Symmetry 11 01014 PDF

SS symmetry
Article
Finite Element Method in Assessing Strength
Properties of a Railway Surface and Its Elements
Jacek Kukulski, Marianna Jacyna * and Piotr Goł˛ebiowski
Faculty of Transport, Warsaw University of Technology, 00-662 Warsaw, Poland
* Correspondence: maja@wt.pw.edu.pl

Received: 26 June 2019; Accepted: 19 July 2019; Published: 6 August 2019
Abstract: Development of railway infrastructure at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, as well
as the speeds of trains in passenger and freight traffic are the result of improving the structure of
modern rail vehicles and railway infrastructure optimization. The structure of the railway surface,
which enables high speeds and transferring ever greater loads and pressures of up to 25–30 t/vehicle
axis, must meet very strict strength and durability requirements. This paper discusses mathematical
and numerical tools used in simulation and experimental tests of railway surfaces, as well as its
selected elements. Issues addressed in this paper concern, among others, modeling of the railway
track, calculations related to its static and dynamic loading, and simulation of the technological
process of selected elements of railway turnout. Selected results of the simulation tests on numerical
models showing their behavior under different loads are also presented in this paper. The concept
of symmetry is included in the possibility of applying the method described in the article both for
testing other sections of railway lines, as well as for testing other elements in which stresses occur.
Keywords: railway infrastructure; railway surface; finite element method (FEM); simulation tests;
experimental tests
1. Introduction
Development of railway infrastructure observed at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, as well
as the speeds of trains in passenger traffic up to Vmax = 300–350 km/h, and freight traffic up to
Vmax = 140–160 km/h on selected lines, are the results of railway vehicle design improvement and
railway infrastructure optimization [1,2]. The structure of the railway surface enabling achieving such
speeds and transferring ever greater loads and pressures of up to 25–30 t/vehicle axis, must meet very
strict strength and durability requirements. The railway surface is subjected to complex dynamic
effects during operation, the nature of which changes as load and speed increase.
Over the last several decades, the classic structure of the railway surface has not been subjected to
any significant changes. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there has been continuous research and
improvements aimed at increasing the safety of railway traffic [3,4], as well as reducing the costs of
its maintenance.
Over several decades, a considerable number of research works were conducted and a considerable
number of books and papers were published, both domestic and foreign, whose subject matter included
modeling of the surface and its components.
Railway transportation, being one of the safest modes of transport, requires ongoing research
on structural solutions optimization. Research is necessary due to the high requirements posed
in the certification process and pre-commissioning approvals, and due to the considerable costs of
constructing infrastructure. Increases in safety and reduction in operating costs are achieved through
diagnostic works carried out on elements of railway infrastructure.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014; doi:10.3390/sym11081014 www.mdpi.com/journal/symmetry

Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 2 of 29
In contemporary railway transportation, developing computer models and simulations employing

