Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ISBN: 978-0-615-29292-2
Free copies of this report are available for download at NRECA International, Ltd.’s website
www.nrecainternational.coop
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
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Calculating Economic Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Presenting the Final Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Using the WtP Results in Technical and Financial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
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Why Choose a Solar Photovoltaic System? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Project Design, Implementation, and Operation Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Project Identification and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Community Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Demographic/Willingness to Pay Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Project Analysis and Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Procurement Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Project Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Service Provision: Project Operation and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Solar PV System Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Estimating the Energy Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Estimating Energy Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Technical Specifications for Stand-Alone Solar PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Photovoltaic Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Lighting and Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Dimensioning Solar PV System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Dimensioning solar PV panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Dimensioning the Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Balance of System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
NRECA International, Ltd. would like to express our profound appreciation to the United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) for making this publication possible, through their
generous financial support for the Cooperative Development Program. Also, we would like to thank
the authors and reviewers who contributed to the development and refinement of these Technical
Assistance Guides, including Nick Allen, Hugo Arriaza, Daniel Bailet, Paul Clark, Eric Gibbs,
Colin Jack, David Kittelson, Fernando Mercado, Misael Monge, Rajeena Shakya, Terri Smiley, Ty
Thompson, James VanCoevering, Daniel Waddle and Kent Wick.
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Glossary of Abbreviations
A Ampere
AH Amp-hour
AC Alternating current
ACSR Aluminum conductor, steel reinforced
A&G Administrative and general
AWG American wire gauge
CARES Central American Rural Electrification Support Program
CCT Correlated color temperature
CDA Cooperative Development Authority (Philippines)
CEF Fronteriza Electric Cooperative (Dominican Republic)*
CFC National Rural Utilities Cooperative Finance Corporation, also known as
NRUCFC (U.S.)
CFL Compact fluorescent light bulb
CLARITY Cooperative Law and Regulation Initiative
CONELECTRICAS National Consortium of Electrification Companies of Costa Rica (Costa
Rica)*
DC Direct current
DISCEL Electric Distributor of the Hydroelectric Executive Commission of Rio
Lempa (El Salvador)*
EBIT Earnings before interest and taxes
EBITDA Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization.
EEGSA Electric Company of Guatemala, PLC (Guatemala)*
ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (World Bank)
FUNDAP Foundation for Economic Development
G&T Generation and transmission cooperative
GIS Geographic information system
GPS Global positioning system
HVD High voltage disconnection
I Electrical current, measured in amperes
ICE Costa Rican Institute of Electricity (Costa Rica)*
IEC International Electro-technical Commission
INDE National Institute of Electrification (Guatemala)*
INE National Institute of Statistics (Bolivia)*
IRR Internal rate of return
ISPRA National Institute for Protection and Environmental Research (Italy)
K Kelvin
klmh Kilo-lumen hour
kV Kilovolt
kVA Kilovolt-ampere
kVAR Reactive kilovolt-ampere
kW Kilowatt
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Legal and Institutional Enabling
Systems for Sustainable
Electric Cooperative Development
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
T h is module reviews the elements of Adding to the complexity, electric cooperatives
developing a workable legal and institutional function simultaneously under two, and perhaps
enabling framework for electric cooperatives as many as three, legal systems, sometimes
and provides documentary guidelines for with inconsistent and even competing
complying with the enabling laws and related elements. One legal system corresponds to
regulatory components. In addition, it provides the cooperative business format, which is a
details and documentary samples for the system of private ownership where the
organizational structures and internal governing
Electrification
customers are the shareholders. In a cooperative,
and operating systems of cooperatives, and the the sole business purpose is to meet the experience
agencies formed to enable them. user-owners’ service interests, not to obtain a worldwide has
business profit. shown that the
Electrification experience worldwide has shown
cooperative
that the cooperative business format can work The second legal system corresponds to their
effectively as a scalable and replicable model for role as public service utilities that are by nature business format
bringing electricity to more communities. This monopolies and therefore subject to third-party can work
has been particularly true in rural areas where governmental regulation. An electric cooperative effectively as
approaches using government-owned (para- is a unique form of public-service utility. As a scalable and
statal) agencies or for-profit investor-ownership established by cooperative bylaws, consumers
replicable model
have been ineffective. However, this experience elect a Board of Directors to represent and
amply demonstrates that the legal and institutional balance the consumers’ and the business’s for bringing
foundation for enabling electric cooperatives is interests, creating a cer tain deg ree of electricity
a key determinant of their long-term success or self-regulation. to more
failure.
communities.
