Journal of Petroleum Geology,Vol.

42(4), October 2019, pp 343-370 343

CARBONATE RESERVOIR ROCKS AT GIANT

OIL AND GAS FIELDS IN SW IRAN AND THE
ADJACENT OFFSHORE:
A REVIEW OF STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCE
AND PORO-PERM CHARACTERISTICS

B. Esrafili-Dizaji+* and H. Rahimpour-Bonab*

SW Iran and the adjacent offshore are prolific petroleum-producing areas with very large
proven oil and gas reserves and the potential for significant new discoveries. Most of the oil
and gas so far discovered is present in carbonate reservoir rocks in the Dehram, Khami and
Bangestan Groups and the Asmari Formation, with smaller volumes in the Dashtak, Neyriz,
Najmeh, Gurpi, Pabdeh, Jahrum, Shahbazan, Razak and Mishan (Guri Member) Formations.
The Permo-Triassic Dehram Group carbonates produce non-associated gas and condensate
in Fars Province and the nearby offshore. The Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous Khami Group
carbonates are an important producing reservoir at a number of offshore fields and in the
southern Dezful Embayment, and are prospective for future exploration. Much of Iran’s
crude oil is produced from the Oligo-Miocene Asmari Formation and the mid-Cretaceous
Sarvak Formation of the Bangestan Group in the Dezful Embayment.
This review paper is based on data from 115 reservoir units at 60 oil- and gasfields in
SW Iran and the adjacent offshore. It demonstrates that the main carbonate reservoir units
vary from one-another significantly, depending on the particular sedimentary and diagenetic
history. Ooidal-grainstones and rudist- and Lithocodium-bearing carbonate facies form the
most important reservoir facies, and producing units are commonly dolomitised, karstified
and fractured. In general, reservoir rocks in the study area can be classified into six major
types: grainstones; reefal carbonates; karstified, dolomitised and fractured carbonates; and
sandstones.The stratigraphic distribution of these reservoir rocks was principally controlled
by the palaeoclimatic conditions existing at the time of deposition. A comparative reservoir
analysis based on core data shows that dolomitised and/or fractured, grain-dominated
carbonates in the Dehram Group, Lower Khami Group and Asmari Formation typically
have better reservoir qualities than the Cretaceous limestones in the Upper Khami and
Bangestan Groups.

INTRODUCTION
More than 6000 exploration and appraisal wells have
been drilled in SW Iran since the discovery of Masjid-i
Soleiman in May 1908, resulting in the discovery of
124 oilfields and 57 gasfields. Most of these fields have
*School of Geology, University of Tehran, P.O. Box 14176-
14411, Tehran, Iran.
+
Corresponding author, esrafilidizaji@ut.ac.ir
multiple pay zones, and a total of 255 oil reservoirs and
128 natural gas reservoirs are known. Exploration has
so far proved hydrocarbon reserves of about 157 billion
barrels of oil and 1191 trillion cubic feet of gas (Oil
& Gas Journal, 2017). Most of the oil and gas fields
Key words: SW Iran, Zagros foldbelt, Persian Gulf,
hydrocarbons, carbonate reservoirs, oil field, gas field,
Dehram Group, Khami Group, Bangestan Group,Asmari
Formation, grainstone, rudist facies.

© 2019 The Authors. Journal of Petroleum Geology © 2019 Scientific Press Ltd
344 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

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Scale
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Fig. 1. Regional map showing structural elements in SW Iran and the adjacent offshore (after Sharland et al.,
2001). Onshore structural trends are dominated by NW-SE trending Zagros folds and faults, while north-south
trending pre-Zagros structures are dominant offshore.
are located in the Zagros foldbelt and adjacent Persian Neyriz, Gurpi, Pabdeh, Jahrum, Shahbazan and Mishan
Gulf (Fig. 1), and together contain up to 97% of Iran’s (Guri Member) Formations which together contain less
hydrocarbon reserves. Onshore fields hold more than than 3% of Iran’s total oil and gas reserves.
90% of the inital oil in-place whereas more than 70% The Permo-Triassic Dehram Group carbonates
of the initial gas in-place has been discovered offshore. produce non-associated gas and condensate in the
Oil and gas are produced from carbonate and eastern Zagros area and the adjacent offshore, and host
sandstone reservoir rocks of Permian to Miocene ages more than 90% of Iranian gas reserves. Supergiant
(Fig. 2). Most productive reservoirs are carbonates but gas fields producing from Dehram Group reservoirs
sandstone reservoirs include the Faraghan Formation, include the offshore South Pars, Kish, North Pars and
the Kushk (Zubair-equivalent), Azadegan (Burgan- Golshan fields (Fig. 3) (Bordenave, 2008; Esrafili-
equivalent) and Ahwaz (Ghar-equivalent) Members, Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2013).
and the Razak Formation. However, the bulk of Most of Iran’s oil production comes from carbonate
the hydrocarbons are reservoired in four carbonate reservoirs in the Oligo-Miocene Asmari Formation
units: the Dehram, Khami and Bangestan Groups, and the Albian – Campanian Bangestan Group. The
and the Asmari Formation (Fig. 2) (Al-Husseini, Asmari Formation reservoirs contain nearly 45% of
2007; Alsharhan, 2014; Beydoun et al., 1992). Other the country’s proven oil in-place, while those in the
reservoir units of lesser importance are the Dashtak, Bangestan Group account for approximately 37%.
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab 345

Geologic Timescale Lurestan Dezful Embayment Coastal Fars Interior Fars

& Abadan Plain

FARS GROUP
Lahbari MBR
CENOZOIC

Post-Eocene
Unconformity

Taleh Zang

Post-Maastrichtian Unconformity

Seymare (Lopha) + Mansuri

Cen.-Tur. & Post-Tur. Unconformities

Albian *Azadegan Late Aptian Unconformity

Kazhdumi Tongue

Barremian * Kushk

Late Triassic Unconformity

Permo-Triassic Unconformity

DEHRAM GROUP

Pre-Faraghan Unconformity

DEVONIAN
Zakeen
Pre-Zakeen Unconformity
SILURIAN
Sarchahan
Seyahou
ORDOVICIAN Zardkuh
Ilebeyk
Mila
Lalun
Zaigun
CAMBRIAN Barut
Soltanieh Hormuz Salt

Conglomerate and clastics
Siltstone Anhydrite (sabkha & lagoon)
Evaporite (deep basin)
* These sandstone members (Kushk and Azadegan Members) are
mainly recorded in the Abadan Plain and NW Persian Gulf.
+ This limestone member (Mansuri Member) is seen in the
southwestern Dezful Embayment and Abadan Plain.

Fig.2
Fig. 2. Generalised lithostratigraphic chart for SW Iran, illustrating stratigraphic units between the Cambrian
and the Recent. Compiled from data in Ghavidel-Syooki (1997); James and Wynd (1965); Motiei (1995);
Setudehnia (1975); and Szabo and Kheradpir (1978).
346 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review
Supergiant oilfields producing from the Asmari
Formation (see Fig. 10) include Gachsaran, Marun,
Ahwaz and Agha Jari which are located in the Dezful
Embayment (Al-Husseini, 2007; Bordenave and
Hegre, 2005).
The Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous Khami Group
carbonates serve as reservoirs at giant oil fields such
as Ferdowsi, Doroud and Darquain (Fig. 5). These
carbonates hold nearly 15% of Iran’s oil reserves and
4% of gas reserves, and have significant gas exploration
potential.
This paper reviews the occurrence of oil- and
gas-producing carbonate reservoirs in SW Iran and
the adjacent offshore. Major reservoir rock facies and
regional diagenetic trends are discussed to investigate
controls on porosity distribution. A comparative
reservoir analysis is presented which provides new
insights into the geologic controls on reservoir
characteristics. The results of this study are intended
to help with the development of predictive reservoir
models and the definition of future exploration and
production strategies.
Geologic setting
More than a century of hydrocarbon exploration
activity in the Zagros region of SW Iran has resulted
in a detailed understanding of the structural and
stratigraphic history of the area. The regional geology
and petroleum habitat have been reviewed by Alsharhan
(2014), Alsharhan and Nairn (1997), Beydoun et al.
(1992), Bordenave (2014), Koop and Stoneley (1982),
Murris (1980) and Sharland et al. (2001), and is not
repeated here in detail. The prolific Zagros foldbelt
extends from the northern coastline of the Persian Gulf
to northern Iraq (Alavi, 2004). NW-SE trending faults
and folds were developed during the Cenozoic Zagros
orogeny and overprinted the pre-existing north-south
trending Precambrian Pan-African structural grain
(Beydoun et al., 1992) (Fig. 1).
In general, the geological history of the Zagros
region can be divided into two periods based on
tectonic history, palaeogeography and palaeoclimate.
During the Precambrian and most of the Palaeozoic,
the region was a part of the Gondowana supercontinent
after the Infracambrian Amar orogeny (640-620 Ma),
which was followed by NW-SE trending Najd rifting
(620-570 Ma). The phase was terminated by Late
Carboniferous (Hercynian) tectonism (Al-Husseini,
2000; Konert et al., 2001). North-south structural
trends (such as deep-seated faults and arches)
developed during this time interval and form traps at
oil and gas fields such as Ghawar, Burgan, Azadegan,
North Dome – South Pars and Safaniya (Konert et al.,
2001). During much of the Palaeozoic, the region was
situated in low southerly palaeolatitudes, and the pre-
Permian stratigraphic record is therefore dominated
by terrigenous to shallow-marine clastics with
minor limestones and evaporites (Alsharhan, 2014;
Beydoun, 1988). The area periodically entered high
southern latitudes resulting in glaciation phases (Late
Ordovician and Late Carboniferous), which coincided
with the development of regional unconformities
(Beydoun et al., 1992; Konert et al., 2001; Vennin
et al., 2015). The Late Ordovician glaciation was
followed by deposition in the Zagros area of the post-
glacial and organic-rich sediments of the Sarchahan
Formation (Fig. 2) which are important source rocks
(Bordenave, 2014; van Buchem et al., 2014).
From the Permian to the Neogene, the SW
Iran region formed the NE margin of the Afro-
Arabian plate. The tectono-sedimentary history and
hydrocarbon occurrence of the region during this time
interval are largely linked to the opening (Permian) and
closure (Late Cretaceous – Neogene) of the southern
Neo-Tethys (Bordenave, 2014). From the Permian
onwards, the area was located in a tropical climatic
belt (from 30°S to 30°N latitude) and the stratigraphy is
dominated by marine carbonates with minor shales and
evaporites (Fig. 2) (Alsharhan, 2014; Ziegler, 2001).
The NW-SE trending Zagros fold-and-thrust belt
was created by the collision of the Arabian plate with
the Eurasian margin during the Late Cretaceous to
Miocene (Alavi, 2004). NW-SE trending asymmetric
Zagros folds constitute structural traps for oil and gas,
and mostly formed during the Miocene.
On the basis of structural trends, stratigraphy and
petroleum systems, the Zagros area is divided into
eastern, central and western zones (Fig. 1). The Eastern
Zagros is bordered by the Zendan or Dibba Fault to
the east and the Kazerun Fault to the west. This zone,
comprising Fars Province and the Bandar Abbas
hinterland, is characterised by the presence of diapiric
Infracambrian Hormuz Salt. Fars Province is mainly
gas-prone and Permo-Triassic carbonate reservoirs
occur in the Coastal and Sub-coastal zones. A few oil/
gas accumulations have been discovered in the Bandar
Abbas hinterland (Bordenave, 2008).
The Central Zagros is bounded by the Kazerun and
Balarud faults to east and west respectively (Fig. 1) ,
and is separated by the Mountain Front fault and the
Zagros Deformation Front into the Izeh Zone, Dezful
Embayment and Abadan Plain. Most of the giant oil
fields occur in the latter two areas (Abdollahie Fard et
al., 2006; Al-Husseini, 2007; Bordenave and Hegre,
2005) but a number of fields are situated in the Izeh
Zone such as Kuh-e Rig, Shurom, Doudrou and
Mokhtar (Al-Husseini, 2007).
The Western Zagros or Lurestan Province is located
between the High Zagros and Balarud faults (Fig. 1).
A few small oil and gas fields have been found in this
province such as Sarkan, Maleh Kuh and Huleylan
(Al-Husseini, 2007).
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab 347