third party or proprietary computer software is a common practice. This is due to the complexity of
processes and phenomena in elements of railway infrastructure, specifically at the contact between the
wheel and the rail.
One of the objectives of this work is to present original models of railway infrastructure elements
with the finite element method (FEM), and to conduct simulation studies showing the impact of
technological processes in the production of railway turnouts on the distribution and the amount
of residual stresses in steel components of railway infrastructure [5,6]. The second research area is
simulation research of the experimental railway surface aimed at limiting deconsolidation process and
extending its service life as well as reducing operating costs. The concept of symmetry is included in
the possibility of applying the method described in the article both for testing other sections of railway
lines, as well as for testing other elements in which stresses occur.
In addition to simulation tests, this paper also includes selected experimental studies carried out
by one of the co-authors.
2. Literature Review
The finite element method is widely used in solving various engineering problems. Its universality
consists in the relative ease of creating a description of different areas and shapes with complex geometry.
The finite element method allows the strength of the structure to be studied and the simulation
of deformations, stresses, displacements, and heat and liquid flows [7]. It is widely applied in
various fields where the adaptation of the material type to the load being transferred plays an
important role. Such systems are also found in rail transport—more specifically in the issues related to
railway line infrastructure, as well as in the place where the elements of railway superstructure and
infrastructure meet.
The railway surface is a very important element for the train’s movement. It transfers the stresses
caused by the passing vehicle [8]. Therefore, it has a very important function—to absorb vibrations
in a way not affecting passing rolling stock, and thus the passenger’s comfort of travel. For several
decades, numerical methods have been used in research on railway track elements. Intensive work
was conducted at the Warsaw University of Technology, Cracow University of Technology, and other
research centers in the country and abroad [3,9–11]. Those works covered analysis of residual stresses
in elements of steel turnouts, i.e., rails and needle profiles. The main purpose of numerical calculations
was to determine residual stresses remaining in the rail after unloading and to determine impact of
various parameters on the magnitude of those stresses and their distribution in the material. Obtained
results of numerical calculations were compared with the results of stress measurements made with
the ultrasonic technique.
Desai and Siriwardane [12] present numerical models for track support and structures. Authors
presented in detail three finite element formulations based on one, two, and three-dimensional
idealization for analysis of railroad track support structures, with major emphasis on the
three-dimensional procedure.
A lot of information on the use of the finite element method to analyze stress generated in the
railway surface can be found in the literature. The research can be done both in two-dimensional space
and three-dimensional space [13,14]. The works [3,15–17] are related to the modeling of phenomena
arising as a result of rolling rails on rollers and other levelers. In works [3,18,19] rail models and
distribution of residual stresses after rolling simulation were presented. Influence of the rolling process
on the size and distribution of stresses was also determined. The finite element method, as a basic
computational tool in modern mechanics, was also applied to the issue of track, track bed, stabilized
ballast and vibroinsulating mat [20,21] or track and ballast [22–24], and joint action of different types
of surface. An important group of studies is related to the research on dedicated surfaces, as seen
in [14,25–29] and others.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 3 of 29
Some studies concern specific infrastructure facilities in which various types of surfaces are in
contact, such as bridges and tunnels. In the paper [30], research was conducted on a railway bridge
on the siding to the “Bogdanka” Coal Mine. The ABAQUS software was used for the FEM analysis.
Detailed calculations also allow the selection of the right type of surface for the transition zone in front
of or behind the bridge [31]. The second type of specific infrastructure elements are tunnels, in which
the railway surface also affects the structure of tunnel facility. Problems related to the exploitation of
the surface in tunnels were described in [32].
Research with the FEM can also help to assess the condition of facilities, including the railway
surface, after problematic situations. In the paper [33], research on a railway viaduct damaged by
mining damage was described. The FEM also allows the best solution in a given place to be chosen [34].
It should be noted that this was also done by optimization methods [35].
An important group of studies on the use of the finite element method for analysis of railway
surfaces focus on issues of the vehicle’s interaction with the surface. In the paper [36], an analysis of
the wheels’ interaction with a flexible track mounted on bridges was conducted.
Classic railway surfaces constitute a railway grid consisting of rails and sleepers immersed in the
ballast layer lying on the track bed. They work under operating load in the elastic–plastic state. The
source of permanent–plastic deformations is ballast. Modern technological and material achievements
make it possible to work the track bed under operating load in an elastic state [11,20,37]. The weakest
element of classic railway structure is the mechanically compacted aggregate layer. Dozens of research
works on the quality, type, and composition of the aggregate have been conducted [36]. Many
works were also conducted on the method of mechanical compaction of the aggregate ballast [38].
However, there are still unsatisfactory results in reducing the intensity of irregular uneven permanent
deformations of the ballast. As a consequence, there is a need for systematic and frequent repairs of
unacceptable geometrical inequalities of the track. The contact of the wheel with the rail generates
energy, which is transmitted through the rail and fastening of the rail to the sleeper and then through
the ballast layer to the track bed. This creates an intense vibration field. The kinetic energy increases
with increasing train speed. As a consequence, the acceleration of the vibrations of rails, sleepers,
ballast, and track bed increases. This causes the formation of significant tensile stresses in the ballast,
which may affect the balance of internal friction forces causing its fragmentation. Therefore, it is
inevitable that ballast subsidence (plastic deformation) occurs. It grows with the increase of stress
under the sleeper [39] and along with the increase of vibration accelerations.
The aggregate layer undergoes tensile stress. In addition, vibrations cause acceleration in the
ballast layer exceeding g-standard gravity value, which additionally reduces the ballast’s resistance to
the transfer of tensile stresses.
The gravel layers at the level of contact between the sleeper and ballast under the utilization load
are in spatial state of compressive stresses. The main stress tensor is the following relationship: σ1 >
σ2 > σ3 > 0. This means that the aggregate is in a triaxial state of compression, and therefore the best
conditions for the work of ballast are there. The most unfavorable conditions occur where the ballast is
exposed to tensile stresses, and they have the character of pulsating variable stresses.
The field of intense vibration, which is formed at the contact between the wheel and the rail, is
transferred by individual elements of the surface to the ballast and track bed. It causes tensile stresses,
disturbing the existing balance based on the principles of internal friction [40]. As a consequence, it
causes fragmentation of the aggregate ballast and its subsidence.
Stresses in the aggregate ballast can be determined in an analytical, as well as a simulation way
using different methods and formulas. A closer analysis shows that tensile stresses arise in areas close
to the rail fixation—the place of transferring wheel-sleeper-ballast loads—and in areas by the sleeper’s
front side. The top layer of ballast in those areas requires resistance to deconsolidation hazards. The
stress analysis in the rail substrate shows that tensile stresses only disappear in the rail substrate at
depth 60–80 cm.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 4 of 29
The reduction of stresses in the ballast can be achieved by its complete elimination. It can be done
by using a non-ballast
Symmetry 2019, 11, x FOR PEERsurface
REVIEW or looking for innovative technological solutions that strengthen 4 ofthe
30
existing structure with geotextiles, geogrids, and other materials.
Tribology aspects
Tribology aspects ofof the
the railway
railway ballast
ballast are
are aa difficult
difficult issue
issue and
and have
have been
been addressed
addressed onlyonly byby aa
few authors. In [41–43], experimental and simulation tests of the ballast, as well
few authors. In [41–43], experimental and simulation tests of the ballast, as well as the analysis of as the analysis of
phenomena occurring in the ballast under load, were presented.
For many
For manyyears years OREORE D182 group
D182 research
group developed
research certain standards
developed regarding regarding
certain standards the assessment the
of aggregates
assessment used for railway
of aggregates ballast.
used for railwayIn ballast.
the caseInofthe
ballast
case ofapplied
ballaston high speed
applied on highlines of up
speed to
lines
350
of upkm/h,
to 350it km/h,
undergoes tests in tests
it undergoes the Deval
in theDrum
DevalandDrum theand
Losthe
Angeles ball drum.
Los Angeles Those Those
ball drum. tests allow
tests
the assessment
allow of theof
the assessment average abrasiveness
the average and the
abrasiveness andassessment of breakability
the assessment in theincase
of breakability the of large
case of
axle loads.
large axle loads.
In addition
In addition to to experimental
experimental research,
research, numerous
numerous papers
papers were
were created
created in
in which
which the
the authors
authors dealt
dealt
with the railway
railway ballast and the entire surface simulation tests. The following two trends canseen.
ballast and the entire surface simulation tests. The following two trends can be be
seen.
One inOnewhichin which
the FEM theballast
FEM model
ballastinmodel in solid
solid form form is[3,15,44–46],
is adopted adopted [3,15,44–46],
and one thatand one that
attempts to
attempts to build
build discrete discrete
models models [47–49].
[47–49].
3. Research
3. Research Objects
Objects
3.1. General
3.1. General Assumptions
Assumptions
The objects
The objects of
of the
the simulation
simulation teststests include:
include: steel
steel elements
elements ofof railway
railway turnouts
turnouts such
such as
as needle
needle
profiles, wing rails, and classic and reinforced railway surface models. In the later part of
profiles, wing rails, and classic and reinforced railway surface models. In the later part of the paper the paper the
assumptions for simulation tests, as well as selected results of those tests are presented.
the assumptions for simulation tests, as well as selected results of those tests are presented. Simulation tests
were often validated
Simulation tests werewith
oftenexperimental
validated with tests; however, this
experimental paper
tests; will be
however, limited
this papertowill
only
besimulation
limited to
only simulation tests. The ABAQUS software [50], on the Warsaw University of Technologyused
tests. The ABAQUS software [50], on the Warsaw University of Technology license, was for
license,
modeling
was andmodeling
used for simulationandtests. ABAQUS
simulation has
tests. broad possibilities
ABAQUS for nonlinear
has broad possibilities foranalysis
nonlinearof physical
analysis
issues, including mechanics of deformable solids.
of physical issues, including mechanics of deformable solids.
3.2. Simulation Tests of Steel Elements of the Railway Surface
3.2. Simulation Tests of Steel Elements of the Railway Surface
3.2.1. Test Characteristics
3.2.1. Test Characteristics
The simulation tests of steel elements of the railway surface include modeling of bending and
The
hardening simulation
processestests of and
of rail steelneedle
elements of the railway
profiles—the surface elements
component include modeling
of railway ofturnouts.
bending andThe
hardening processes of rail and needle profiles—the component elements of railway
bending process aims to properly shape the turnout elements to the arc curvature. On the other hand, turnouts. The
bending process
the surface aims istoaimed
hardening properly shape the
at increasing theturnout elements
hardness to the arc
and durability curvature.
of the running On the of
surface other
the
hand, the surface hardening is aimed at increasing the hardness
needle profile, which is subjected to significant dynamic loads in operation. and durability of the running
surface
Theofgeometry
the needleofprofile, which ismodel
the numerical subjected
wastodefined
significant
in thedynamic
form ofloads inof
a grid operation.
nodes defining the
location and size of finite elements. Three-dimensional solid elements were selected.defining
The geometry of the numerical model was defined in the form of a grid of nodes Due to the
the
location and size of finite elements. Three-dimensional solid elements were selected.
complex shape of the modeled objects, three-dimensional, solid, cuboidal elements with a triangular Due to the
complex shape offive
base (containing thewalls)
modeled wereobjects, three-dimensional,
introduced in addition to solid, cuboidal
the cuboidal elements
elements with a triangular
containing six walls.
base (containing five walls) were
The selected elements are shown in Figure 1.introduced in addition to the cuboidal elements containing six
walls. The selected elements are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Solid C3D8R and C3D6 elements.

