:
- inguinal, umbilical, more frequent, less common perineal

hernias;
- inguinal eventrations in females;
- invagination and volvulus.
The congenital megacolon, produced by abnormalities of

the neurovegetative system.
Coprostasis due to excessive bone consumption.
Obstructions of the rectum, caused by foreign bodies.
Enteritis
- catarrhal, occurs in distemper, uremia, mycotoxicosis, and

is characterized by swelling of the intestine, the mucosa is
edematous, hyperemised, with grayish-yellowish deposits which
tend to flow, viscous;
350
- haemorrhagic, parvovirosis, leptospirosis, salmonellosis,
anaerobic enterotoxemia, arsenic intoxication, parasitic infestations.
In parvovirosis intestinal complaints are strongly congested.

At the opening of the intestine there is an absence of content or a
reddish content which, after flushing, maintains its reddish-brown
mucous membrane due to the hemorrhagic exudate infiltrated into
the mucosa and submucosa, in bleeding, the red color disappears
after washing;
Rectal prolapse occurs as a result of severe diarrhea and

constipation.
Tumors: fibromas, leiomyomas, mixomas, polyps;

adenocarcinomas, sarcomas. (14, 26, 30, 34, 37)
7.1.27. Examination of joints
Joint examinations follow the appearance of synovial fluid,

possible abnormalities, broken or stretched ligaments, thickened
joint capsules, osteophyte formation, proliferated synovial
membrane, eroded or ulcerated cartilage, etc. (3, 6)
351
Anomalies are recorded and, where appropriate, samples are
taken for microbiological and histopathological examination.
Knee joint. Identify and examine popliteal lymph node.

Cross the muscles and tendons, proximal to the knee and
immediately distal to the patella. The two incisions unite on the
medial part of the knee joint. Carefully weigh incised tissues,
including roula, exposing the joint to the examination. At this point,
histological and / or microbiological samples can be harvested Cross
the cross-sectional ligament and examine the joint surfaces.
To examine the shoulder joint, cut the muscles, tendons and

joint capsule on the side of the joint. Rotates the humeral head
towards the glenoid cavity to expose the joint.
The elbow joint flexes to the maximum. The muscles,

tendons and joint capsule are cut through a "U", medial-lateral and
posterior incision parallel to the ulna. The forearm rotates to present
the joint (3, 6)
7.1.28. Evisceration and examination of the brain
352
To detach the head, a head hyperextension is performed and
the occipital-atloid joint is sectioned. If deemed necessary,
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) may be collected. The cervical marrow
and the muscles in the dorsal cervical region are cut.
It is cut along the bone and the temporo-mandibular muscles

are removed, at least up to the zygomatic arcade. Three sections are
made with a saw as described in the general part. With a chisel or a
spacer inserted into the first incision, the cap is raised. Examine the
internal surface of the calotte and sinuses.
Divide the olfactory lobes, lift the anterior part of the head
and carefully cut the cranial nerves and the pituitary rod, releasing
the brain.
The brain is dissected for sample collection for

histopathological examination or fully fixed in formol and dissected
later.
For the evisceration of the pituitary, duramater is incised

around the Turkish saddle for the release and discovery of the gland.
Carefully extract and place in a tissue-labeled cassette and fix it. (3,
6)
7.1.29.Lesions of the nervous system
353
Hydrocephaly may have an internal localization produced
by blocking the CSF circulation, and an external one caused by
copper deficiency.
Congestion and cerebral edema are caused by physical,

chemical, toxic, infectious diseases.
Subdural haematoma - traumatic causes (Fig.5.5)
Encephalitis can be:
- purulent, are found in listeriosis, pups, or by metastasis in

case of omphaloflebitis;
- lymphomonocytar, is found in viral diseases with central

nervous system tropics, peppers, plague, Aujeszky's disease;
- granulomatous, rare, of metastatic origin in TB.
7.1.30. Opening of the nasal and sinus cavities
Cut the front and jaw bones, completely, transversally,

orbital, with a saw. This way you can examine the nasal cavities and
exposed sinuses. Another possibility would be to completely cut the
frontal and partial bones of the jaws up to the palate level and apply
354
another horizontal longitudinal section above the palatal bone to the
first section and remove the bones thus cut. (3, 6)
7.1.31. Evisceration of the spinal marrow
Examination of the conjunctive tissue and the musculature in