Table 1. Summary of the source of data used in this study which was obtained from 60 oil and gas fields in SW
Iran and the adjacent offshore.

Reservoir Field

Qaleh Nar, Cheshmeh Khosh, Soroosh, Abuzar, Gavarzin, Marun, Ahwaz, Gachsaran,
Asmari reservoirs Haft Kel, Mansuri, Aban, Kupal, Hendijan, Ramshir, Karanj, Kabud, Parsi, Danan,
Bahregansar, Siah Bisheh.

Ahwaz, Marun, Gachsaran, Reg-e Sefid, Ab-Teymour, Sirri (A), Azadegan, Hendijan,
Bangestan reservoirs Darquain, Binak, Band-e Karkheh, Maleh Kuh, Dehluran, Aban, West Paydar ,
Sarvestan, Saadat Abad.
.

Salman, Reshadat, Soroosh, Hengam, Balal, Darquain, Resalat, Ferdowsi, Doroud,

Khami reservoirs
SPOL (South Pars Oil Layer).

South Pars, North Pars, Lavan, Salman, Nar, Kangan, Golshan, Tabnak, Shanul,
Dehram reservoirs
Varavi, Aghar.

The Persian Gulf Basin formed as a foreland basin
in the NE of the Arabian Plate (Fig. 1). Structural
elements and deformation style in the Persian Gulf
are different from those in the adjacent onshore
which is dominated by NW-SE Zagros-type folding.
In the Persian Gulf Basin, the major structural trends
are controlled by north-south trending Pan-African
tectonics inherited from the Infracambrian Amar
orogeny (Al-Husseini, 2000; Edgell, 1996; Konert et
al., 2001). Two north-trending highs, the Safaniya-
Hendijan Arch and the Qatar Arch, have controlled
the formation of major oil and gas fields such as
Safaniya and North Dome – South Pars. Salt diapirs
are common in the Persian Gulf and form structural
traps, particularly in the eastern side (Edgell, 1996).
The diapirs are sourced from thick Hormuz Series
evaporites which were deposited during Infracambrian
– Cambrian Najd rifting (Al-Husseini, 2000; Edgell,
1996).
Since the Cambrian, the Persian Gulf has
structurally been divided by the Qatar Arch into
western and eastern sub-basins (van Buchem et al.,
2014). Jurassic to Cretaceous carbonate reservoirs are
widespread in the eastern Persian Gulf and are mostly
associated with salt domes. Gas-prone Permo-Triassic
carbonates are the most significant reservoir rocks in
the Qatar Arch area. In the western Persian Gulf, the
Azadegan (Burgan-equivalent) sandstone reservoirs
are productive and have been developed along the
NNE-SSW Safaniya-Hendijan trend (Alsharhan and
Nairn, 1997).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study of carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran
and the adjacent offshore is based on data from 115
reservoir units at 60 oil- and gasfields (Table 1; field
locations in Figs 3, 5, 8 and 10). The data was collected
by the authors during industrial projects and studies,
and extensive investigations into the stratigraphy,
tectonics and petroleum systems in the study area have
provided a large database from which to review the
hydrocarbon occurrence and habitat. Therefore, the
first part of the paper briefly reviews major (and minor)
hydrocarbon reservoirs in SW Iran and the northern
Persian Gulf and is based on Al-Husseini (2007);
Alsharhan and Nairn (1997); Beydoun et al. (1992);
Bordenave (2014); Ghazban (2007); Motiei (1995);
and Alsharhan (2014). In the second part, reservoir
facies and regional diagenetic trends are discussed,
based mainly on data from the authors’ previous
studies (especially Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-
Bonab, 2013; Esrafili-Dizaji et al., 2015; Mehrabi
et al., 2015a; Mehrabi et al., 2015b; Mehrabi et al.,
2018; Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2013). Reservoir rocks
are classified into six principal classes considering
the major factors controlling porosity generation
and distribution at a regional scale. Despite reservoir
complexity and heterogeneity, this comparative
reservoir analysis may provide new insights into the
geologic processes controlling reservoir characteristics
(Ehrenberg et al., 2007a; Markello et al., 2008).
In order to compare different reservoir rocks, this
study follows a simple approach which uses mean
348 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review
poro-perm data for comparison (c.f. Ehrenberg et al.,
2007a). In this method, arithmetic average values
of porosity and permeability data were calculated
for each reservoir, and mean values for the various
reservoirs are plotted and compared to investigate
general trends and characteristics. Although average
poro-perm data may not be representative for a large
and heterogeneous rock volume, the method simplifies
complex geological processes since mean poro-perm
values are a function of a reservoir unit’s sedimentary
and diagenetic history. The data reported here should be
regarded as representative for the producing reservoir
zones which have been cored and evaluated, rather than
the gross volume of the reservoir. Producing zones may
have better reservoir properties than gross reservoir
successions. In addition, it should be noted that the
permeability values used in this study do not reflect the
presence of, or contributions from, fracture networks.
HYDROCARBON HABITAT
In this section, the stratigraphic distribution and
characteristics of the reservoir units at the major oil
and gas fields in the SW Iran and the adjacent offshore
are summarised.
Reservoirs in the Permo-Triassic Dehram Group
The Permo-Triassic Dehram Group consists of the
Faraghan, Dalan and Kangan Formations in ascending
order (Fig. 2) (Szabo and Kheradpir, 1978). The group
is equivalent to the Unayzah and Khuff Formations in
the Arabian Peninsula to the south. More than 33 gas
and gas-condensate fields have so far been discovered
which produce from Dehram Group reservoirs, which
are mostly located in the upper Dalan and Kangan
Formations (Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab,
2013). The majority of the accumulations are located in
Fars Province and the adjacent offshore (Fig. 3), and a
few occur in the Western Zagros (such as Kabirkuh and
Samand in Lurestan). No information is available about
the occurrence of gas accumulations in the Izeh Zone
because no wells have yet penetrated the Triassic or
deeper-lying intervals in this area. The Dehram Group
carbonates in the Dezful Embayment are too deep (>
6000 m) to be reached by the drill, and hydrocarbons
are not expected to occur here in these carbonates
(Bordenave, 2014).
Very large volumes of gas and condensate (nearly
half of the total initial gas in-place, IGIP) have been
discovered in Dehram Group reservoirs in four
supergiant fields offshore: South Pars (360 TCF), Kish
(66 TCF), North Pars (47 TCF) and Golshan (42 to 56
TCF). Gas has also been proven in sandstones of the
Faraghan Formation in the Golshan and Salman fields
(Fig. 3). Gas in Dehram Group reservoirs is sourced
from the Silurian Sarchahan shales, and the reservoirs
are capped by the shales and anhydrite of the overlying
Dashtak Formation (Bordenave, 2014; Esrafili-Dizaji
and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2013). In most offshore fields
(with the exception of South Pars), trap structures are
related to Hormuz salt diapirs. By contrast, traps in
most onshore fields in Fars Province and Lurestan
consist of anticlines oriented parallel to the Zagros
trend, although the traps at the onshore Gardan and
Namak Kangan fields are related to salt domes.
Most of the gas is contained in the upper Dalan and
Kangan carbonates (Upper Khuff equivalents) whereas
the lower Dalan and Nar Members form less common
reservoir units. Offshore, at the supergiant gasfields, the
thickness of this productive interval is c. 420-480 m.
The upper Dalan and Kangan Formations in the Persian
Gulf are divided into four regionally-identifiable
reservoir units, designated in order of increasing age
as K1, K2, K3 and K4. This four-fold subdivision can
be correlated regionally using a sequence stratigraphic
framework (Insalaco et al., 2006). In general the
carbonates are characterised by a dominance of porous
ooidal grainstones (Fig. 4) which vary in quality as
a result of their diagenetic history (Ehrenberg et al.,
2007a; Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2014).
Oomouldic porosity is the most important pore type
recorded in the Dehram Group reservoirs (Fig. 4),
which have an average porosity of 9% (range: 5-15%)
and average permeability of 30 mD (range: 6-100
mD). As a general trend, reservoir quality declines
from the offshore towards the onshore fields due to the
increasing clay content (Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-
Bonab, 2013; Insalaco et al., 2006).
Reservoirs in the Jurassic – Cretaceous
Khami Group
The Khami Group was divided by James and Wynd
(1965) into four formations, in ascending order the
Surmeh, Fahliyan, Gadvan and Dariyan Formations,
ranging in age from Middle Jurassic to Aptian (Fig. 2).
More than 56 oil and gas fields have been discovered
in the Khami Group carbonates (Fig. 5) and are in
general located on pre-Zagros highs (e.g. the Kharg-
Mish, Safaniya-Hendijan and Azadegan highs) and
salt-related structures in the eastern Persian Gulf and
Bandar Abbas hinterland (Ghazban, 2007; Motiei,
1995). Gas fields producing from Khami Group
reservoirs are located in the Bandar Abbas area (e.g.
Suru, Salakh and South Gashu fields) and Izeh Zone
(Mokhtar field). The discovery of gas in Khami Group
reservoirs (especially in the Marun, Bibi Hakimeh,
Rag-e Sefid and Pazanan fields) suggests that these
carbonates may have substantial gas exploration
potential (Al-Husseini, 2007; Motiei, 1995). The
wide geographical distribution of these reservoirs is
evidence of discrete petroleum systems with slightly
different charge histories (Bordenave, 2014).
 Dalan-Kangan Reservoirs 32 N 30 N 28 N