Figure 1. Solid C3D8R and C3D6 elements.
Square elements are considered to be more suitable to describe issues in which bending prevails.
Square elements are considered to be more suitable to describe issues in which bending
They better describe stress concentration and allow better approximation of curved shapes with fewer
prevails. They better describe stress concentration and allow better approximation of curved shapes
elements. Figure 2 presents a cross-section of a needle profile model with six- and eight-node elements.
with fewer elements. Figure 2 presents a cross-section of a needle profile model with six- and
eight-node elements.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 5 of 29
Symmetry 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 30
Figure 2. Cross-section and view of the I60 profile model with the C3D8R and C3D6R
Figure 2. Cross-section and view of the I60 profile model with the C3D8R and C3D6R components
Figure 2. Cross-section
components elements. and view of the I60 profile model with the C3D8R and C3D6R components
elements.
elements.
3.2.2. Boundary Conditions and Load
The method of support and load was replaced in the numerical model by idealized boundary
The method of support and load was replaced in the numerical model by idealized boundary
The method
conditions. of supportprocess
The calculation and loadwaswas replaced
divided in two
into the numerical
steps, themodel by corresponding
first one idealized boundary to the
conditions. The calculation process was divided into two steps, the first one corresponding to the
conditions. The calculation process was divided into two steps, the
loading and the second one corresponding to the unloading. In the case of the surface hardening first one corresponding to the
loading and the second one corresponding to the unloading. In the case of the surface hardening
loading and
simulation, the
thethefirstsecond
step one corresponding
corresponds to the unloading. Inonethetocase of the surface hardening
simulation, first step correspondstotoheating
heatingand andthe the second
second one cooling.
to cooling.
simulation,
The the first
support step corresponds
conditions are to heating
determined in and
the the
modelsecond
by one to cooling.
ensuring the appropriatedegrees
degrees
The support conditions are determined in the model by ensuring the appropriate of of
freedom The support
in in
thethe
nodes conditions
best suitedare determined in the model by ensuring the appropriate degrees of
freedom nodes best suitedtotoexperience
experiencethem them are
are present
present in in the
the support.
support.
freedom
Nodes ininthe nodes best
support suited to experience
cross-sections were them as
selected arethe
present
most in the support.
suitable forthe
thesupport
support simulation.
Nodes in support cross-sections were selected as the most suitable for simulation.
Nodes in support cross-sections were selected as the most suitable for the support simulation.
TheTheforced displacements
forced displacements are are
applied to alltonodes
applied in theincross-sections
all nodes the cross-sectionswherewhere
the loading was applied
the loading was
The forced displacements are applied to all nodes in the cross-sections where the loading was
in the experiment
applied (U1 = 15 mm).
in the experiment (U1 = These
15 mm). cross-sections are marked
These cross-sections as Z744,
are marked asZ604,
Z744,in Figure
Z604, 3. For3.the
in Figure
applied in the experiment (U1 = 15 mm). These cross-sections are marked as Z744, Z604, in Figure 3.
simulation use modeluse
For the simulation 3Dmodel
rail I60,
3Dthe
raillength
I60, theoflength
objectofwas 1275
object mm.
was 1275 mm.
For the simulation use model 3D rail I60, the length of object was 1275 mm.
Z 604
Z 604
Z 744
Z 744
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Boundary conditions and load for the I60 three-point (a) and four-point (b) material model.
Figure
Figure 3. 3. Boundaryconditions
Boundary conditionsand
andload
load for
for the I60 three-point
three-point(a)
(a)and
andfour-point
four-point(b) material
(b) model.
material model.
Table 1 shows relationship of stress σ and deformation ε for the uniaxial tensile test of rail steel.
Table
Table 1 shows
1 shows relationship
relationship ofof
stress σσ
stress and deformationε εfor
anddeformation forthe
theuniaxial
uniaxialtensile
tensiletest
testof
ofrail
rail steel.
steel. In
In addition, for the surface hardening simulation, the effect of temperatures on deformation and
addition, for the surface hardening simulation, the effect of temperatures on deformation andand
In addition, for the surface hardening simulation, the effect of temperatures on deformation stress
stress values was taken into account (Figure 4). The material parameters used in the finite element
stresswas
values values
takenwas taken
into into account
account (Figure (Figure
4). The 4). The material
material parameters
parameters used used
in theinfinite
the finite element
element model
model (rail 60E1 and I60) were taken from the experimental tensile test.
model
(rail 60E1(rail
and60E1
I60) and
wereI60) were
taken taken
from thefrom the experimental
experimental tensile tensile
test. test.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 6 of 29

Table 1. σ–ε relationships for axial expansion of rail steel.
Table 1. Stresses
σ–ε relationships for Plastic
axial expansion of rail steel.
Deformation
σ (MPa)
Stresses ε (%)
Plastic Deformation
0.0σ (MPa) ε (%) 0.0
629.7 0.0 0.0 0.4
900.0629.7 0.4 2.6
1066.0900.0 2.6 6.0
1069.01066.0 6.0 16.0
1069.0 16.0
Theoretical relationship Experimental data
1200
C 0 i 1000 C D
1000
B
2000 C
800
A 3000 C
σ (MPa)
600
4000 C
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
ε (%)
Figure 4. Experimental
Figure 4. Experimentaland
andtheoretical
theoreticalrelationship
relationshipcurve
curveσ–ε forfor
σ–ε axial stretching
axial of steel
stretching depending
of steel on
depending
the heating temperature [45].
on the heating temperature [45].
3.2.3. Simulation Tests Results
3.2.3. Simulation Tests Results
Figures 5–7 present the results of numerical calculations of three-point bending, four-point bending
Figureshardening.
and surface 5–7 present the
The results of
drawings numerical
show calculations
the reduced stress σHMof and
three-point bending,
the residual four-point
stresses σ11 .
bending and surface hardening. The drawings show the reduced stress σHM and the residual stresses
Obtained results show that differences in stresses in the same cross-sections and measuring
σ11. after a four-point bending, while maintaining the same load conditions, are in some cases even
points
50–100 MPa lower than the three-point bending. The distribution and magnitude of residual stresses is
more favorable and more even. In the case of four-point bending in the middle part of the samples, a
pure bending between the points of application of the load characterized by the same distribution of
stresses along the axis of the sample appeared. The bending process increases residual and tensile
stresses. The greatest stresses occur in the head and foot of the profile, because after bending forces
have been relieved, the most elastic energy remains in head. In turn, the results of measurements
after surface hardening, shown in Figure 7, show that hardening enters into the system an element of
compressive stress reaching 160 MPa. This is a beneficial phenomenon because compressive stresses
can prevent microcracks in the material structure and other adverse effects.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 7 of 29
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 5. Contours
5. Contours of reduced
of reduced σHM of
stressstress σHMthe
ofrail
theI60
rail I60three-point
after after three-point
(a) and(a) and four-point
four-point (b)
(b) bending.
bending.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 8 of 29
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Contours of residual stresses σ11 after three-point (a) and four-point (b) bending of I60
Figure 6. Contours of residual stresses σ11 after three-point (a) and four-point (b) bending of I60 profile.
profile.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 9 of 29
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Residual
Residualstress
stress contours
contours after
after surface
surface hardening
hardening of
of I60
I60 needle
needle profile.
profile.
3.3. Simulation Tests of the

Obtained results Railway
show Surface
that differences in stresses in the same cross-sections and measuring
pointsAn extension of the works presented above was thethe
after a four-point bending, while maintaining same load
structure conditions,
of numerical are in
models of some cases
the railway
even 50–100
surface. MPa lower
Constructed thanmodels
(FEM) the three-point
includedbending. The distribution
various configurations of and magnitude
the railway trackofstructure
residual
stresses is more favorable and more even. In the case of four-point bending
taking into account different load variants. One of the solutions was an innovative solution in the middle part of the
for
samples, a pure bending between the points of application of the load characterized
the aggregate composite surface developed in the Faculty of Transport of the Warsaw University by the same of
distribution of stresses along the axis of the sample appeared. The bending
Technology [25]. This solution was characterized by a complex reinforcement of the classic ballast process increases
residual and the
surface with tensile
use stresses.
of geogridsTheand
greatest
gluingstresses
the topoccur in the
layer of the aggregate
head and withfoot of the profile,
a special because
polyurethane
after bending forces have been relieved, the most elastic energy remains in
resin. Figures 8 and 9 show illustrative cross-sections of the railway surface together with head. In turn, the results
the
of measurements
attenuation
Symmetry 2019,and after surface
11, xelasticity hardening,
FOR PEERparameters
REVIEW shown in Figure 7, show that hardening
determined between the individual components of track used enters into the
10 of in
30
system an element
simulation tests. of compressive stress reaching 160 MPa. This is a beneficial phenomenon because
compressive stresses can prevent microcracks in the material structure and other adverse effects.
3.3. Simulation Tests of the Railway Surface