the dorsal region. The dorsal muscles are removed for the purpose of
highlighting the spine.
Highlighting of the spinal marrow involves cutting the

cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebral springs at different angles.
Vertebral sectioning begins in the thoracic segment of the

spine. The thoracic apophyses are cut from the base, then the
vertebral, bilateral, oblique, lateral spines of the spiny apophyses are
cut.
A cross section is made at the level of the C7-T1 joint and

another at the joint C13-L1. without cutting the marrow. The
vertebral springs are released, thus exposing the marrow.
Vertebrae spines of the lumbar vertebrae are immediately cut

above the transverse apophyses, perpendicular to spiny apophyses.
After cutting all the lumbar springs and cross-sectioning of the
lumbosacral junction, the lumbar spine is highlighted.
355
The vertebral spine of the cervical vertebrae is cut halfway
between the spiny apophyses and the transverse, parallel to the spiny
apophyses.
If "cauda equina" lesions are suspected, the sections of the

sacral vertebra arches are made between the intermediate and lateral
sacral ridges.
Starting at the atlas level, it catches with a duramater and is

slightly tilted and with a scalpel or scissors cut the nerve roots as far
as possible into the intervertebral holes and extracts the marrow
from the medullary canal.
Using a fine scissors, the longitudinal duramater is cut along

the medial dorsal line. This reveals the bone marrow for examining
and collecting samples for histopathological examination.
Increased attention should be paid to cervical and lumbar

tongue. Examine the spinal canal for herniated discs and other
injuries. (3, 6)
7.1.32. Examination of peripheral nerves
The radial nerve is highlighted by sectioning the tendon of

the lateral end of the triceps muscle at the insertion site on the ulna.
356
Dissection reveals the radial nerve that binds caudally to the brachial
muscle. Extract 3-4 cm of radial nerve.
To highlight the sciatic nerve (ischiatic), incise the broad

fascia to the knee. The dissection is between the femoral biceps and
the broad lateral. Harvest 3-4 cm of nerve and fix after
individualization. (3, 6)
Fig.5.1. EPULIS Fig 5.2. HAEMABDOMEN

357
Fig.5.3. SUBENDOCARDIC SUFFUSIONS Fig.5.4. DIROFILARIA IMMITIS
(original A. Stancu) (original A. Stancu)
Fig.5.5. VESICAL CARCINOMA Fig.5.6. SUBDURAL HAEMATOMA

8. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN CATS DISEASES
8.1. The external exam is similar to carnivore
358
Cachexia is favored by poor maintenance, pituitary

dysfunctions, chronic diseases, undernutrition, etc. It is characterized
by the reduction in volume of muscular masses, with emphasis on
bone projections.
Fetal discondroplasia or micromelia is a generalized

abnormality in limb bone endochondral ossification disorders; can
be congenital or endocrine, and is characterized by short and thick
limbs.
Rickets is rarely encountered, and favored by vitreous D

deficiency, even if the phosphorus / calcium ratio is balanced.
Osteofibrosis consists of replacing bone tissue with fibrous

tissue. It is caused by nutritional deficiencies - calcium deficiency
and excess phosphorus, predominantly carnal nutrition not
supplemented with mineral renal lesions - renal insufficiency that
promotes secondary hyperparathyroidism;
It is characterized by more pronounced bone changes in the

dental fl ows which favor the tooth dropping; long bone fractures
and dislocations, and sometimes spine deformity. (30, 34)
359
8.1.2. Lesions of the skin, apparent mucousas, subcutaneous
conjunctive tissue
CUTANEOUS PARACHERATOSIS
Caused by the deficiency in essential fatty acids of animal

origin, it is characterized by soft, pleated skin, with alopecia, in
particulary in the abdomen area, thighs and interscapular, erythema,
edema of extremities and progressive bleedins.
Dermatitis can be:
- squamous encountered in tricophytosis, favus, microsporia;
- pustulous or pustulous-crustous, occurs in rat, and is

characterized by erythema, pustules, bloody wounds, brownish
crusts; in the case of complications with piogene germs, purulent
dermatitis occurs;
-granulomatous, with the production of ulcers in the ocular

and nasal areas which may be: of microbial origin, produced by
germs of the Mycobacterium genus localized at the level of the
anterior face and forelegs; or may be erosive, with nonspecific
aetiology located around the nose and lips:
360
8.2. Lesions of the large cavities
Accumulations of non-inflammatory fluids occur

following chronic kidney disease, cirrhosis, heart disease
(valvulopathy).
Fibrinous, fibrino - necrotic peritonitis, in infectious

peritonitis (P.I.F.), effusion form.
Poliserosites can be:
- serofibrinous, is found in viral infectious peritonitis