Main Zagros Fault

D
High 58 E

B
Zagro

AN
s Fault
HIGH ZAGROS

E RL BAS
T
D

t
ul
N

Fa
IZEH

HIN AR A

ud
LURESTAN

BA
33

R
a
al
FARS

B
32 31

28
DEZFUL 23
30 29 27
24 22
0 N 300 km 26 25
15 17 18 19 21
14
12
Gas Reservoirs 16
20 13
11
Oil Reservoirs 5 4 6 7
lf 56 E
3 8
Caspian Sea 9
Pers Gu
i 1 2 10
an

ult
Tehran

n Fa
zeru
1. Farzad (B) 11. Lavan 21. Tabnak 31. Aghar
2. Ferdowsi 12. Kish 22. Varavi 32. Samand

r-Ka
IRAN
3. Golshan 13. Farur (B) 23. Shanul 33. Kabirkuh

Qata
4. North Pars 14. Kuh-e Mond 24. Homa
5. Irandahr 15. Zireh 25. Sefid Baghun
6. South Pars 16. Kangan 26. Gardan
N 7. Hamoon 17. Nar 27. Halegan
8. Balal 18. W-Assaluyeh 28. Sefid Zakhur
9. Rehsdat 19. E-Assaluyeh 29. Day
B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab

10. Salman 20. Madar 30. Dalan

46 E 48 E 50 E 52 E 54 E

Fig.3
Fig. 3. Gas fields in onshore SW Iran and the Persian Gulf producing from Permo-Triassic Dahram Group reservoirs. Most of the fields are located in the eastern
Zagros and adjacent offshore.
349
350 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

?
?

Peloids Nodular Fabric

Ooids Geopetal Fabric

Anhydrite
Intraclasts Bioturbation
Dolomite
Oncoids Fenestral Fabric
Limestone
Bioclasts Dessition crack

Upward fining

Upward coarsing

Fig. 4. Sedimentological log based on cores from the upper member of the Dalan Formation (K3 and K4
reservoir units) in the South Pars field, together with petrophysical logs (GR and RHOB), poro-perm values
and depositional sequences.The thick oolitic intervals in the K4 unit form good reservoir intervals.The
photomicrographs (right) illustrate various oolitic rock types. Dolomitisation in general occurred as a result of
diagenesis in hypersaline conditions (see text for details).

The Khami Group carbonates are characterised
by mud-dominated facies with generally poor
reservoir properties. Reservoir quality increases
where the carbonates have undergone extensive
dissolution or karstification (principally associated
with subaerial unconformities), and is improved locally
by dolomitisation and fracturing.
(i) Lower Khami reservoirs
Within the lower Khami Group, the upper parts of the
Surmeh Formation constitute the main hydrocarbon
reservoir unit in a number of oil fields in the Persian
Gulf including Salman, Ferdowsi, Golshan, Reshadat,
Doroud, Balal, Foroozan, Resalat and Sirri A (Fig.
5). In addition, the formation forms a reservoir unit at
 32 N 30 N 28 N
Khami Reservoirs
Main Zagros Fault

D
58 E

B
High Zagros Fault

AN
HIGH ZAGROS
55

RL BAS
56 1

E
2

T
D

t
ul
N
54
53

Fa
52 IZEH

HIN AR A
3

ud
BA
LURESTAN

R
a
al
ult

B
36 34
40
DEZFUL FARS

n Fa
41 32 29 28 27
39 35 33
37
42 30

zeru
38 31
26
46

r-Ka
51 44 43 4
25
0 N 300 km 47 23

Qata
50 24
48
49 45 22 21
Gas Reservoirs 19
18 20
Oil Reservoirs
10
16 8
f
17 6 56 E
15 12 11 ul
Caspian Sea 14 9 7 G
Persian 13 5
Tehran

1. Suru 11. South Pars 21. Doroud 31. Bibi Hakimeh 41. Ahwaz 51. Sohrab
IRAN 2. South Gashu 12. Golshan 22. Bahregansar 32. Chilingar 42. Marun 52. Asmari
3. Salakh 13. Ferdowsi 23. Hendijan 33. Garangan 43. Mansuri 53. Masjid-i Soleiman
4. Mubarak 14. Foroozan 24. Mahshahr 34. Gachsaran 44. Ab-Teymour 54. Mokhtar
5. Salman 15. Esfandiyar 25. Binak 35. Kheyrabad 45. Darquain 55. Kuh-e Rig
6. Resalat 16. Soroosh 26. Gulkhari 36. Pazanan 46. Susangerd 56. Dudrou
N 7. Reshadat 17. Arash 27. Milatun 37. Rag-e Sefid 47. Juffair
8. Alpha 18. Nowruz 28. Rudak 38. Aghajari 48. Sepehr
9. Balal 19. Bushehr 29. Chahar Bisheh 39. Karanj 49. Yadavaran
B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab

