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1.
Spread Footing:
2.
Strap Footing:
It consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a lever, as shown in fig.
4.3. The strap connects the footing such that they behave as one unit. The strap simply acts as a
connecting beam. A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the
allowable soil pressure is relatively high and distance between the columns is large.
Fig. 4.3 Strap footing
3. Combined Footing:
It supports two columns as shown in fig. 4.4. It is used when the two columns are so close to
each other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided
when the property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically
loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior
column, the load is evenly distributed. A combine footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in
plan. Trapezoidal footing is provided when the load on one of the columns is larger than the
other column.
4. Strip/continuous footings
A strip footing is another type of spread footing which is provided for a load bearing wall.
A strip footing can also be provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that
their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a cases, it is more
economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one
line. A strip footing is also known as “continuous footing”. Refer fig. 4.5
4.
It is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under entire structure or a large part
of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns
and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other. Mat
foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils or
where there is large variation in the loads on individual columns. In this there are two types:
Conventional method
In this excavation is done upto depth and then the concreting is done upto ground level. Then
refilling is done with soil upto ground level. Refer fig. 4.6
Buoyancy type
In this excavation is done upto depth and then the concreting of slab and beam is done to tie
up the columns. Here, refilling with soil is not done. The void space is used as basement. Here
the concept of floating footing is used.
Floating footing: Let density of soil be 1.8t/m 3 and height of first floor is 3m. But, there is void
space below ground level upto 3m, soil is not refilled upto ground surface.
due to buoyancy. So, we can put extra superstructure load of 5.4 t/m 2 to balance the
loads. Then,
7. Bearing capacity : It is the load carrying capacity of the soil.
Basic definitions
Ultimate bearing capacity or Gross bearing capacity ( ): It is the least gross pressure which
will cause shear failure of the supporting soil immediately below the footing.
Net ultimate bearing capacity ( ): It is the net pressure that can be applied to the footing by
external loads that will just initiate failure in the underlying soil. It is equal to ultimate bearing
capacity minus the stress due to the weight of the footing and any soil or surcharge directly
above it. Assuming the density of the footing (concrete) and soil ( ) are close enough to be
considered equal, then
where,
Safe net bearing capacity ( ) : It is the net soil pressure which can be safety applied to the soil
considering only shear failure. It is given by,
Safe gross bearing capacity ( ): It is the maximum gross pressure which the soil can carry
safely without shear failure. It is given by,
Allowable Bearing Pressure: It is the maximum soil pressure without any shear failure or
settlement failure.
Application of limit equilibrium methods was first done by Prandtl on the punching of thick
masses of metal. Prandtl's methods was adapted by Terzaghi to bearing capacity failure of
shallow foundations. Vesic and others improved on Terzaghi's original theory and added other
factors for a more complete analysis. 1. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory: Assumptions in
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory. Depth of foundation is less than or equal to its width.
Base of the footing is rough. Soil above bottom of foundation has no shear strength; it is only a
surcharge load against the overturning load Surcharge upto the base of footing is considered.
Load applied is vertical and non-eccentric. The soil is homogenous and isotropic. L/B ratio is
infinite.
---------- (1)
The passive pressure required to produce a slip on def can be divided into two parts, and .
The force represents the resistance due to weight of the mass adef. The point of application of
is located at the lower third point of ad. The force acts at the midpoint of contact surface
ad.
The value of the bearing capacity may be calculated as :
The use of chart figure (2.27) facilitates the computation of the bearing capacity. The results
obtained by this chart are approximate.
Loaded strip, width B, Total load per unit length of footing
Fig. 2.27 Chart Showing Relation between Angle of Internal Friction and Bearing Capacity
Factors
The main goal of most soil improvement techniques used for reducing liquefaction hazards is to
avoid large increases in pore water pressure during earthquake shaking. This can be achieved by
densification of the soil and/or improvement of its drainage capacity.
Vibroflotation
Dynamic Compaction
Stone Columns
As described above, stone columns are columns of gravel constructed in the ground. Stone
columns can be constructed by the vibroflotation method. They can also be installed in other
ways, for example, with help of a steel casing and a drop hammer as in the Franki Method. In
this approach the steel casing is driven in to the soil and gravel is filled in from the top and
tamped with a drop hammer as the steel casing is successively withdrawn.
Compaction Piles
Installing compaction piles is a very effective way of improving soil. Compaction piles are
usually made of prestressed concrete or timber. Installation of compaction piles both densifies
and reinforces the soil. The piles are generally installed in a grid pattern and are generally driven
to depth of up to 60 ft.
Compaction Grouting
Drainage techniques
Liquefaction hazards can be reduced by increasing the drainage ability of the soil. If the
porewater within the soil can drain freely, the build-up of excess pore water pressure will be
reduced. Drainage techniques include installation of drains of gravel, sand or synthetic materials.
Synthetic wick drains can be installed at various angles, in contrast to gravel or sand drains that
are usually installed vertically. Drainage techniques are often used in combination with other
types of soil improvement techniques for more effective liquefaction hazard reduction.
For information on other soil improvement techniques, see these links to related web sites.
Verification of Improvement
A number of methods can be used to verify the effectiveness of soil improvement. In-situ
techniques are popular because of the limitations of many laboratory techniques. Usually, in-situ
test are performed to evaluate the liquefaction potential of a soil deposit before the improvement
was attempted. With the knowledge of the existing ground characteristics, one can then specify a
necessary level of improvement in terms of insitu test parameters. Performing in-situ tests after
improvement has been completed allows one to decide if the degree of improvement was
satisfactory. In some cases, the extent of the improvement is not reflected in in-situ test results
until some time after the improvement has been completed