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Footings :

1.

Spread Footing:

It is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or


haunched to spread the load over a larger area. When spread footing is provided to support an
individual column, it is called “Isolated footing” as shown in fig.4.2.

2.

Strap Footing:

It consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a lever, as shown in fig.
4.3. The strap connects the footing such that they behave as one unit. The strap simply acts as a
connecting beam. A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the
allowable soil pressure is relatively high and distance between the columns is large.

 
 
Fig. 4.3 Strap footing
3. Combined Footing:  

It supports two columns as shown in fig. 4.4. It is used when the two columns are so close to
each other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided
when the property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically
loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior
column, the load is evenly distributed. A combine footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in
plan. Trapezoidal footing is provided when the load on one of the columns is larger than the
other column.

4. Strip/continuous footings  
A strip footing is another type of spread footing which is provided for a load bearing wall.
A strip footing can also be provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that
their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a cases, it is more
economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one
line. A strip footing is also known as “continuous footing”. Refer fig. 4.5

4.

Mat or Raft footings:

It is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under entire structure or a large part
of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns
and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other. Mat
foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils or
where there is large variation in the loads on individual columns. In this there are two types:

Conventional method
In this excavation is done upto depth and then the concreting is done upto ground level. Then
refilling is done with soil upto ground level. Refer fig. 4.6

Buoyancy type

In this excavation is done upto depth and then the concreting of slab and beam is done to tie
up the columns. Here, refilling with soil is not done. The void space is used as basement.  Here
the concept of floating footing is used.

Floating footing: Let density of soil be 1.8t/m 3 and height of first floor is 3m. But, there is void
space below ground level upto 3m, soil is not refilled upto ground surface.

due to buoyancy. So, we can put extra superstructure load of 5.4 t/m 2 to balance the
loads. Then,

So, no footing is required. This is a theoretical case.

 
7. Bearing capacity : It is the load carrying capacity of the soil.  

Basic definitions  

Ultimate bearing capacity or Gross bearing capacity ( ): It is the least gross pressure which
will cause shear failure of the supporting soil immediately below the footing.  

Net ultimate bearing capacity ( ): It is the net pressure that can be applied to the footing by
external loads that will just initiate failure in the underlying soil. It is equal to ultimate bearing
capacity minus the stress due to the weight of the footing and any soil or surcharge directly
above it. Assuming the density of the footing (concrete) and soil ( ) are close enough to be
considered equal, then

where,

is the depth of the footing, Ref. fig. 4.7


Safe bearing capacity: It is the bearing capacity after applying the factor of safety (FS). These
are of two types,

Safe net bearing capacity ( ) : It is the net soil pressure which can be safety applied to the soil
considering only shear failure. It is given by,

Safe gross bearing capacity ( ): It is the maximum gross pressure which the soil can carry
safely without shear failure. It is given by,

Allowable Bearing Pressure: It is the maximum soil pressure without any shear failure or
settlement failure.

Fig. 4.7 Bearing capacity of footing

Presumptive bearing capacity : Building codes of various organizations in different countries


gives the allowable bearing capacity that can be used for proportioning footings. These are
“Presumptive bearing capacity values based on experience with other structures already built. As
presumptive values are based only on visual classification of surface soils, they are not reliable.
These values don't consider important factors affecting the bearing capacity such as the shape,
width, depth of footing, location of water table, strength and compressibility of the soil.
Generally these values are conservative and can be used for preliminary design or even for final
design of small unimportant structure. IS1904-1978 recommends that the safe bearing capacity
should be calculated on the basis of the soil test data. But, in absence of such data, the values of
safe bearing capacity can be taken equal to the presumptive bearing capacity values given in
table 4.1, for different types of soils and rocks. It is further recommended that for non-cohesive
soils, the values should be reduced by 50% if the water table is above or near base of footing.
Table 4.1 Presumptive bearing capacity values as per IS1904-1978.
 
Type of soil/rock Safe/allowable bearing
capacity (KN/ m2)
Rock 3240
Soft rock 440
Coarse sand 440
Medium sand 245
Fine sand 440
Soft shell / stiff clay 100
Soft clay 100
Very soft clay 50
 
8.1

Development of Bearing Capacity Theory

  Application of limit equilibrium methods was first done by Prandtl on the punching of thick
masses of metal. Prandtl's methods was adapted by Terzaghi to bearing capacity failure of
shallow foundations. Vesic and others improved on Terzaghi's original theory and added other
factors for a more complete analysis. 1. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory:   Assumptions in
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory. Depth of foundation is less than or equal to its width.
Base of the footing is rough. Soil above bottom of foundation has no shear strength; it is only a
surcharge load against the overturning load Surcharge upto the base of footing is considered.
Load applied is vertical and non-eccentric. The soil is homogenous and isotropic. L/B ratio is
infinite.  