10. Hamoon 20. Javan 30. Sulabdar 40. Marun 50. Azadegan
46 E 48 E 50 E 52 E 54 E

Fig.5
Fig. 5. Location map showing the distribution of fields producing oil and gas from Jurassic – Cretaceous Khami Group reservoirs.
351
352 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review
fields on the Kharg-Mish structural high (Garangan,
Chillingar and Sulabdar fields; Bordenave, 2014;
Motiei, 1995). The upper Surmeh reservoir, 90-150
m thick, is equivalent to the Arab Formation (Fig. 6)
in countries to the south, and includes four regressive
cycles or members (A, B, C and D), each of which
consists of a carbonate reservoir with an anhydrite
cap rock (Daraei et al., 2014; Ghazban, 2007). The
best reservoirs consist of dolomitised microbialites
and ooidal grainstones with average porosity of about
15% and permeability up to 100 mD.
The Surmeh Formation reservoirs were sourced
with hydrocarbons from the Sargelu and Hanifa –
Tuwaiq Mountain Formations (Bordenave, 2014).
Anhydrites of the Hith Formation, deposited in a
sabkha environment, serve as a regional seal.
(ii) Upper Khami reservoirs
Upper Khami reservoir units include limestones in
the Fahliyan, Gadvan and Dariyan Formations (Fig.
2) which are relatively poorly documented in the
literature.
The Neocomian Fahliyan Formation forms a
reservoir at fields in the Abadan Plain (e.g. Azadegan,
Yadavaran, Susangerd, Juffair, Ab-Teymour and
Darquain fields; Fig. 5), in the offshore Persian Gulf
(Bahregansar, Foroozan, Doroud, Nowruz, Ferdowsi,
Esfandiyar, Golshan and Salman fields), and in the
southern Dezful Embayment (Marun, Bibi Hakimeh,
Rag-e Sefid, Gachsaran, Garangan, Gulkhari and
Sulabdar fields) (Al-Husseini, 2007; Motiei, 1995).
The most significant discoveries producing from
the Fahliyan carbonates are Ferdowsi, Doroud and
Darquain fields. The formation is 212 m thick in
the Ferdowsi field and reaches more than 660 m in
thickness at Darquain.
The carbonates have poor to moderate reservoir
properties with porosity of 5-22% and permeability
between 1 and 50 mD. At the Ferdowsi field, the average
porosity is more than 20% and the permeability is >100
mD. At Darquain and Salman, reservoir porosity
has been enhanced by dissolution during subaerial
exposure (Fig. 7). The carbonates are composed of
bioclastic and peloidal grainstones and Lithicodium
float-boundstones which exhibit moderate to good
reservoir characteristics. Some Fahliyan reservoirs are
extensively fractured, resulting in improved reservoir
characteristics (e.g. at Doroud field).
Hydrocarbons in Fahliyan Formation reservoirs
were in general sourced from the Lower to Upper
Cretaceous Garau Formation. The reservoirs are mainly
located on pre-Zagros palaeohighs – the Kharg-Mish,
Safaniya-Hendijan and Azadegan highs – which
bounded the Garau intraplatform basin (Bordenave,
2014). An additional possible source rock is the mid-
Jurassic Sargelu Formation.
The Barremian Gadvan Formation (Khalij
Member and Kushk sandstone) provides moderate
to poor-quality reservoirs at a number of oil fields
located in pre-Zagros Highs (Bordenave, 2014), in
the Abadan Plain (Azadegan, Yadavaran, Juffair and
Sepehr fields), and in the NW Persian Gulf (Arash,
Esfandiyar, Nowruz and Soroosh fields). It also forms
the reservoir at fields on the Kharg-Mish High (e.g.
Doroud, Rudak, Chahar Bisheh, Garangan, Chillingar
and Sulabdar).
The formation’s thickness varies from 40 m in
the offshore Ferdowsi field to 366 m onshore at
Azadegan field. The best reservoir quality intervals
are found in Lithicodium floatstones and peloid-foram
grain-packstones in the Khalij Member and Kushk
sandstone (see Enayati-Bidgoli and Saemi, 2019). The
oil was probably sourced from organic-rich shales of
the Sargelu, Hanifa –Tuwaiq Mountain and Garau
Formations (Bordenave, 2014). Seals for the Gadvan
reservoirs are provided by intraformational shallow-
marine mudstones in the upper Gadvan.
The Aptian Dariyan Formation consists mostly of
Orbitolina-dominated facies deposited in a carbonate
ramp setting, and the unit is tentatively correlated with
the Shu’aiba Formation of Qatar, UAE and Oman
(Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997). In the shallower parts of
the ramp, high-energy shoals and Lithocodium-algal
communities were developed, whereas Orbitolina-rich
and bioclastic facies were deposited in the middle
to outer parts (Mehrabi et al., 2015b). Argillaceous
limestones and shale facies with a dominant pelagic
fauna were deposited in calm and deep-water
conditions in the intrashelf Kazhdumi and Bab basins
(e.g. Mehrabi et al., 2018).
The Dariyan Formation forms a significant
reservoir at a number of oil fields which are in
general located at the margins of the Aptian intrashelf
basins. Fields include South Pars Oil Layer (SPOL),
Reshadat, Resalat and Salman where the formation
is in general 110 to 220 m thick. The matrix porosity
and permeability of the Dariyan reservoirs are variable
but are relatively high in grain-dominated facies and
Lithocodium floatstones. Intense dissolution and
karstification has resulted in the development of high
quality reservoir intervals (Mehrabi et al., 2015b;
Mehrabi et al., 2018). The formation’s porosity is
moderate to good (17% on average) at a number of
oilfields but permeability is low, ranging from 1 to 15
mD. The porosity is commonly reduced by compaction
and cementation, and fractures can be essential for
well productivity.
The Middle Jurassic Sargelu and Cretaceous Garau
shales are thought to be the source rock for the oil in
the Khami Group reservoirs. The overlying shale-
dominated Kazhdumi Formation (Albian) acts as a seal
for Dariyan Formation reseervoirs (Bordenave, 2014).
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab 353

GR log Sedimentary
Formations A Chicken-wire Anhydrite
Scale (m)
Sedimentary

Lithology
0 GAPI 100 Environment
Texture Permeability

sequences
Back shoal
Porosity
Age

Supratidal
(mD)

Intertidal
PEFZ (%)

Wkst.

Bdst.

Lagoon
Mdst.

Pkst.

Grst.

Shoal

1000
0 B/E 10

100

0.1
10
0

10

20

30

40
1
0

10

2 cm

B Stromatolite

20
Upper Surmeh Formation
Upper Jurassic

30

2 cm

C X-bedded ooidal grainstone

40

50

2 cm

D Ooidal bioclastic grainstone

60

Legend Peloids
Sequence
SB
Ooids
HST
Anhydrite
Intraclasts

Dolomite Oncoids MFS

Bioclasts
Limestone TST
Nodular Fabric SB 2 cm

Fig. 6. Sedimentological log of the upper Surmeh carbonates at a field in the Persian Gulf together with
Fig.6
representative core photographs (right), well logs, poro-perm data and depositional sequences.The reservoir
succession consists of cycles of highly dolomitised grain-dominated (shoal) carbonates followed by muddy facies
and capped by thick anhydrites.
354 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

Sedimentary
Formations

A Lithocodium-bearing facies

Sequences
Lithology
Scale (m) Sedimentary Texture
GR Log Environment
Permeability Porosity
Age

Lagoon
(mD) (%)

Marine
Wkst.

Bdst.
Mdst.

Shoal
0 API 100

Pkst.

Grst.

Open
Flst.

100

0.1
10

20

30
40
10
1
0

10 1 cm

B Karstified facies

20
Fahliyan Formation
Lower Cretaceous

1 cm

C Karstified vuggy facies

30

40
1 cm

D Lithocodium-bearing facies

50

1 cm

Legend Sequence
Large Foraminifera karstified surface
SB

Limestone Small Foraminifera

HST
Sponge spicule
Dolomite
Gastropoda MFS
Lithocodium
Pelloid
Green Algae TST
Echinoderm Bivalve
SB

Fig. 7. Sedimentological log through the Lower Cretaceous Fahliyan Formation carbonates from a producing
field in the Persian Gulf.The reservoir section consists of three depositional sequences which were deposited in
the shallow part of a carbonate platform. Porous and permeable intervals were developed in highstand systems
tract (HST) deposits below karstified exposure surfaces (SBs) and comprise thick, Lithocodium-rich floatstones.
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab
Reservoirs in the Bangestan Group
The Bangestan Group is composed of three formations
– Kazhdumi, Sarvak and Ilam – which were deposited
during the Albian to Campanian (Fig. 2). The Sarvak
and Ilam Formations form prolific reservoir rocks at
fields in the Dezful Embayment and eastern Persian
Gulf, and more than 72 fields have been discovered
which produce from Bangestan reservoirs in SW Iran.
A few fields producing from these reservoirs also occur
in Lurestan, Izeh, Fars and the western Persian Gulf,
the Qatar Arch and the Bandar Abbas area (Fig. 8).
More than one-third of Sarvak reservoirs are yet to
be developed (e.g. the Azadegan field). The largest
oil accumulations in Bangestan Group reservoirs
(>10 billion barrels) occur at the Azadegan, Mansuri,
Yadavaran, Gachsaran, Rag-e Sefid and Ab-Teymour
supergiant fields. Despite the large volumes of initial
oil in-place, recovery factors for the reservoirs are
relatively low, ranging from 20 to 30 %.
The Sarvak Formation shows major thickness
variations in the Dezful Embayment ranging from
635 m at the Azadegan field to more than 1066 m at
Masjid-i Soleiman. Previous studies (e.g. Esrafili-
Dizaji et al., 2015; Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2013) have
emphasised the importance of diagenetic processes
in the development of the reservoirs in the Sarvak
Formation. In most Bangestan Group fields, the Sarvak
carbonates have been extensively altered immediately
beneath the regional-scale end-Turonian unconformity
at the top of the formation. Dissolution porosity is
believed to have been developed during a phase of mid-
Cretaceous uplift as the result of which the top of the
Sarvak Formation became subaerially exposed, leached
and fractured (Esrafili-Dizaji et al., 2015; Rahimpour-
Bonab et al., 2013). High porosity reservoir rock
intervals were formed by karstification and fracturing
of the carbonates below both the regional unconformity
and also below local unconformities in the Sarvak
succession. The Sarvak carbonates are characterised
by thick, rudist-dominated intervals which have good
potential for reservoir development (Fig. 9). Based on
an analysis of cores from a number of fields, the mean
porosity of the Sarvak carbonate reservoirs is about
13% (range 5-25 %), but permeability is low (14 mD
on average).
The Santonian Ilam Formation, whose thickness
is highly variable, consists largely of mud-dominated
deposits with occasional grain-dominated intervals
(Fig. 9). Studies at giant oil fields such as Gachsaran,
Marun, Ahwaz, Rag-e Sefid and Ab-Teymour show that
the formation was in general deposited in the deeper
parts of a carbonate ramp under warm and humid
climatic conditions (Mehrabi et al., 2013). Data from
the Ahwaz, Azadegan, Darquain, Hendijan and Band-e
Karkheh oilfields show that the average porosity of the
formation is >10% whereas mean permeability is <10
355
mD. Fields producing from Ilam reservoirs occur in
the Abadan Plain, Lurestan and eastern Persian Gulf.
Ilam reservoirs occur in fields around the Azadegan
High including Azadegan, Yadavaran, Ab-Teymour,
Dehluran, Darquain and Susangerd. In Lurestan,
the Ilam Formation occurs as the main reservoir in
the Maleh Kuh, Sarkan and Veyzenhar oilfields and
in the Halush gasfield. Fracturing has enhanced the
productivity of the Ilam Formation in the Sarvestan
and Saadat Abad oil fields in Interior Fars (Fig. 8).
A regional-scale seal for these reservoirs is provided
by the Upper Cretaceous Gurpi Formation.
The Albian Kazhdumi Formation is considered to be
the principal source of the hydrocarbons in the Sarvak
and Ilam reservoirs (Bordenave and Hegre, 2010). To
the SW, in the Abadan Plain and the NW Persian Gulf,
the Kazhdumi shales pass into the Burgan-equivalent
Azadegan Sandstones which are composed of poorly
cemented to unconsolidated sililiclastics (Mehrabi et
al., 2019). These sandstones form a reservoir for oil at
fields such as Soroosh, Abuzar, Foroozan, Esfandiyar
and Binalud.
Reservoirs in the Asmari Formation
More than 80% of Iran’s crude oil is produced from
the Oligo-Miocene Asmari Formation. The formation
consists mostly of carbonates with two significant
sandstone and anhydrite members, known as the
Ahwaz and Kalhur Members, respectively (Ehrenberg
et al., 2007b; James and Wynd, 1965; van Buchem
et al., 2010) (Fig. 2). The thickness of the formation
ranges from 150 to 480 m at oilfields in the study area.
The Asmari limestone is a reservoir rock in at least
57 oil and gas fields, nearly all of which are located in
the Dezful Embayment and the adjacent offshore (Fig.
10). Asmari limestones are massive and dense with
poor primary reservoir properties, but productivity is
enhanced by fracturing and dolomitisation (Aqrawi
et al., 2006; McQuillan, 1985). Fracture porosity is
developed along the crests of tight folds and in shear
zones at fault bends. Fractured Asmari carbonate
reservoirs occur in the Gachsaran, Ahwaz, Marun,
Agha Jari, Bibi Hakimeh, Pazanan, Haft Kel, Karanj,
Rag-e Sefid, Kabud, Qaleh Nar and Parsi oil fields
(Motiei, 1995) (Fig. 10).
Although fractured carbonates provide the most
important reservoir units in the Asmari Formation,
production also comes from the Ahwaz Sandstones.
These poorly-consolidated sandstones form the main
pay zones at the giant Ahwaz, Marun, Mansuri,
Cheshmeh Khosh, Ramshir, Shadegan, Ab-Teymour,
Ramin, Susangerd, Band-e Karkheh, Doroud,
Bahregansar and Hendijan oil fields (Ehrenberg et al.,
2006; Motiei, 1995). Based on core data, the average
porosity of the sandstone pay zone is >12% whereas
average permeability is > 100 mD.
 356