An extension of the works presented above was the structure of numerical models of the
railway surface. Constructed (FEM) models included various configurations of the railway track
structure taking into account different load variants. One of the solutions was an innovative solution
for the aggregate composite surface developed in the Faculty of Transport of the Warsaw University
of Technology [25]. This solution was characterized by a complex reinforcement of the classic ballast
surface with the use of geogrids and gluing the top layer of the aggregate with a special
polyurethane resin. FiguresFigure
8 and8.9 Cross-section
show illustrative cross-sections
of a classic of the railway surface together
railway surface.
Figure 8. parameters
with the attenuation and elasticity Cross-sectiondetermined
of a classic railway surface.
between the individual components of
track used in simulation tests.
Figure 9. Cross-section of a classic railway surface with additional components.

Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 Figure 8. Cross-section of a classic railway surface. 10 of 29

The equation of motion for the classic railway track, taking into account the load and weight
The equation
of individual of motion
elements, as wellforas the classic railway
attenuation track, taking
and elasticity into account
coefficients, thepresented
can be load and in
weight
form ofof
individual elements, as well as attenuation
differential equations described in Equations (1) and (2). and elasticity coefficients, can be presented in form of
differential equations described in Equations (1) and (2).
∂4 z ∂2 z ∂z ∂z
∂ 4EIz r 4r + m ∂ s2 z r 2r + cps∂z rr + kps zr − kps zs − cps s = ∂zPs (t)δ(x), (1)
EI ∂x+ m s ∂t + c ps ∂t + k ps z r − k ps z s − c∂tps = P(t )δ ( x), (1)
∂x 4
∂t 2
∂t ∂t !
.. ∂zs ∂zs .
ms zs + ∂ zcs + ks zs = kps (zr − zs ) + cps  −∂ zzs ,  (2)
m s zs + c s s ∂t + k s z s = k ps ( z r − z s ) + c ps∂t s − z s , (2)
where: ∂t  ∂t 
EI—bending stiffness,
where:
ms —rail unit weight,
EI—bending stiffness,
c—damping,
ms—rail unit weight,
k—stiffness,
c—damping,
z—displacement,
k—stiffness,
P(t)δ(x)—extortion.
z—displacement,
Track deflections are calculated by solving the equation in an analytical way for previously
P(t)δ(x)—extortion.
accepted parameters.
Track deflections are calculated by solving the equation in an analytical way for previously
3.4. Boundary Conditions and Load
accepted parameters.
The support method that occurred during the experiment was replaced in the numerical model
3.4. Boundaryboundary
by idealized Conditionsconditions.
and Load The pressure of a static or dynamic roller on the rail, as well as the
rotational speed of the roller that simulates the vehicle speed is preset. The load is applied gradually
The support method that occurred during the experiment was replaced in the numerical model
(incrementally) and at each step the system of equations is solved in order to determine the increase in
by idealized boundary conditions. The pressure of a static or dynamic roller on the rail, as well as the
stresses, deformations, and displacements. The support conditions are determined by taking away
rotational speed of the roller that simulates the vehicle speed is preset. The load is applied gradually
appropriate degrees of freedom, preventing the model from moving in certain directions. In each load
(incrementally) and at each step the system of equations is solved in order to determine the increase
cycle, the force F = 112.5 kN (Figure 10) was applied.
in stresses, deformations, and displacements. The support conditions are determined by taking
In the case of solid models, the grid in individual elements of the surface has a different size.
away appropriate degrees of freedom, preventing the model from moving in certain directions. In
In order to properly perform the simulation calculations, the places of contact between individual
each load cycle, the force F = 112.5 kN (Figure 10) was applied.
elements of the railway surface are defined. Contact between the wheel and rail in the model was
defined as the interaction between created surfaces on the wheel and on the head of the rail. Selection of
master and slave surfaces defines contact between the entire master surface and the entire slave surface.
Surface-to-surface contact with small sliding is considered for all contact interactions in the model
which assumed a relatively small sliding. For the simulation calculations, kinematic contact taking
into account the coefficient of friction between neighboring planes was used. This allows for proper
distribution of pressure on both grids to maintain the homogeneity of the 3D model. Figure 11 shows
the contact interfaces used to properly distribute the pressure to individual elements of the model.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 11 of 29
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure10.
10. Boundary
Boundaryconditions
conditionsand
andload
loadfor
forsurface
surfacemodels,
models,(a)
(a)without
withoutreinforcement;
reinforcement;(b)
(b)with
with
geogrid
geogridreinforcement.
reinforcement.
In the case of solid models, the grid in individual elements of the surface has a different size. In
order to properly perform the simulation calculations, the places of contact between individual
elements of the railway surface are defined. Contact between the wheel and rail in the model was
defined as the interaction between created surfaces on the wheel and on the head of the rail.
Selection of master and slave surfaces defines contact between the entire master surface and the
entire slave surface. Surface-to-surface contact with small sliding is considered for all contact
interactions in the model which assumed a relatively small sliding. For the simulation calculations,
kinematic contact taking into account the coefficient of friction between neighboring planes was
used. This allows for proper distribution of pressure on both grids to maintain the homogeneity of
the 3D model. Figure 11 shows the contact interfaces used to properly distribute the pressure to
individual elements of the model.
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Interfaces

Figure 11. Interfacesbetween
between sleeper
sleeper and ballast
and ballast (a) and(a)
railand rail sleeper
foot and foot and sleeper (b)connections).
(b) (one-sided (one-sided
connections).
3.5. Material Models

In the case of numerical models of the railway surface, the stress relationship of σ and
deformation ε curves for the rail presented in Section 3.2.3 were used. Tests also took into account
the rigidity and attenuation parameters of elements included in the track structure (Table 2). Those
values were adopted on the basis of an experimental test of individual elements presented in various
scientific publications. For the rail 60E1, the material parameters used in the finite element model
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 12 of 29
3.5. Material Models

In the case of numerical models of the railway surface, the stress relationship of σ and deformation
ε curves for the rail presented in Section 3.2.3 were used. Tests also took into account the rigidity
and attenuation parameters of elements included in the track structure (Table 2). Those values were
adopted on the basis of an experimental test of individual elements presented in various scientific
publications. For the rail 60E1, the material parameters used in the finite element model were taken
from the experimental tensile test. Changes in values of individual stiffness and damping parameters
can significantly affect the obtained simulation results.
Table 2. Rigidity and attenuation parameters of the railway track in the simulation tests.
Designation Parameter Value Unit

Er Elastic modulus of 60E1 rail 210,000 MPa
kps Rail pad stiffness 78 kN/m
cps Rail pads damping 50 kNs/m
ρb Ballast density 54 kg/m3
ρr 60E1 rail density 7850 kg/m3
Elastic modulus of the
Eb 150 MPa
ballast
υr 60E1 rail Poisson’s ratio 0.3 -
υb Ballast Poisson’s ratio 0.35 -
υs Sleeper Poisson’s ratio 0.3 -
cp Ballast damping 250 kNs/m
kp Ballast stiffness 110 MN/m
ρs Sleeper density 2400 kg/m3
Es Elastic modulus of sleeper 70,000 MPa
Eg Elastic modulus of geogrid 0.57 GPa
υg Poisson ratio of geogrid 0.5 -
ρg Geogrid density 0.00132 kg/m3
3.6. Results of Simulation Calculations