Fig. 2.25 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory


Consider a footing of width B and depth D f loaded with Q and resting on a soil of unit weight
. The failure of the zones is divided into three zones as shown below. The zone1 represents an
active Rankine zone, and the zones 3 are passive zones. The boundaries of the active Rankine
zone rise at an angle of , and those of the passive zones at with the horizontal.
The zones 2 are known as zones of radial shear, because the lines that constitute one set in the
shear pattern in these zones radiate from the outer edge of the base of the footing. Since the base
of the footing is rough, the soil located between it and the two surfaces of sliding remains in a
state of equilibrium and acts as if it formed part of the footing. The surfaces ad and bd rise at to
the horizontal. At the instant of failure, the pressure on each of the surfaces ad and bd is equal to
the resultant of the passive earth pressure and the cohesion force . Since slip occurs along
these faces, the resultant earth pressure acts at angle to the normal on each face and as a
consequence in a vertical direction. If the weight of the soil adb is disregarded, the equilibrium of
the footing requires that      

---------- (1)  

The passive pressure required to produce a slip on def can be divided into two parts, and .
The force represents the resistance due to weight of the mass adef. The point of application of
is located at the lower third point of ad. The force acts at the midpoint of contact surface
ad.
The value of the bearing capacity may be calculated as :

                   

----------(2 )   by introducing into eqn(2) the symbols,  

                      
  

            
  

     

we obtain, ---------- (3 )   the quantities are called


bearing capacity factors.  
where K p= passive earth pressure coefficient

                                                                                           Fig. 2.26 Variation of bearing capacity


factors with soil friction angle.

The use of chart figure (2.27) facilitates the computation of the bearing capacity. The results
obtained by this chart are approximate.
Loaded strip, width B, Total load per unit length of footing

General shear failure :


Local shear failure :
           Square footing, width B
Total critical load : :

 
 

Fig. 2.27 Chart Showing Relation between Angle of Internal Friction and Bearing Capacity
Factors

Table 2.5 : Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors


 

0 5.7 1.0 0.0 35 57.8 41.4 42.4


5 7.3 1.6 0.5 40 95.7 81.3 100.4
10 9.6 2.7 1.2 45 172.3 173.3 297.5
15 12.9 4.4 2.5 48 258.3 287.9 780.1
20 17.7 7.4 5.0 50 347.5 415.1 1153.2
25 25.1 12.7 9.7 - - - -
30 37.2 22.5 19.7 - - - -
34 52.6 36.5 30.0 - - - -

The main goal of most soil improvement techniques used for reducing liquefaction hazards is to
avoid large increases in pore water pressure during earthquake shaking. This can be achieved by
densification of the soil and/or improvement of its drainage capacity.

Vibroflotation

      Vibroflotation involves the use of a vibrating probe that can


penetrate granular soil to depths of over 100 feet. The vibrations of the
probe cause the grain structure to collapse thereby densifying the soil
surrounding the probe. To treat an area of potentially liquefiable soil, the vibroflot is raised and
lowered in a grid pattern. Vibro Replacement (right, HB) is a combination of vibroflotation with
a gravel backfill resulting in stone columns, which not only increases the amount of densificton,
but provides a degree of reinforcement and a potentially effective means of drainage.

Dynamic Compaction

     Densifiction by dynamic compaction is performed by dropping a


heavy weight of steel or concrete in a grid pattern from heights of 30 to
100 ft. It provides an economical way of improving soil for mitigation
of liquefaction hazards. Local liquefaction can be initiated beneath the
drop point making it easier for the sand grains to densify. When the
excess porewater pressure from the dynamic loading dissipates,
additional densification occurs. As illustrated in the photograph,
however, the process is somewhat invasive; the surface of the soil may
require shallow compaction with possible addition of granular fill
following dynamic compaction.

Stone Columns

     As described above, stone columns are columns of gravel constructed in the ground. Stone
columns can be constructed by the vibroflotation method. They can also be installed in other
ways, for example, with help of a steel casing and a drop hammer as in the Franki Method. In
this approach the steel casing is driven in to the soil and gravel is filled in from the top and
tamped with a drop hammer as the steel casing is successively withdrawn.
Compaction Piles

      Installing compaction piles is a very effective way of improving soil. Compaction piles are
usually made of prestressed concrete or timber. Installation of compaction piles both densifies
and reinforces the soil. The piles are generally installed in a grid pattern and are generally driven
to depth of up to 60 ft.

Compaction Grouting

      Compaction grouting is a technique whereby a slow-flowing


water/sand/cement mix is injected under pressure into a granular soil.
The grout forms a bulb that displaces and hence densifies, the
surrounding soil (right, HB). Compaction grouting is a good option if
the foundation of an existing building requires improvement, since it is
possible to inject the grout from the side or at an inclined angle to
reach beneath the building.

Drainage techniques
      Liquefaction hazards can be reduced by increasing the drainage ability of the soil. If the
porewater within the soil can drain freely, the build-up of excess pore water pressure will be
reduced. Drainage techniques include installation of drains of gravel, sand or synthetic materials.
Synthetic wick drains can be installed at various angles, in contrast to gravel or sand drains that
are usually installed vertically. Drainage techniques are often used in combination with other
types of soil improvement techniques for more effective liquefaction hazard reduction.
     For information on other soil improvement techniques, see these links to related web sites.
Verification of Improvement

      A number of methods can be used to verify the effectiveness of soil improvement. In-situ
techniques are popular because of the limitations of many laboratory techniques. Usually, in-situ
test are performed to evaluate the liquefaction potential of a soil deposit before the improvement
was attempted. With the knowledge of the existing ground characteristics, one can then specify a
necessary level of improvement in terms of insitu test parameters. Performing in-situ tests after
improvement has been completed allows one to decide if the degree of improvement was
satisfactory. In some cases, the extent of the improvement is not reflected in in-situ test results
until some time after the improvement has been completed

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