Bangestan Reservoirs34 N 32 N 30 N 28 N

Main Zagros Fault

58 E

ND
High Zagros Fault
2

LA AS
HIGH ZAGROS

R
1

t
TE ABB
D

ul
68 56 22
28

Fa
3

N
54
57 53

ud
IZEH 21

HIN AR
70 69

R
LURESTAN 67 4

BA
58 55 5

a
72

al
52 40

B
59
71 41 39 27
60 DEZFUL 34 29
63 38 26 FARS 6
65 64 62 42
66 61 43 36 35 30 24
51 44 25 7
37
45 23
0 N 300 km 47 31
33 20
48
50 32 8
49 46
Gas Reservoirs 19 9
11
Oil Reservoirs 13 10

ult
17 12

Fa
14 56 E

un
18
Caspian Sea

zer
16 15

-Ka
Pers
i lf

tar
an
Tehran
Gu

Qa
1. South Gashu 11. Sirri (F) 21. Sarvestan 31. Hendijan 41. Ramin 51. Sohrab 61. West Paydar 71. Tang-e Bijar
IRAN 2. Hormuz D 12. Sirri (S) 22. Saadat Abad 32. Bahregansar 42. Ahwaz 52. Zeloi 62. Aban 72. Baba Ghir
3. Hormuz A 13. Sirri (A) 23. Binak 33. Mahshahr 43. Bande Karkheh 53. Karun 63. Danan
4. Hengam 14. Resalat 24. Siah Makan 34. Agha Jari 44. Ab Teymour 54. Lali 64. Dehluran
5. Salakh 15. Reshadat 25. Kilur Karim 35. Ramshir 45. Susangerd 55. Palangan 65. Changuleh
6. Tusan 16. Balal 26. Bibi Hakimeh 36. Shadgan 46. Darquain 56. Lab-e Sefid 66. Azar
N 7. Mubarak 17. Hamoon 27. Gachsaran 37. Mansuri 47. Juffair 57. Balarud 67. Halush
8. Sirri Esfand 18. South Pars 28. Shorum 38. Marun 48. Sepehr 58. Qaleh Nar 68. Sarkan
9. Nosrat 19. Kuh-e Mond 29. Mansurabad 39. Kupal 49. Yadavaran 59. Kabud 69. Maleh Kuh
10. Sirri (D) 20. Kuh-e Kaki 30. Rag-e Sefid 40. Nafte Sefid 50. Azadegan 60. Dalpari 70. Veyzenhar
48 E 50 E 52 E 54 E
Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

46 E

Fig.8
Fig. 8. Map showing the distribution of fields producing from Bangestan Group reservoirs.These fields mainly occur in the Dezful Embayment and Abadan Plain, and
offshore in the eastern Persian Gulf.
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab 357

GR log
Depositional

Sequences
Scale (m)

Lithology
Sedimentary Texture
0 GAPI 50 Setting Permeability Porosity
A
Age
Fm. (mD) (%)

Middle
Sonic

Ramp

Ramp
Ramp

Basin
Outer
Wkst.

Rdst.
Mdst.

Inner
Pkst.

Grst.

Flst.
140 msec/ft 40 100 10 1 0.1 5 10 15 20 25

20
Upper Cretaceous
Ilam Formation

40

0 5 cm

60
B

80
Middle Cretaceous
Sarvak Formation

100

120

0 5 cm
140

Legend

Limestone Benthic Sequences

Oligosteginid
Foraminifer
Marl Bivalve
Upward coarsing RST
Rudist /
Echinoid
Rudist debris

Peloids Sponge spicule TST

Ooids Planktonic Foram

Fig. 9. Sedimentological log through the Sarvak and overlying Ilam (Bangestan) carbonates in the Ahwaz field,
together with petrophysical logs (GR and sonic), poro-perm values, and core photographs.The log shows that
the upper part of the Sarvak Formation is characterised by thick, porous, rudist grainstones with extensive
karst-related dissolution.The Ilam Formation is composed of mud-dominated facies.
 34 N 32 N 30 N 28 N
358
Asmari Reservoirs
Main Zagros Fault
58 E

B
1

ND
High Zagros Fault

AB
LA AS
HIGH ZAGROS

E R

t
2

ul
ND
NT
41

Fa
45 3
47 46 42 IZEH

ud
40

HI AR
44

R
BA
48

a
LURESTAN

al
43 39 38

B
49 30
56 50 29 24 22
55 34 31 16 FARS
57 51 DEZFUL 14
32 28 25 23 21 13
54 52
53 35 17 15 12
33 27 26 20
37 36 19 18
0 N 300 km 10 4
11
9
Gas Reservoirs 6

lt
Oil Reservoirs 8

au
5

nF
7
56 E

eru
az
Caspian Sea

-K
lf

tar
Pers
i

Qa
Tehran
an Gu
1. West Namak 11. Kuh-e Kaki 21. Bibi Hakimeh 31. Kupal 41. Pare Siah 51. Cheshmeh Khosh
IRAN 2. South Gashu 12. Bushgan 22. Gachsaran 32. Marun 42. Masjid-i Soleiman 52. Paydar
3. Gavarzin 13. Khesht 23. Kheyrabad 33. Shadgan 43. Zeloi 53. West Paydar
4. Farur A 14. Milatun 24. Mansurabad 34. Ramin 44. Karun 54. Aban
5. Hamoon 15. Nargesi 25. Pazanan 35. Ahwaz 45. Lali 55. Danan
6. Soroosh 16. Chahar Bisheh 26. Reg-e Sefid 36. Mansuri 46. Lab-e Sefid 56. Sumar
N 7. Abuzar 17. Shur 27. Ramshir 37. Susangerd 47. Balarud 57. Naft Shahr
8. Doroud 18. Gulkhari 28. Agha Jari 38. Haft Kel 48. Qaleh Nar
9. Bahregansar 19. Binak 29. Karang 39. Nafte Sefid 49. Kabud
10. Hendijan 20. Kilur Karim 30. Parsi 40. Kuh-e Asmari 50. Dalpari
46 E 48 E 50 E 52 E 54 E
Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

Fig.10
Fig. 10. Map showing the distribution of oil fields producing from the Asmari Formation reservoirs, most of which are located in the Dezful Embayment. Gas fields
producing from the Asmari are located in the Bandar Abbas hinterland.
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab 359

Formations Sedimentary Environment

Nodular dolomudstone

Sequences
Lithology
Scale (m)
Sedimentary Texture

Supratidal
Permeability Porosity

Foreshoal
Age

Intertidal
(mD) (%)

Lagoon
Wkst.

Bdst.
Rdst.
Mdst.

Pkst.

Grst.

Shoal

Reef

100

0.1
0

20

30
10
10

1
0

1 mm

Ooid grainstone

50

1 mm

Oomouldic grainstone
Asmari Formation
Miocene

100
1 mm

Foram, peloid grainstone

1 mm

150 Coral boundstone

1 mm

Legend Sequence
Ooids Algae
SB
Anhydrite Intraclasts Coral
HST
Dolomite Oncoids Nodular Fabric MFS

Limestone Bioclasts TST

Peloids Foraminifera SB

Fig. 11. Sedimentological log through the Asmari carbonates in the Qaleh Nar oil field, together with thin-
section photomicrographs, poro-perm values and depositional sequences.The Asmari Formation in this field is
composed of numerous depositional cycles, which were deposited in the inner part of a carbonate ramp. Porous
intervals correspond to grain-dominated facies (ooidal, foram and peloidal grainstones).
360 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

Table 2. Average porosity and permeability data for the major carbonate reservoirs in SW Iran and the
adjacent offshore.