The selected results of numerical calculations, obtained with 3D models of the railway surface in
various configurations are presented in diagrams depicting contours of the Huber–Misess replacement
deformation, as well as the deformations (deflections) of the model elements. The sample results of
numerical calculations are shown in Figures 12 and 13. The calculations were made for half of the
surface model and ten computational cycles simulating loads of wheels with a pressure of 112.5 kN.
Based on the simulation tests, it can be noticed that geogrid immersed in the aggregate ballast,
at a depth of approx. 20 cm below the foundation, causes a more even distribution of stresses and
deformations. Those values are 5–10 percent lower than the classic solution. Extreme stress values
occur within and under the sleepers. Another function of the geogrids, in addition to strengthening
the entire structure of the track and track bed is to ensure the stability of ballast by anchoring it in
geogrid meshes. This ensures even distribution of pressure transmitted from the wheels of rail vehicles
through the rail elements and sleepers to the aggregate ballast. Limitations related to the completed
test cycles result from a large number of finite elements, significantly extending the simulation time.
for half 2019,

Symmetry of the surface model and ten computational cycles simulating loads of wheels with
11, 1014 a
13 of 29
pressure of 112.5 kN.
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure12.
12.Contours
Contoursofofreduced
reducedstress
stress σσHMatatthe
HM
theend
endofofthe
thecalculation
calculationprocess
processwithout
withoutreinforcement
reinforcement
(a)
(a) and
and with
with geogrid
geogrid reinforcement
reinforcement (b).
(b).
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 14 of 29
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Contours
Contours of
of strain maps for
strain maps for the
theend
endof
ofthe
thesurface
surfaceloading
loadingprocess
process without
without reinforcement
reinforcement (a)
(a)
andand with
with geogrid
geogrid reinforcement
reinforcement (b).(b).
4. Experimental
Based on theStudies Steeltests,
simulation of Components
it can be noticed that geogrid immersed in the aggregate ballast,
at a depth of approx. 20 cm below the foundation,
Residual stress values can be obtained causes aand
by experiments more even distribution
theoretical analysis. ofThestresses and
theoretical
deformations. Thosestresses
analysis of residual valuesisare 5–10 up
bound percent lower
with the than
elastic the classic
theory solution.
and elastic Extreme
properties, stressflow
plastic values
and
occur within and under the sleepers. Another function of the geogrids, in addition to strengthening
material hardening, heat transfer, phase transitions, thermal expansion, structure, and thickness of the
the entire
surface structure
layer. of the track stress
The experimental and track bed is to ensure
measurement methods theinstability of ballast can
steel components by anchoring
be divideditintoin
geogrid meshes.destructive
two categories: This ensuresand even distributionDestructive
non-destructive. of pressure transmitted
methods do notfrom
allowthe
thewheels of rail
determination
vehicles through the rail elements and sleepers to the aggregate ballast. Limitations
of the quality of tested objects without damage, whereas non-destructive methods allow multiple related totests
the
completed test cycles result from a large number of finite elements, significantly extending the
simulation time.
Residual stress values can be obtained by experiments and theoretical analysis. The theoretical
analysis of residual stresses is bound up with the elastic theory and elastic properties, plastic flow
and material hardening, heat transfer, phase transitions, thermal expansion, structure, and thickness
of the surface layer. The experimental stress measurement methods in steel components can be
divided into two categories: destructive and non-destructive. Destructive methods do not allow the
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 15 of 29
determination of the quality of tested objects without damage, whereas non-destructive methods
allow multiple tests on the same object. The ultrasonic method used by the authors to determine the
residual stresses
on the same is based
object. on the relation
The ultrasonic method between
used byultrasonic wave
the authors velocity and
to determine thestress. Ultrasonic
residual stresses
wave velocity
is based on theisrelation
determined withultrasonic
between an accuracy waveof avelocity
fractionand
of astress.
meter Ultrasonic
per secondwaveto measure
velocitytheis
residual stresses with the required precision. To measure the absolute values,
determined with an accuracy of a fraction of a meter per second to measure the residual stresses with the effects of
temperature and non-uniform
the required precision. distribution
To measure of elastic
the absolute values,properties
the effectsand material texture
of temperature on the wave
and non-uniform
velocity mustofbe
distribution allowed
elastic for. A relatively
properties and materialeasytexture
and simple
on themethod is the ultrasonic
wave velocity measurement
must be allowed for. A
with the DEBRO-35
relatively instrument.
easy and simple methodTheis method uses electro-acoustic
the ultrasonic measurement with effects,
the i.e., a relation
DEBRO-35 between
instrument.
stress
The and velocity
method or the time the
uses electro-acoustic ultrasonic
effects, wave requires
i.e., a relation betweentostress
coveranda specific
velocitydistance (at the
or the time
surface). The residual stresses are measured using a special measuring head system that
ultrasonic wave requires to cover a specific distance (at the surface). The residual stresses are measured records
longitudinal
using a specialand lateral surface
measuring waves (Figure
head system 14). longitudinal and lateral surface waves (Figure 14).
that records
Measurement of residual stress with a DEBRO instrument.

Figure 14. Measurement
Experimental rail
Experimental railsection
sectiontests werewere
tests performed on components
performed on componentssubject to rolling,tosurface
subject hardening,
rolling, surface
and three-point and four-point transverse bending of the switch blade
hardening, and three-point and four-point transverse bending of the switch blade I60 used I60 used in the railway turnouts.
in the
The specimens
railway turnouts. wereThe bent in the steelworks
specimens were bent manufacturing
in the steelworks railway turnouts (former
manufacturing Koltram
railway S.A.,
turnouts
Zawadzkie, Poland, now TrackTec). For the test new switch blade I60 was
(former Koltram S.A., Zawadzkie, Poland, now TrackTec). For the test new switch blade I60 was used. The length tested of
objects were 1275 and 1595 mm.
used. The length tested of objects were 1275 and 1595 mm.
The three-point
The three-point and and four-point bending process
four-point bending process is is associated
associated with with thethe production process of
production process of
railway turnouts (wing rail and switch
railway turnouts (wing rail and switch blade). blade).
The method
The method of of section
section bending including the
bending including the point
point ofof support
support and and force
force causing
causing strain as well
strain as well
as cross sections was used (see Figure 15). After the selection of measurement
as cross sections was used (see Figure 15). After the selection of measurement places, the residual places, the residual
stress measurement
stress measurement was performed only
onlyononthe
thesurface ofof
thethe
railrail
flange andandon on
thethetoptop
surface of the
Symmetry 2019, 11, x FORwas
PEERperformed
REVIEW surface flange surface
16 ofof
30
rail rail
the head.head.
350 mm
660 mm (700 mm)