(coronavirus); and characterized by ascites, organs covered with
fibrinous exudates; on serous and in organs can be seen small
whitish nodules in the granulomatous form of the disease;
- granulomatous, occurs in mycosis, tuberculosis (exudative

character).
Purulent pericarditis occurs in primary pasteurellosis,

streptococci, colibacilosis, or in microbial complications of viral
pneumonia.
361
Lymphoid organ hyperplasia and internal organs (liver,
kidneys, lungs) occur in Tularemia, a disease caused by Francisella
tularensis.
Coryza encounters viral pneumonia and infectious

rhinotracheitis, and is characterized by serum rhino-conjunctivitis;
respiratory mucous membranes are covered with serum
mucopurulent exudate - pseudomembrane-covered necrosis - ulcers;
microbial intervention can cause complications such as:
tracheobronchitis, bloating pneumonia.
Sinusitis occurs rarely and is observed in aspergillosis.
Laryngotracheites can be:
- catarrhal, influenced by poor maintenance conditions, or as

a result of non-specific viral infections, especially those of
calicivirus, herpes virus;
362
- fibrinous, occurs in simple infectious rhinotracheitis,
infectious panleucopenia, candidosis; is characterized by the
presence of yellowish gray pseudomembranes, more or less
detachable from the substrate, somewhere the mucosa is bleeding or
has small ulcers; in candidoise the pseudomembranes are whitish;
- parasitic, more rarely seen in capillary.
Pulmonary edema is present in phosphate intoxications,

with ANTU, candidosis.
Bronchopneumonias:
- catarrhal, has nonspecific etiology;
- fibrinous, is found in pasteurellosis;
- fibrino-haemorrhagic, in P.I.F., the severe form of the

disease;
- hyperplasic, in chlamidosis;
- granulomatous, in tuberculosis, aspergillosis;
- parasitic, occurs in silylosis, histoplasmosis; and is

characterized by the presence of nodules with a diameter of 1-2 cm,
gray, localized or diffuse.
363
8.2.2. Lesions of the digestive apparatus and liver
Gastries can be:
- ulcerative and corrosive are encountered in

endointoxication, policery, action of caustic, toxic, bacterial,
mycotoxic factors etc .;
- catarrhal in the first phase of infectious panleucopenia;
- haemorrhages, in poisoning, infectious panleucopenia; In

the case of panleucopenia, the body is dehydrated, the mucous
membranes are anemic, conjunctivitis, lingual ulcers, pneumonia;
gastric and jejunal mucosa is red. It is also noted: splenic red
infarctions, hepato-renal congestion and degeneration;
hydrocephalus in neonates, cerebral hypotrophy;
- haemorrhagic, in rambling by ingestion of blunt objects

due to perverting taste.
The intestinal obstruction occurs: in weaned kittens, by

compaction of food in the terminal column; to the other categories -
accidentally swallowed foreign bodies, massive parasitic
infestations;
Enterities can be:
364
- catarrhal, is parasitic in nature and can be found in
coccidiosis, ascaridosis, histoplasmosis;
- ulcerous colitis, in aspergillosis;
- fibrinous colitis, in mycotoxicosis;
- haemorrhagic jujuno-ileitis, in subacute inflamed

panleucopenia;
Fatty hepatosis occurs in poisoning, aflatoxicosis;
Fibrinous perihepatitis and hepatic steatosis, P.I.F. ;
Edema of gallbladder and ascites in mycotoxicosis. (14, 26,

30, 34)
8.2.3. Lesions of the excretory and genital apparatus
Fat nephrosis occurs in food intoxications, toxic infections,

and is characterized by a yellow, yellow-rusty color of the kidneys,
this can be seen on the whole surface or only in certain areas, the
365
consistency is brittle. In severe forms, it can sometimes result in
liver breakage.
Nephrites can be:
- haemorrhagic and lymphoplasmocytar, are found in

plasmacytosis;
- granulomatous, in dictyophimosis;
- lymphohistiocytar nonspecific etiology;
- fibrotic non-specific etiology.
Renal calculosis, common in pregnant females and male

chickens, is favored by the precipitation of ammonium and
magnesium phosphates on a bacterial substrate (Proteus sp.,
Staphilococus aureus).
Haemorrhagic and purulent cystitis are produced by