Arithmetic mean Geometric mean

Facies Porosity Permeability Porosity Permeability

Reservoir
(%) (mD) (%) (mD)

Dalan-Kangan Ooid facies 13.05 39.27 8.15 1.42

Surmeh Ooid facies 19.78 310.60 17.67 48.47

Asmari Ooid facies 16.82 58.53 13.40 3.00

Sarvak Rudist facies 11.73 21.77 8.93 1.00

Fahliyan and Dariyan Lithocodium facies 20.63 19.55 17.56 2.37

Dariyan Orbitolina facies 14.10 0.76 12.07 0.12

Asmari Coral facies 8.70 3.77 7.41 0.46

The Asmari limestones are characterised by grain-
dominated facies (Fig. 11) which were deposited on
a carbonate ramp (Aqrawi et al., 2006). Carbonate
reservoir intervals have local matrix porosity and
permeability, and include ooid grainstones and
dolomitised facies in the Upper Asmari (Honarmand
and Amini, 2012). Typical matrix porosity in the
carbonate pay zones ranges from 5% to 15% (10%
on average).
Minor reservoirs
Minor reservoirs at oil and gasfields in SW Iran and
the adjacent offshore occur in various stratigraphic
intervals. Units with principally source rock or seal
potential, such as the Dashtak, Pabdeh and Jahrum
Formations, may locally also form subordinate
reservoirs. The Dashtak Formation produces gas from
dolomitised and fractured ooidal grainstones in the
Aghar, Tabnak, Nar, Dalan and Zireh fields (Esrafili-
Dizaji and Dalvand, 2018). The Jurassic Alan, Mus and
Sargelu Formations form minor reservoir intervals at
the Darquain, Masjid-i Soleiman and Kuh-e Asmari
fields. The Pabdeh Formation is oil-bearing in the
Zagheh, Karanj and Masjid-i Soleiman fields, and
contains gas in the Qaleh Nar and South Gashu fields.
Fields which produce oil from the Jahrum Formation
include Abuzar, Nargesi, Gulkhari and Kuh-e Mond
(Motiei, 1995).
In the Balarud field, the Shahbazan Formation is an
oil reservoir together with the Asmari Formation. At
the Sarkhun field, the Jahrum and Razak Formations
together with the Guri Member of the Mishan
Formation produce natural gas (Kashfi, 1982).
RESERVOIR ROCK CHARACTERISTICS
Major reservoir facies
Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran consist of
various facies types deposited in a range of shallow-
water environments from the Permian to the Miocene.
Reservoir properties may vary locally, although some
facies are of more regional extent with relatively
uniform petrophysical properties. Based on data from
60 oil- and gas fields in the study area, three major
carbonate reservoir facies are recognised: ooidal
grainstones, rudist grainstones, and Lithocodium
bound-floatstones.
Ooidal grainstones form the main producing
intervals in reservoirs in the Dehram Group and Surmeh
Formation and locally in the Asmari Formation (see
Figs 4, 6 and 11) (Daraei et al., 2014; Ehrenberg et al.,
2007a; Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2014;
Honarmand and Amini, 2012). In this facies, primary
porosity and permeability are highly variable due to the
unstable mineralogy, and reservoir characteristics are
enhanced by dolomitisation and dissolution. Porosity
ranges up to 35 % while permeability may reach 1000
mD (Fig. 12, Table 2). In general, in shallow Surmeh
and Asmari Formation reservoirs (<2 km deep in the
Reshadat, Balal, Ferdowsi, Gavarzin and Abuzar
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab 361

10000 10000
A B
1000 1000

100 100 R² = 0.3579

Permeability (mD)

Permeability (mD)
10 R² = 0.6754 10

1 1

0.1 0.1
Asmari Ooid Res. Surmeh Ooid Res.
0.01 0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Porosity (%) Porosity (%)

10000 10000
C D
1000 1000 R² = 0.3579

100 100

R² = 0.3088 R² = 0.6754
Permeability (mD)

Permeability (mD)

10 10

1 1

Dalan-Kangan Ooid Res.

0.1 0.1 Surmeh Ooid Res.

Dalan-Kangan Ooid Res. Asmari Ooid Res.

0.01 0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Porosity (%) Porosity (%)

Fig.12
Fig. 12. Cross-plots of porosity versus permeability for the ooidal grainstones of the Asmari (A), Surmeh (B)
and Dalan-Kangan (C) reservoirs. D: Cross-plot of porosity versus permeability for all ooidal facies, showing
the relatively higher reservoir quality in the Surmeh Formation than in the Asmari Formation and the wide
variations in poro-perm values in the Dalan-Kangan Formation.

fields), reservoir properties are better than in more and relatively low permeability due to the nature of the
deeply buried units (>3 km, e.g. the Dehram Group pore system (Fig. 13B, Table 2). Pores are dominantly
reservoirs). micropore and intraparticle but vuggy types also occur.
Rudist rudstones-grainstones are common in the Porosity ranges up to 36% (20% on average) and
mid-Cretaceous Bangestan Group carbonates (Fig. 9) permeability up to 500 mD (20 mD on average). There
and form important reservoir units below unconformity is a fairly close, linear relationship between porosity
surfaces in the Sarvak Formation (Esrafili-Dizaji et and log permeability (Fig. 13B); at 1 mD, the porosity
al., 2015). Rudist-rich facies show wide variations in cut-off is 17.5%.
both porosity and permeability (Fig. 13A). Porosity A range of other facies types occur in producing
varies up to 30 % and permeability ranges from < 1 to carbonate reservoirs in SW Iran, but in terms of
> 1000 mD; the average porosity is about 12% (Table flow capacity they are only locally important. The
2). Dominant pore types are interparticle, dissolution- contribution by these facies to production depends on
enlarged and intraparticle. A cross-plot of poro-perm the development of fracture systems, for example in
data (Fig. 13A) shows that there is a linear relationship Orbitolina facies in the Lower Cretaceous Dariyan
between porosity and log permeability with a moderate and Gadvan Formations, and reefal boundstones in the
correlation coefficient (R2 = 0.60). For 1 mD as a Oligocene – Miocene Asmari Formation.
critical flow parameter, the porosity cut-off is 12.5 %. Orbitolina pack-grainstones in the Dariyan
Lithocodium boundstone/floatstones in the Lower Formation locally have moderate to high porosity but
Cretaceous Khami Group reservoirs (particularly in generally poor permeability (Mehrabi et al., 2015b;
the Fahliyan and Dariyan Formations; Fig. 7) show Mehrabi et al., 2018). Oil staining in cores of this
relatively good reservoir properties (Lasemi and formation with intra-skeletal porosity is recorded in the
Nourafkan, 2008; Mehrabi et al., 2015b). In fields Soroosh, Reshadat and Salman fields. Poro-perm data
in the Persian Gulf (e.g. Soroosh, Salman, Ferdowsi, (Fig. 14A, Table 2) show that porosity is commonly
Resalat and SPOL), this facies shows high porosity >5% (up to 30%) but that permeability is generally
362 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

1000 1000
A B
R² = 0.6405
100 100

R² = 0.7921
10 10
Permeability (mD)

Permeability (mD)
1 1

0.1 0.1

Rudist Facies Lithocodium Facies

0.01 0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Porosity (%) Porosity (%)

Fig. 13. Cross-plots of porosity versus permeability forFig.13

the rudist facies of the Sarvak Formation (A) and
Lithocodium facies of the upper Khami Group (B).The cross-plots show that the rudist facies has better
reservoir potential than the Lithocodium facies.
less than 10 mD. In addition, the relationship between the Permian to the Miocene, and two depositional
porosity and permeability is not linear and pore – diagenetic models can be recognized which have
connectivity is poor. The facies has reservoir potential controlled the distribution of porosity and reservoir
only where it has been fractured. properties (Fig. 15) (Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-
Coral boundstone-rudstones are common in the Bonab, 2014; Mehrabi et al., 2015a; Rahimpour-Bonab
Asmari Formation in some locations and have variable et al., 2013; Sun and Esteban, 1994).
reservoir properties (Fig. 11). In the Gavarzin gas field, In model A (hypersaline diagenetic model), reservoir
the facies constitutes two-thirds of the formation and rocks typically consist of repeated shallowing-up cycles
has fair to moderate reservoir potential (Fig. 14B, Table which begin with oolitic-peloidal grainstones, followed
2), with average porosity of about 8 % and permeability by dolomitic lagoonal and intertidal facies, and capped
<10 mD. by supratidal anhydritic facies (Fig. 15A). During
The relationship between porosity and permeability warm and arid climatic periods associated with low sea
in reservoir facies may provide insights into the pore levels, high energy ooid shoals developed on platform
system and original mineralogy. Cross-plots of porosity margins. The periodic emergence of these shoals into
versus log permeability for the ooidal grainstones the meteoric realm resulted in extensive dissolution
(Fig. 12D) show a wide scattering of data points. In and the creation of oomouldic reservoir rocks (Esrafili-
comparison, there is a linear relationship between Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2014). Hypersaline
porosity and log permeability for the rudist and lagoons were established behind the shoals due to the
Lithocodium-bearing facies (Fig. 13A, B), although limited seawater circulation, and dolomitisation and
the correlation coefficients are not high. anhydrite precipitation occurred (Rahimpour-Bonab
The variable correlation between porosity and et al., 2010). In this model therefore, reservoir units
permeability data in the ooidal grainstones in the consist of oolitic grainstones and dolomitised facies.
Dalan-Kangan, Surmeh and Asmari Formations (Fig. Cycles were terminated by tight anhydrite facies which
12D) may indicate multiple and complex pore systems, form cap rocks or intraformational flow barriers. In
reflecting the unstable aragonitic mineralogy and general, reservoir properties decrease upwards from
high diagenetic potential. In rudist and Lithocodium cycle bottoms to tops and are accompanied by an
carbonates, in general there is a more uniform enrichment in δ18O and a depletion in δ 13C isotope
relationship between porosity and permeability due values. This diagenetic model and porosity distribution
to the more stable original mineralogy. Orbitolina pattern applies to carbonate reservoirs in the Dehram
and coral facies carbonates in general have variable Group, Surmeh Formation and Asmari Formation
porosity but low permeability (< 10 mD, Fig. 14) and (Daraei et al., 2014; Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-
there is poor connectivity between the dominantly Bonab, 2014; Sun and Esteban, 1994).
interskeletal pores. In model B (Fig. 15B), the subaerial meteoric
diagenetic model, reservoir intervals in general shallow
DIAGENESIS AND PATTERNS OF and coarsen upward. Cycles begin with basinal or deep-
POROSITY DISTRIBUTION marine facies and are terminated by karstified facies
bounded above by regional unconformities or subaerial
The carbonate reservoir rocks in the study area palaeo-exposure surfaces of more regional extent. As a
were deposited in tropical climatic conditions from result of sea level fall under humid climatic conditions,
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab 363