660 mm
(a) (b)
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Transverse
Transverse bending
bending of
of the
the switch
switch blade
blade I60—three-point
I60—three-point (a)
(a) and
and four-point
four-point(b).
(b).
Residual stresses were measured in distances of 0, 150 mm, 300 mm, and 450 mm from both
sides of the shores action (point of force application). The stresses on the working surface of a head
were measured 5, 10, and 20 mm to the left and right of the center. In turn, the stresses on a food (rail
flange) were measured starting from 10 mm from the center, then at 10 mm intervals see (Figures 16–
660 mm
660 mm
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 15. Transverse bending of the switch blade I60—three-point (a) and four-point (b).
Figure 15. Transverse bending of the switch blade I60—three-point (a) and four-point (b).
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 16 of 29
Residual stresses were measured in distances of 0, 150 mm, 300 mm, and 450 mm from both
Residual stresses
sides of the shores were
action measured
(point of force in distances The
application). of 0,stresses
150 mm, on 300 mm, andsurface
the working 450 mm of afrom
headboth
sides of the
wereResidual shores
measured action
5, 10, and
stresses were (point of
20measured force
mm to thein leftapplication). The
and rightofof0,the
distances stresses
150center. on
In turn,
mm, 300 the
mm,the working
andstresses
450 mm surface
onfrom
a food of a sides
head
(rail
both
were
the measured
flange)
of 5, 10,
were measured
shores action and 20
of mm
starting
(point from
forcetoapplication).
themm
10 leftfrom
and right
the of thethen
Thecenter,
stressescenter.10Inmm
onatthe turn, thesurface
stresses
intervals
working ofon a food
see (Figures
a head (rail
16–were
flange)
18). were measured starting from 10 mm from the center, then at 10 mm intervals see (Figures
measured 5, 10, and 20 mm to the left and right of the center. In turn, the stresses on a food (rail flange) 16–
18). measured starting from 10 mm from the center, then at 10 mm intervals see (Figures 16–18).
were
Figure 16. Measurements places at the circumference of rail I60.

-4 5 0 -3 0 0 -1 5 0 0 150 300 450
-4 5 0 -3 0 0 -1 5 0 0 150 300 450

+20
+10
0 +5
-5
-1 0
-2 0
+20
+10
0 +5
Symmetry 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of-5
300
-1
-2 0
Figure 17. Measurement and cross-section placement on the top surface of the rail head I60.
-450
Figure 17. -300 -15
Measurement and 0
cross-section 0
placement 150
on the 300
top surface of 450
the rail head I60.
+40
+30
Figure 17. Measurement and cross-section placement on the top surface of the rail head I60. +20
+10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
Figure 18. Measurement and cross-section placement on the surface of the rail flange I60.
Figure 18. Measurement and cross-section placement on the surface of the rail flange I60.
Figures 19–27 show examples of longitudinal stress on selected parts of rail I60 before and after
Figuresand
(three-point 19–27 show examples
four-point) bendingofprocesses
longitudinal stresshardening
and after on selected
of parts of rail
selected I60 before
sections. and after
The horizontal
(three-point and
axis represents thefour-point)
longitudinalbending processes
component and after
of a residual hardening
stress of selected
and the vertical sections. The
axis represents the
horizontal axisthe
distance from represents
center of athe longitudinal
head component
rolling surface (measuredof at
a residual
the rail a stress and the vertical axis
point surface).
represents the distance from the center of a head rolling surface (measured at the rail a point
surface).
Place on the top surface - (0 mm)

Ultrasonic measurement - before hardening Ultrasonic measurement -three-point bending
Ultrasonic measurement - after hardening
550
ling surface of rail I60 (mm)
450
350
250
150
50
-350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150
Figures 19–27 show examples of longitudinal stress on selected parts of rail I60 before and after
(three-point and four-point) bending processes and after hardening of selected sections. The
horizontal axis represents the longitudinal component of a residual stress and the vertical axis
represents the distance from the center of a head rolling surface (measured at the rail a point
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014
surface). 17 of 29

550
Position on the rolling surface of rail I60 (mm)
450
350
250
150
50
-350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150
-150
-250
-350
-450
-550
Residual stress σ (MPa)
Figure
Symmetry 19.xThe
2019,19.
11, FORcomparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before and
PEER REVIEW 18 of 30
Figure The comparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before
after hardening and three-point bending process (section 0 mm).
and after hardening and three-point bending process (section 0 mm).
Place on the top surface - (-5 mm)
550
450
350
250
150
50
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150
-150
-250
-350
-450
-550
Figure
Figure Thecomparison
20.20.The comparisonofofresults
resultsof
of residual
residual stress
stress changes
changes on
onthe
thetop
topsurface
surfaceofofrail I60I60
rail before and
before
after hardening and three-point bending process (section—5 mm).
and after hardening and three-point bending process (section—5 mm).

550
ace of rail I60 (mm)
450
350
250
150
P
-550
Figure 20. The comparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 18 of 29

550
450
350
250
150
50
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150
-150
-250
-350
-450
-550
Figure 21. The comparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before and
Figure
Symmetry 21.11,The
2019, comparison
x FOR of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before19 of 30
PEER REVIEW
550
450
350
250
150
50
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150
-150
-250
-350
-450
-550

550
ce of rail I60 (mm)
450
350
250
150
P
-550
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 19 of 29

550
450
350
250
150
50
-350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150
-150
-250
-350
-450
-550
Figure
Symmetry 2019, 23.x The comparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before and
Figure 23.11,TheFOR PEER REVIEW
comparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before20 of 30
550
450
350
250
150
50
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150
-150
-250
-350
-450
-550

550
ace of rail I60 (mm)
450
350
250
150
P
-550
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 20 of 29

550
450
350
250
150
50
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150
-150
-250
-350
-450
-550
Symmetry Figure
2019, 11, ThePEER
25.FOR comparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before
21and
Figure 25.x The REVIEW
comparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 before of 30
Figures 26–27 show the comparison of results of the measurement of residual stress by an
Ultrasonic measurement - four-point bending Ultrasonic measurement - three-point bending
ultrasonic instrument after transverse bending of the rail I60 (three- and four-point).
550
450
350
250
150
50
-150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
-150
-250
-350
-450
-550
Figure
Figure 26. The
26. The comparison
comparison of results
of results of residual
of residual stress
stress changes
changes on top
on the the surface
top surface of rail
of rail I60 after
I60 after
transverse bending of the rail I60 (three- and four-point)—(section
transverse bending of the rail I60 (three- and four-point)—(section 20 mm). 20 mm).
Ultrasonic measurement - four-point bending Ultrasonic measurement - three-point bending

surface of rail I60 (mm)
550
450
350
250
150
50
-550
P
Figure 26. The comparison of results of residual stress changes on the top surface of rail I60 after
Symmetry 2019,
transverse 11, 1014 of the rail I60 (three- and four-point)—(section 20 mm).
bending 21 of 29
Position on the rolling surface of rail I60 (mm) Ultrasonic measurement - four-point bending Ultrasonic measurement - three-point bending
550
450
350
250
150
50
-150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250

-150
-250
-350
-450
-550
Figure
Figure 27. The
27. The comparison
comparison of results
of results of residual
of residual stress
stress changes
changes on top
on the the top surface
surface of rail
of rail I60 after
I60 after
transverse
transverse bending
bending of rail
of the the I60
rail (three-
I60 (three-
andand four-point)—(section—20
four-point)—(section—20 mm).mm).
For Figures 26 and 27 show

better readability and the comparison
transparency ofofselected
results of the measurement
experimental of residualresults,
and numerical stress bya an
ultrasonic
summary instrument
of them after transverse
was presented in one bending of the
figure. The rail I60 (three-
comparison and four-point).
includes the results obtained for
For better readability and transparency of selected experimental
three- and four-point bending processes. This is a preliminary validation of and numerical results,
the obtained a summary
results of
of them was
the numerical tests.presented in one figure. The comparison includes the results obtained for three-
and four-point
Figures 28 andbending processes.
29 present This isofa selected
a comparison preliminary validation
simulation of the
results obtained
with results
the results of the
of the
numerical tests.
ultrasonic measurements for comparable conditions and measuring places.
Figures 28 and 29 present a comparison of selected simulation results with the results of the
ultrasonic measurements for comparable conditions and measuring places.
Presented results of measurements of residual stresses by ultrasonic method show how
technological process can affect the size and distribution of residual stresses. The differences are visible
on the example of three-point and four-point bending (Figures 26–29). Differences in residual stresses
in the same cross-sections and measuring places after a four-point bending are in some cases lower
by 100 MPa in relation to three-point bending. In turn, the results of measurements after surface
hardening presented in Figures 19–25 show that toughening introduces into the system an element of
compressive stress reaching 350 MPa. Compressive stresses from the point of view of exploitation are
very advantageous because they prevent the formation of microcracks on the surface of the element. The
comparison of measurement results with the results of numerical calculations indicates their qualitative
compatibility (Figures 28 and 29). Quantitative discrepancy between measurements and simulation
calculations may result from too idealized and simplified boundary conditions in the numerical model.
It should be noted that the numerical calculations do not take into account the residual stresses usually
occurring in rails in the initial state (before bending). These stresses occur as a result of technological
processes, especially the straightening of the rail in the roller straightening machine
Symmetry2019,
Symmetry 11,x 1014
2019,11, FOR PEER REVIEW 2222ofof3029