calculus, which produces scratches on their tract, which promote the
penetration and multiplication of bacteria.
Congenital abnormalities of the testicle: cryptorchidia,

hypoplasia.
Acquired abnormalities: epididym atrophy.
Epididymes: granulomatous, brucellosis.
366
Mastitis are produced by bacteria such as streptococci,
staphylococci, colibacilli). (14, 26, 30, 34)
8.2.4. Lesions of the nervous system
Hydrocephalia can be internal, by blocking L.C.R

circulation, and external, due to copper deficiency.
Congestion and cerebral edema are caused by physical,

chemical, toxic, infectious diseases.
Encephalitis (meningoencephalitis) can be:
- purulent, in listeriosis, or following metastasis after

omphaloflebitis;
- lymphohistiocytar, neurotrophic virosis (rabies, Aujeszky's

disease);
- granulomatous, rare, of metastatic origin, in case of

generalization of tuberculosis;
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ADRIAN STANCU

Prof. Dr. Romeo Cristina

Prof. Dr. Marius Pentea

Prof. Dr. Valeria Grieco

Necropsy and anatomopathology have a significant practical

1.1. General notions..........................................................................20

1.2. General principles of necropsy..................................................21

1.3. Instrument used to perform necropsy........................................23

1.4. Labor protection rules during necropsy.....................................24

1.5. The general stages of necropsy.................................................25

1.5.1. Registration and anamnesis....................................................25

1.5.2. External corpse examination..................................................26

1.5.3. Skinning the corpse................................................................27

1.5.4. Opening of the big cavities.....................................................27

1.5.5. Evisceration of organs in the chest cavity..............................29

1.5.6. Evisceration of the abdominal organs....................................30

1.5.7. Opening the neurocranium and eviscerating the brain...........31

1.5.8. Opening nasal cavities............................................................31

1.5.10. Opening the spinal canal and marrow examination.............32

1.6. Postmortem changes…………………………………………48

1.6.1. The signs of death...................................................................32

1.6.2. Cadaveric changes..................................................................34

1.7. General plan for examination of organs and tissues..................41

1.8. General chest cavity examination..............................................45

1.9. Examination of the cervico-thoracic part..................................47

1.10. Examination the abdominal cavity..........................................52

1.11. Examination of the liver..........................................................54

1.12. Examination of the spleen.......................................................56

1.13. Examination of the pancreas...................................................57

1.14. Examination of the stomach....................................................58

1.15. Examination of the intestins....................................................59

1.16. Examination of the kidneys and urinary tract.........................60

1.17. Examination of the genitals.....................................................62

1.18. Examination of nasal and sinus cavities..................................63

1.19. Examination of the encephalus................................................64

1.20. Examination of the muscles....................................................65

1.21. Examination of the bones and joints.......................................65

1.22.1. The technique of abortion necropsy.....................................67

1.22.2. Examination of the placenta.................................................71

1.23. Making the act of necropsy.....................................................73

1.24. Collection of samples for laboratory examinations.................78

1.24.1. Sampling for histopathological examination........................79

1.24.2. Fix the samples for histopathological examination..............81

1.24.3. Collection of samples for haematological and cytological

1.24.4. Collection of samples for the bacteriological examination. .83

1.24.5. Collection of samples for virosological examination...........85

1.24.6. Collection of samples to perform the mycological

1.24.7. Collection of samples for parasitological examination........87

1.24.8. Taking samples to perform the toxicological examination. .88

1.24.9. Collection of samples for serological and biochemical

1.24.10. Preparation and transport of samples to the laboratory......89

1.24.11. Rapid tests used during necropsy.......................................90

1.24.12. Collection of samples for smears.......................................93

2. NECROPSIC DIAGNOSIS IN BIRDS DISEASES...................97

2.1. Examination of the exterior.......................................................98

2.1.2. The general appearance of the corpse....................................99

2.1.3. Examination of skin and feathers.........................................100

2.1.4. Skin lesions:.........................................................................100

2.1.5. Feathers lesions:...................................................................100

2.1.6. Lesions of the apparent mucosa...........................................101

2.1.7. Skinning and examination of subcutaneous connective tissue

2.1.8. Subcutaneous conjunctive tissue lesions:.............................102

2.2. Inside exam..............................................................................102

2.2.1. Opening and examination of the thoracoabdominal cavity..102