1000 1000

A B
100 100

10 10

Permeability (mD)
Permeability (mD)

R² = 0.4878
1 1

0.1 0.1

Orbitolina Facies Coral Facies

0.01 0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Porosity (%) Porosity (%)

Fig. 14. Cross-plots of porosity versus permeability for the Orbitolina facies of the Dariyan Formation (A)
Fig.14
and the coral boundstones of the Asmari Formation (B).The facies show wide variations in porosity and
permeability values.

texture Permeability (mD) Porosity (%)

d18O d13C
M W P G
1000 100 10 10 _ _
lithology 1 0.1 20 30 + +
A
shallowing upward cycle

Anhydrite
cementation

‫الف‬

Intercrystalline

Interparticle/
Moldic

1000 100 10 0.1 10 20 30 _ _

1 + +
Unconformity
B
shallowing upward cycle

Breccia/
paleosol

Karstification/
Dissolution

Vuggy/Moldic

Microporosity

Mdst. Wkst. Pkst. Grst. Rdst.

lithology Flst.
texture

Fig. 15. Hypersaline and subaerial models of diagenesis for carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran. Model A
(hypersaline diagenetic model) shows the development of sabkha-type cycles under an arid palaeoclimate with Fig.15
dominant hypersaline diagenesis which resulted in the development of ooidal shoals and dolomitised reservoirs
with evaporite cap rocks. Model B (subaerial meteoric diagenetic model) has shallowing-up cycles formed under
a humid palaeoclimate with intense karstification and the creation of vuggy pore systems.
364 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

Table 3. Mean porosity and permeability data for Permian – Miocene carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran and
the adjacent offshore.

Arithmetic mean Geometric Mean

Reservoir Porosity Permeability Porosity Permeability Number of

(%) (mD) (%) (mD) reservoirs

Dalan 9.16 22.72 8.77 12.73 22

Kangan 8.48 36.11 8.10 18.64 20

Surmeh 15.99 170.45 15.87 122.76 5

Fahliyan 14.83 61.88 14.28 17.75 11

Gadvan 20.78 8.29 19.29 2.4 2

Dariyan 15.77 3.05 13.09 1.42 7

Sarvak 12.84 11.89 11.94 6.33 22

Ilam 14.22 2.05 14.22 2.05 6

Asmari 10.76 46.39 10.05 15.08 20

Total 115

shallow-water carbonates were progressively exposed
and subjected to meteoric diagenesis resulting in
extensive dissolution and karstification. With long-
term exposure, karst-related features such as fissures,
caverns, breccias and paleosols are developed and can
exert major controls on reservoir properties (Esrafili-
Dizaji et al., 2015; Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2013).
In contrast to the previous model, higher porosity and
permeability values occur in karstified facies with a
dominant vuggy pore system in the upper parts of the
cycles (Fig. 15B). In addition, significant depletion in
both δ 18O and δ 13C values occur towards the tops of the
cycles. This diagenetic model is applicable to reservoir
units in the upper Khami and Bangestan Groups
(Mehrabi et al., 2018; Mehrabi et al., 2015a, 2015b).
COMPARATIVE RESERVOIR ANALYSIS
In order to compare the reservoir quality of the various
carbonate facies, the arithmetic means of porosity and
permeability values were calculated based on core data
from 115 reservoirs at 60 oil and gas fields (Table 3).
Although this comparison is only based on matrix poro-
perm values (not in situ porosity and permeability), the
results show the general trend of reservoir potential for
the different reservoir units. Average matrix porosity
for the studied reservoirs ranges from 8 to 21 % (Table
3). The Bangestan and Khami Group reservoirs have
higher mean porosity than the Dehram Group and
Asmari Formation reservoirs, but permeability is
variable. The best reservoir rocks occur in the Surmeh
Formation (Arab-equivalent), where mean matrix
porosity is 16% and permeability is 170 mD.
A frequency histogram of the average porosity in
the reservoirs is presented in Fig. 16A. This plot shows
that the highest frequency occurs at 9-11 % average
porosity (with 16% of the frequency), and 81 % of
the data-points are in the range of 5-17 % porosity.
The ranges of mean porosity values for various
reservoirs rocks in Fig. 16B show that the Cretaceous
limestone reservoirs have greater porosity variation
than dolomitised pre- and post-Cretaceous reservoir
rocks in the Dehram Group, Surmeh Formation and
Asmari Formations.
A cross-plot of average matrix porosity versus
permeability for the carbonate reservoir units
 B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab 365

A20 B30
18
16
16% 25
16
15%
15
14
14%
14 13
13%
20
Frequency (percent)

t) 12
12%
n12
ce
r 11 )

Porosity (%)
e 11% %
(
(p tyi 15
yc 10 s
n o
r
e o
u P
q
e 8
rF
6
6% 10
6
4
4%
4
2%
2 2
2% 5
2 2
2% 2
2%
1
1%
0
0
0
3 3 5 5 7 7 9 9 11 11 13 13 15 15 17 17 19 19 21 21 23 23 25 25 27 27 29 29
Porosity (%) Dalan Kangan Arab
Surmeh Fahliyan Dariyan Sarvak Ilam Asmari

Fig. 16. A: Frequency histogram of average porosity distributions in 115 carbonate reservoirs in SW Iran
showing a distribution which is skewed towards the low end, with most common φ of 9-11 %. Fig.11
B: Box-and-whisker plot showing the range of average porosity values for different carbonate reservoir units;
the plot shows that the variation in porosity in the Cretaceous Fahliyan, Dariyan, Sarvak and Ilam Formations is
greater than that in older (Dalan, Kangan) and younger (Asmari) reservoir units.

A B

Dalan Res.
Kangan Res.
Asmari Res.
Surmeh Res.
1 Sarvak Res. 1
Fahliyan Res.
Dariyan Res.
Ilam Res.
Gadvan Res.

5 15 25 35 5 15 25 35
Porosity (%) Porosity (%)

Fig. 17. (A) Cross-plot of average porosity versus average permeability for Permian to Miocene carbonate
reservoirs in SW Iran and the adjacent Persian GulfFig.1
(data from 115 reservoirs).
(B) Three reservoir classes are recognized on the basis of the mean porosity and permeability data in Permian
– Miocene carbonate reservoirs in the study area (see text for details). Note that the data represent reservoirs,
not fields.
(Fig. 17A) shows general trends which reflect the 60 mD) than those in Group 1. Karstified and reefal
carbonates’ depositional and diagenetic histories. The carbonate reservoirs are included in this group and
plot suggests that the carbonate reservoir rocks can dissolution is the main porosity-enhancing process.
in general be classified into three groups (Fig. 17B): Carbonates in Group 3 show high porosity and
Group 1: This group includes the Dalan, Kangan, relatively low permeability, and include reservoir
Surmeh and Asmari Formations and has relatively units in the Gadvan, Dariyan and Ilam Formations
good reservoir properties (Fig. 17B). Reservoir which are characterised by mud-dominated facies
rocks are characterized by stacked, grain-dominated with occasional grain-dominated intervals. Although
cycles and sealed by anhydrites and sabkha deposits. porosity can reach 25%, mean permeability is generally
Mean porosity is 4 to 18% and mean permeability is < 10 mD (Fig. 17B).
> 100 mD. Reservoir rocks are mostly grainstones Fig. 17B shows that dolomitised carbonate
and dolomitised facies, and fracturing is common, reservoir rocks in Group 1 tend to have lower porosity
especially in the Asmari Formation. and higher permeability than the Cretaceous limestones
Group 2: This group (Sarvak and Fahliyan in the Bangestan and upper Khami Groups (Groups 2
Formations) consists of mixed grainy and muddy and 3). The low matrix porosity (about 5%), especially
carbonates which have intermediate reservoir in some dolomitized reservoirs in Group 1, suggests
properties (Fig. 17B). Carbonates in this group have the importance of fracture systems in production (c.f.
higher porosity (5-25%) but lower permeability (up to Schmoker et al., 1985).
366 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review

Table 4. Summary of the six genetic reservoir types recognized in SW Iran and the adjacent offshore.
Reservoir Name Reservoir Facies Porosity Type Examples
Type
I Grainstone reservoir ooid grainstone interparticle, mouldic Dalan, Kangan, Surmeh,
and intraparticle Asmari
II Reefal and algal mound lithocodium mounds, growth-framework,
reservoir rudistid and coral-algal mouldic, Fahliyan, Dariyan,
Sarvak
patch reefs microporosity
III Dolomitic reservoir dolomitized peritidal Intercrystalline and Dalan, Kangan, Surmeh,
and lagoonal facies microporosity Asmari
IV Karstified reservoir dissolved facies solution vugs,
Fahliyan, Gadvan,
associated with mouldic and
Dariyan, Sarvak
unconformities microporosity
V Fractured reservoir fractured carbonates fractures (all other
Sarvak and Asmari
types)
VI Sandstone reservoir sandstone intergrain (mouldic) Faraghan Formation and
(conglomerate and Kushk, Azadegan
siltstone) and Ahwaz Members