Place- four-point
Ultrasonic measurement on the bending
top surface - (0 mm)
Ultrasonic measurement - three-point bending
Position on the rolling surface of rail I60 (mm) Numericalmeasurement

Ultrasonic calculation -- three-point bending
four-point bending Numericalmeasurement
Ultrasonic calculation -- four-point
three-pointbending
bending
Numerical calculation - three-point

550 bending Numerical calculation - four-point bending
450
550
350
450
250
350
150
250
50
150
-150 -100 -50 -50 0

50 50 100 150 200 250
-150 -100 -50 -1500

-50 50 100 150 200 250
-250
-150
-350
-250
-450
-350
-550
-450
-550
Figure
Figure 28.
28. The
The comparison
comparison ofof results
results of
of the
the measurement
measurement of
of residual
residual stress
stress and
and numerical
numerical calculation
calculation
after
Figure three-
after three- and
28. The four-point
comparison
and bending
four-pointof (section—0
results (section—0
bending mm).
of the measurement
mm). of residual stress and numerical calculation
after three- and four-point bending (section—0 mm).
comparison of
Figure 29. The comparison of results measurement
measurement of residual stress and numerical calculation after
three- and four-point bending (section—20 mm). of residual stress and numerical calculation after
Figure 29. The comparison of results measurement
three- and four-point
5. Experimental Studies bending (section—20 mm).
of Superstructure
Presented results of measurements of residual stresses by ultrasonic method show how
technological
The objects
Presented process
of thecan
results of affect the size
experimental
measurements and distribution
test solution
of residual of residual
werestresses
developed stresses.
by the
by ultrasonic The differences
Department
method of are
Transport
show how
visible on the example
Infrastructureprocess
technological of Warsaw of three-point
can University and four-point
of Technology
affect the size bending
Faculty of
and distribution (Figures
of residual 26–29).
Transportstresses. Differences
[25]. Proposed in residual
crushed stone
The differences are
stresses
visible oninthe
composite the same cross-sections
comprises
example a layer
of and
of crushed
three-point measuring
and places
stone reinforced
four-point after
bending with a four-point
two 26–29).
(Figures bending
geogrids and are inin
some
stabilized
Differences casesa
with
residual
lower
stresses by
polyurethane 100same
in the MPacross-sections
resin in relation
(Figure 30). to three-point
Itand
is bending.
characterized
measuring by the
places Inmechanical
afterturn, the results of measurements
andbending
a four-point chemicalareresistance ofafter
in some cases the
surface hardening
ballastbyto100
lower the MPa presented
phenomenon
in relation in Figures 19–25
of deconsolidation. show that toughening introduces into
to three-point bending. In turn, the results of measurements after the system an
element
surface of compressive
hardening presentedstress reaching19–25
in Figures 350 MPa.
showCompressive
that toughening stresses from the
introduces intopoint of viewanof
the system
exploitation are very advantageous because they prevent the formation
element of compressive stress reaching 350 MPa. Compressive stresses from the point of view of microcracks on the
of
exploitation are very advantageous because they prevent the formation of microcracks on the
the subgrade (Figure 30). Resin, after its concentration, penetrates into the meshes of the geogrids
providing mechanical anchoring of the aggregate. The meshes make the structure of the bald stone
more homogeneous and increase the angle of internal friction of the ballast. Finally, crushed stone
areas exposed to strong vibrations are stabilized chemically. The penetration by the binder should
not go deeper
Symmetry than one half of the height of the sleeper (80 mm), to enable breaking up crushed
2019, 11, 1014 23 of 29
stone composite with a tamping machine.
Figure
Figure 30. Track structures
30. Track structureswith
withcrushed
crushedstone
stonecomposite
composite[45]
[45]
(1)(1)
railrail
UICUIC
60 60 (60E1),
(60E1), (2) (2) sleeper,
sleeper, (3)
(3) crushed
crushed stone
stone layer
layer with
with resin,(4)(4)ballast,
resin, ballast,(5)
(5)top
topreinforcement
reinforcement (geogrid,
(geogrid, geosynthetic),
geosynthetic), (6)
(6) bottom
bottom
reinforcement
reinforcement (geogrid,
(geogrid, geosynthetic).
geosynthetic).
A track
The substructure
experimental with
track a crushed
section with stone composite
crushed is a solution
stone composite wasofbuilt
reinforced
on the standard track
Central Trunk
substructure to reduce deconsolidation ballast. Deconsolidation means the
Line in 2008. Given the local environment, the experimental section was built using an AHMconcentration of ballast,
increasing
Formation its volume. Mechanical
rehabilitation proofing
machine for consists
plain track with oftwo
reinforcing the chains
excavating ballast and
bed integrated
with two geogrids.
material
Limiting the increase in volume of the ballast pile is a precondition for limiting the
recycling) machine, which enables laying and compacting the subgrade layer within a single pass, phenomenon of
deconsolidation. The bottom reinforcement consists of geogrid or geosynthetic [5,6]
while the other pass builds and compacts the new ballast bed and lays crushed stone reinforcing thelaid at the top of
the subgrade (Figure 30). Resin, after its concentration, penetrates into the meshes
geogrids. The experimental section was divided into four sectors and plots shown in Figure 31. of the geogrids
providing mechanical anchoring of the aggregate. The meshes make the structure of the bald stone
more homogeneous and increase the angle of internal friction of the ballast. Finally, crushed stone
areas exposed to strong vibrations are stabilized chemically. The penetration by the binder should
not go deeper than one half of the height of the sleeper (80 mm), to enable breaking up crushed stone
composite with a tamping machine.
The experimental track section with crushed stone composite was built on the Central Trunk Line
in 2008. Given the local environment, the experimental section was built using an AHM Formation
rehabilitation machine for plain track with two excavating chains and integrated material recycling)
machine, which enables laying and compacting the subgrade layer within a single pass, while the other
pass builds and compacts the new ballast bed and lays crushed stone reinforcing the geogrids. The
experimental section
Symmetry 2019, 11, was divided
x FOR PEER REVIEW into four sectors and plots shown in Figure 31. 24 of 30
Figure 31. Diagram