DISCUSSION eustatic sea levels under arid to semi-arid conditions,

Following Wilson (1980) and Ahr (2008), reservoir
rocks in SW Iran and the adjacent offshore can be
classified into six genetic types (I-VI, Table 4). Each
type is defined on the basis of depositional facies and/or
post-depositional modifications which control porosity
generation and distribution. To show the temporal
relationship of the reservoirs studied with eustasy,
climate and tectonic history, in Fig. 18 the stratigraphic
distribution of the reservoirs was plotted together with
variations in global sea chemistry (Sandberg, 1983),
a eustatic sea-level curve (Haq et al., 1987), phases
of Zagros structural evolution (Sepehr and Cosgrove,
2004; Alavi, 2004) and palaeolatitude (Beydoun,
1998), as well as a range of palaeoclimatic indicators.
The plot shows that development of these reservoir
rocks was strongly controlled by palaeoclimatic
conditions. From the Permian onwards, the Zagros
area migrated from latitude 30°S to 30°N; the region
was located in the southern hemisphere during the
Late Palaeozoic, moving from equatorial waters (in the
Triassic and Cretaceous) and then drifted northwards
to its present-day location. Due to the tropical climatic
conditions, the associated stratigraphic succession
consists predominantly of marine carbonates with
subordinate intervals of fine clastics (marls, shales,
argillaceous carbonates) and periodic evaporites
(Alsharhan, 2014; Beydoun, 1998).
Based on palaeoclimatic indicators and
palaeolatitudinal positions (Fig. 18), the stratigraphic
succession in the Zagros area is interpreted to have
been deposited in a range of climatic conditions.
Lithostratigraphic data indicate that the pre-Cretaceous
succession (Permian to Jurassic) in general includes
thick evaporites, such as the Lower-Middle Triassic
Dashtak and Upper Jurassic Hith Formations, together
with dolomite-dominated lithologies. These units were
deposited in carbonate-evaporite platforms during low
and carbonates were subsequently dolomitised. The
Dehram Group and Surmeh Formation (Lower Khami
Group) reservoirs were deposited during this period
and are in general composed of ooid grainstones and
dolomitised facies (Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-
Bonab, 2014; Daraei et al., 2014) with dominant
oomouldic and intracrystalline pore types (reservoir
types I and III: Table 4). They are capped by thick
evaporites.
During the Cretaceous, the study area was located
close to the equator. This period coincides with high
eustatic sea levels, calcite seas and a humid palaeo
climate. Cretaceous carbonates are characterised by
build-ups dominated by Lithocodium mounds and
rudist communities, with regional karstification and
laterite formation associated with periodic subaerial
exposure. Evaporites and ooid grainstones were in
general not deposited during this period. However,
siliciclastics derived from the Arabian Shield were
eroded and transported through deltas into inner
platform areas during the Early to mid-Cretaceous,
interfingering to the east with marine carbonates.
Reefal and karst-related carbonates reservoirs in the
upper Khami and Bangestan Groups (reservoir types
II and IV, Table 4) formed in this period, together
with the Kushk and Azadegan sandstone reservoirs
(Esrafili-Dizaji et al., 2015; Mehrabi et al., 2018;
Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2013; Enayati-Bidgoli
and Saemi, 2019; Mehrabi et al., 2019). Subaerial
exposure and meteoric dissolution were critical for
the development and preservation of porosity in the
carbonates, and vuggy and dissolution pores and
fractures are common. Cap rocks are composed of
shales and argillaceous limestones (Gadvan, Kazhdumi
and Gurpi Formations).
During the Cenozoic, the Zagros area moved to
northern latitudes with a semi-arid to arid climate. The
prolific Asmari carbonate reservoir were deposited
 Palaeoclimate indicators
Global Eustatic Curve Paleolatitude Curve
Zagros
Sea (Beydoun, 1998)
Time Formations Reservoir (Haq et al., 1987)
Epoch Age Chemistry

Zagros
(Ma) Era Per.

Zagros
rocks (Sandberg, 1983)

Evolution
Structural
N S

Meteoric
Palaeoclimate
0

+200

Fossil
Association
+100

Karstic
Diagenesis

Diagenesis

Buildups
& Shoal
Laterite &
Buxite

Evaporites
horizons
Hypersaline
30 20 10 0 10 20
Qt. Bakhtiyari
Pliocene Legend
Agha Jari
Late Mes. Tor.
10

Mid. Ser. Mishan

Lan. Gachsaran Limestone

Neogene
Razak

Aragonite
Brdigalian

Miocene
20 Ear. Dolomite
Aqu. Asmari
Asmari Anhydrite
Ahwaz Ss.
Late Chattian
30 Shale & Marl

Olig.
Ear. Ruperian ? Siltstone

Tertiary
Late Priabonian
40 Sandstone

Cenozoic
Bart.
Mid. Pabdeh Conglomerate
Arid climate

Lutetian
50

Paleogene
Jahrum

Eoocene
Large Foraminifera
Ear. Ypersian
Small Foraminifera

Zagros Collision
60
Late Thanetian Pelagic Foraminifera

Pc.
Ear. Danian Sachun
Algae

(Proforeland System)
Tarbur Echinoderm
70 Maastrichtian
Gurpi Gurpi Bryozoan

Campanian Bivalve
80

Senonian

Late
Rudist
Sant. Ilam Ilam
Bangestan Oligostegina
Con. Surgah
90 (Sarvak,
Tur. Sacocoma
Sarvak Ilam)
Cenomanian
R Radiolarian
100 Azadegan Ooid
Albian Kazhdumi Oncoid
Anhydrite nodule

Middle
110

Dolomite

Cretaceous
Dariyan
Aptian Microbialite
120
Humid climate

Garau Upper

Early
Algal mound
Gadvan Khami
130
Barremian (Dariyan, Reef
Gadvan,
Hau. Unconformity
Fahliyan)
Valanginian R
140
Calcite seas

Fahliyan
Berriasian
r

150
Tithonian Gotnia Hith

Late
Malm Neocomian
Kim. U. Surmeh

Murris, 1980; Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2013; Wynd, 1965; Ziegler, 2001).

Najmah
o

Oxf.
160
Callovian
t

Mesozoic
Passive Margin

Surmeh
B. Esrafili-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab

Bathonian R
a

Sargelu
170

Middle
Bajonian

Dogger
u

Alenian
q

180 Alan
Toarcian Mus

Jurassic
Adaiyah
E

(Carbonate Shelf and Intrashelf Basins)

190
Pliensbachian

Lias

Early
Neyriz
200 Sinemurian

Hettangian
210
Rhaet.
Arid climate

Norian
220
Late

230 Carnian

Triassic
Middle Ladinian Khaneh

drift of the Arabian Plate, resulting in major facies and lithological variations in the related sedimentary
240
Dashtak
Early Khat
Kangan
Dehram
Zagros Rifting

Tartarian
250 (Kangan,
Dalan

Late

present, and diagenetic imprint. (Based on data from Alavi, 2004; Alsharhan, 2014; Daraei et al., 2014; Esrafili-
Nar Dalan)
Ufimian

Fig. 18. Reconstruction of palaeoclimatic changes in SW Iran based on data from the stratigraphic record and
Zechstein

deposits. Palaeoclimatic indicators include general lithology (e.g. evaporites indicating aridity), allochem types
Permian
Aragonite seas
(Epicontinental Platform)

Paleozoic
Ear. Faraghun Faraghan

palaeogeographic location. Palaeoclimate in this area has changed significantly over time due to the northward

Dizaji and Dalvand, 2018; Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2013; James and Wynd, 1965; Mehrabi et al., 2018;
367

Fig.18
368 Carbonate reservoir rocks in SW Iran: a review
in this period; importantly, the carbonates were
significantly fractured during regional shortening
associated with the Zagros orogeny. Regressive
conditions in the Late Oligocene resulted in the
deposition of the Ahwaz Sandstone. Fracturing of these
reservoirs has contributed greatly to oil production
(reservoir types V and VI, Table 4). In addition, ooid
grainstones and dolomitised facies (reservoir types I
and III, Table 4) also occur in the Asmari Formation
and developed in an arid palaeoclimate during the
Miocene (Aqrawi et al., 2006; Ehrenberg et al., 2007a).
CONCLUSIONS
Carbonate reservoirs in the Dehram, Khami and
Bangestan Groups and the Asmari Formation contain
most of the hydrocarbons in SW Iran and the adjacent
Persian Gulf. Most gas and condensate accumulations
occur in reservoirs in the Permo-Triassic Dehram
Group, while more than 80% of Iran’s oil has been
discovered in reservoirs in the Oligo-Miocene Asmari
Formation and the Albian – Campanian Bangestan
Group. Relatively minor production and considerable
exploration potential occurs in Middle Jurassic –
Aptian Khami Group carbonates. In addition, minor
volumes of oil and gas have been found in the Dashtak,
Neyriz, Najmeh, Pabdeh, Jahrum, Shahbazan, Razak
and Mishan (Guri Member) Formations.
Porosity development and distribution in these
carbonate reservoirs is complex and was strongly
influenced by palaeoclimate. An analysis based on core
data from 60 oil fields (115 reservoirs) showed that
both pre-Cretaceous carbonates (Dehram Group and
Surmeh Formation) and Asmari Formation carbonates
have better reservoir properties than Cretaceous
carbonates in the upper Khami and Bangestan Groups.
Productive intervals in the former carbonates in general
occur in ooidal grainstones and dolomitised facies
which developed under arid palaeoclimatic conditions
with dominant hypersaline diagenesis. The preferential
development of fractures in dolomitised units has
enhanced their permeability (e.g. the fractured Asmari
reservoirs). These reservoirs are in general capped by
tight evaporite seals (Dashtak, Hith and Gachsaran
Formations).
In the Cretaceous (upper Khami and Bangestan)
carbonates by contrast, subaerial meteoric diagenesis
is dominant and is typically associated with regional-
scale unconformities. The main reservoir units are
karstified limestones and organic build-ups dominated
by Lithocodium and rudists which developed under
humid climatic conditions. Although these reservoir
rocks in general have comparatively high matrix
porosity, average matrix permeability is relatively
low. Due to the palaeoclimatic conditions during
deposition, ooidal facies and hypersaline diagenesis
(dolomitisation) occur only rarely, and reservoirs are
commonly sealed by tight shales and argillaceous
limestones.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support
from the University of Tehran, and thank the NIOC
(National Iranian Oil Company) for supporting data
acquisition and for permission to publish this paper.
Reviews of a previous version and helpful suggestions
by A. S. Alsharhan and an anonymous referee improved
the manuscript and are acknowledged with thanks.
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