Figure 31. Diagram of
of the
the experimental
experimental section
section of
of track
track with
with crushed
crushed stone
stone composite
composite on
on the
the Central
Central
Trunk
TrunkLine
Line[24].
[24].
Unfortunately, experimental studies did not include simulation studies involving strains and
stresses. The analyzed test section was subjected to test, on which the geometrical deformability of
the track was tested during operation. The main goal of the measurement of geometric position of
the track on the sections with the crushed stone composite was to assess its deformability during
operation compared to the classic track (reference sector) on the adjacent section of the track. Results
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 24 of 29
Unfortunately, experimental studies did not include simulation studies involving strains and
stresses. The analyzed test section was subjected to test, on which the geometrical deformability of the
track was tested during operation. The main goal of the measurement of geometric position of the
track on the sections with the crushed stone composite was to assess its deformability during operation
compared to the classic track (reference sector) on the adjacent section of the track. Results of the EM
120 (measuring motor car) measurements during 18 trips made between 2008 and 2014 were used in the
evaluation of track geometry deformability. The traffic load in that period was approx. 20 Tg. Selected
results of averaged measurement values of standard deviation for vertical irregularities is shown in
Figures 32–34. The difference is that the reference sector has been prepared without additional surface
reinforcements (types of geogrids and a crushed stone layer with resin). Such a solution is a standard
solution performed in modernization works or the construction of new sections of the railway line.
Sector I1 - Trip No. 5

2.00
Average vertical irregularities of the track
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
(mm)
170.85 170.95 171.05 171.15 171.25

-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
Location sector (m)
Reference sector - IV - Trip No. 5

4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
(mm)
0.00
173.8 174 174.2 174.4 174.6 174.8 175 175.2
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
-4.00
Location sector (m)
Figure 32. The average vertical irregularities of the reference sector IV and sector I1—trip No. 5.
Figure 32. The average vertical irregularities of the reference sector IV and sector I1—trip No. 5.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 25 of 29

4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
(mm)
0.00
170.85 170.95 171.05 171.15 171.25
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
Location sector (m)

10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
(mm)
2.00
0.00
173.8 174 174.2 174.4 174.6 174.8 175 175.2
-2.00
-4.00
Location sector (m)
Figure
Figure 33. The
33. The average
average vertical
vertical irregularities
irregularities of reference
of the the reference sector
sector IV and
IV and sector
sector I1—trip
I1—trip No. No.
10. 10.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 26 of 29

4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
(mm)
0.00
170.85 170.95 171.05 171.15 171.25
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
Location sector (m)

6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
(mm)
1.00
0.00
173.8 174 174.2 174.4 174.6 174.8 175 175.2
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
-4.00
Location sector (m)
Figure
Figure34.
34.The
Theaverage
averagevertical
verticalirregularities
irregularitiesofofthe
thereference
referencesector
sectorIV
IVand
andsector
sectorI1—trip
I1—tripNo.
No.15.
15.
6.6.Summary
Summary
Thispaper
This paperpresents
presentstwo
tworesearch
researchproblems:
problems:
•• railtraffic
rail trafficsafety
safetyassociated
associatedwith
withresidual
residualstress
stress in
in steel
steel elements
elements
•• reducingrailway
reducing railwaytrack
trackoperating
operatingcosts
costs
For the
For the first
firstproblem,
problem,it is
it believed thatthat
is believed the fatigue crack growth
the fatigue in railway
crack growth rails is greatly
in railway influenced
rails is greatly
by the residual
influenced by the stress states.stress
residual The main
states.sources
The mainof residual
sourcesstresses in rails
of residual are: the
stresses in manufacturing
rails are: the
process (cooled process
manufacturing rolling and straightening),
(cooled rolling and rolling wheels of railroad
straightening), rollingcars, and transverse
wheels of railroad bending used
cars, and
in cold forming
transverse bendingof switch
used in blades. In the second
cold forming problem,
of switch theInoptimization
blades. of the maintenance
the second problem, costs by
the optimization
of the maintenance costs by using advanced solutions in the track superstructure design may be an
interesting method to extend its durability and to extend the time between repairs.
Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014 27 of 29
using advanced solutions in the track superstructure design may be an interesting method to extend
its durability and to extend the time between repairs.
Both problems are related to simulation and experimental research. The finite element method was
used in simulation tests and is presented in this paper. It confirms that the FEM is a tool that can be used
to determine the propriety of a proposed solution or to simulate a technological or production process
of the railway turnout elements. It is a solution that is less expensive than conducting experimental
research, but it should not be treated as the only one in the research. It should be emphasized that
prepared simulation models should be verified by other simulation tools or additional experimental
tests. This will enable verification of assumptions and improvement of simulation models.
The presented models are still not perfect and require work. An example is the comparison of the
results of the simulation and experimental tests of the production processes (bending and hardening).
Numerical calculations do not take into account residual stresses usually occurring in rails in the initial
state (before bending).
The results of the simulation tests presented in this paper were compared with results of
experimental tests. This applies mainly to the test of residual stresses in elements of steel railway
turnouts and a new solution to reinforce the structure of the railway surface. Their scope was limited
due to the costs and long time required for experimental research. Unfortunately, experimental studies
did not include a range of tests such as simulation studies involving strains and stresses. The analyzed
test section was subjected to testing, on which the geometry deformability of the track was tested
during operation. Presented numerical research will be continued and will be extended with new
simulation tools using discrete elements (DEM), suited for the simulation of elements such as aggregate
ballast. These tools will be able to supplement the research and will also validate results obtained for
the FEM. Presented research results are an inspiration to continue research in this area and to search
for new solutions, including optimizing the costs of maintaining the railway transport infrastructure
and determining the viability of the structure using simulation methods.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.J., J.K. and P.G.; Methodology, M.J. and J.K.; Research, M.J., J.K. and
P.G.; Validation, M.J. and J.K.; Formal Analysis, J.K. and P.G.; Investigation, M.J., J.K. and P.G.; Resources, J.K.
and P.G.; Data Curation, J.K. and P.G.; Writing-Original Draft Preparation, M.J., J.K. and P.G.; Writing-Review &
Editing, M.J., J.K. and P.G.; Supervision, M.J.; Project Administration, M.J.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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SS symmetry

Symmetry 2019, 11, 1014; doi:10.3390/sym11081014 www.mdpi.com/journal/symmetry

In contemporary railway transportation, developing computer models and simulations employing

Figure 1. Solid C3D8R and C3D6 elements.

Symmetry 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 30

Theoretical relationship Experimental data

Symmetry 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 30

3.3. Simulation Tests of the

3.3. Simulation Tests of the Railway Surface

Figure 9. Cross-section of a classic railway surface with additional components.

Figure 9. Cross-section of a classic railway surface with additional components.

Figure 11. Interfaces

3.5. Material Models

3.5. Material Models

Designation Parameter Value Unit

3.6. Results of Simulation Calculations

for half 2019,

Measurement of residual stress with a DEBRO instrument.

660 mm (700 mm)

Figure 16. Measurements places at the circumference of rail I60.

-4 5 0 -3 0 0 -1 5 0 0 150 300 450

Place on the top surface - (0 mm)

Place on the top surface - (0 mm)

Place on the top surface - (5 mm)

Place on the top surface - (5 mm)

Place on the top surface - (10 mm)

Place on the top surface - (10 mm)

Place on the top surface - (20 mm)

Place on the top surface - (20 mm)

-150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250

Residual stress σ (MPa)

Place on the top surface - (-20 mm)

Ultrasonic measurement - four-point bending Ultrasonic measurement - three-point bending

Place on the top surface - (-20 mm)

-150 -100 -50 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250

Residual stress σ (MPa)

For Figures 26 and 27 show

Place on the top surface - (0 mm)

Position on the rolling surface of rail I60 (mm) Numericalmeasurement

Numerical calculation - three-point

-150 -100 -50 -50 0

-150 -100 -50 -1500

Figure 31. Diagram

Sector I1 - Trip No. 5

170.85 170.95 171.05 171.15 171.25

Reference sector - IV - Trip No. 5

Sector I1 - Trip No. 10

Reference sector - IV - Trip No. 10

Symmetry 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 30

Sector I1 - Trip No. 15

Reference sector - IV - Trip No. 15

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