A third legal framework is also possible. This
The legal/institutional architecture for electric framework would entail government establishment
cooperative development is complex. It has several of a special rural electrification promotion agency,
tiers, starting with national government policy and this has indeed transpired in all of the world’s
followed by the implementing laws or decrees, largest rural electric cooperative programs. If such
government regulation and oversight. It also an agency exists, it can play a purely supportive
includes internal governance and operating rules enabling role in fi nancing, and other needed
generally embodied in an organizational charter, aspects. However, it may also be endowed with
bylaws, and written policies of the agencies that the legal powers to incorporate, license, and regulate
laws create. The same goes for the rules, charter, electric cooperatives, largely displacing the need
bylaws, and policies of the cooperatives themselves. for the other two enabling systems.
To promote good governance, transparency,
effective and business-like decision-making, In devising or reforming the enabling environment
and a healthy degree of public awareness and for electric cooperatives, any combination of
understanding, these tiers must exhibit a common the above-mentioned institutional and legal
and consistent set of framework principles from top systems is feasible. The legal structure must
to bottom. ensure that cooperatives are established and
Consumers Elect
Directors Board of Directors
Manager
The electric
cooperative
Administration Operations Commercialization
model is rooted
in the ground-
breaking
cooperative Consumers
experience of
a small group
of weavers
infor mation out reach and education personnel require sufficient and continued training.
in the town
programs. Finally, to be successful in today’s Experience has shown that in even a setting with
of Rochdale, rapidly evolving electricity utility market, a the most rudimentary technology, local populations
England. utility needs an effective public advocacy can supply trainable people who over time can
capability. develop the skills to cope successfully with all of
the above-mentioned functions.
Technical staff: skill sets spanning a diverse
technical universe ranging from power- The Cooperative System
plant operations and maintenance in some
cases, to the more common functions of The electric cooperative model is rooted in
distribution utilities, such as distribution the ground-breaking cooperative experience
construction planning and maintenance, of a small group of weavers in the town of
materials management and warehousing, and Rochdale, England. In the mid-19th century
operating and maintaining an inventory these individuals formed the Rochdale Society
of vehicles ranging from pick-up trucks to of Equitable Pioneers and created a basic system
trenching rigs and hydraulic-lift line trucks. of cooperative principles. Over the years since,
their early ideas evolved into the following seven
Commercial staff: in charge of the billing, principles that are upheld by cooperatives and
collections, and customer relations. This credit unions worldwide, adopted in September
demands yet another set of skills and hardware/ 1995 by the International Cooperative Alliance
software capabilities. in Manchester, England:
Not surprisingly, training is one of the most 1. Voluntary and open membership: Cooperatives
important elements in the formation of a rural are voluntary organizations, open to all
electrification program. From the Director in the persons able to use their services and willing
boardroom to the lineman on the pole, all cooperative to accept the responsibilities of membership,
1
Cooperative industries tend to develop in two tiers of cooperatives, 2
In the U.S., the term “cooperative” has gained increased public respect and
primary and secondary, where primary cooperatives are formed fi rst, understanding as a result of the business success of many large cooperative
and then in turn develop secondary cooperatives to address common businesses that are well known to the public but were generally not known
needs. In the electric sector, primary cooperatives are owned by as cooperatives. In 2004, the 50 largest U.S. chartered cooperatives
individual electricity consumers at the retail level – they are “distribution including the dairy products giant Land O’ Lakes, Ace Hardware,
cooperatives.” Distribution cooperatives may develop and own secondary and Sunkist Growers grossed $104 billion in revenues on a combined
cooperatives for a wide range of possible purposes, such as providing a capital asset base of $193 billion. This group included four electric
common basis to obtain wholesale power supply or capital fi nancing. cooperatives.
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Privatization – the transfer of ownership to government. This agency should be empowered
profit-seeking investors – has proved problematic with a clear mandate and mission to promote
for the simple reason that financial returns in rural electrification. It should also have the
rural electric service provision tend to be poor necessary financial and human resources to help
because of the weak underlying economic and establish cooperatives, guide and supervise their
demographic conditions of rural areas.5 development, and see to the timely inputs of
funding, technical assistance and organizational
The electric cooperative model is uniquely capacity-building for the cooperatives.
capable of mobilizing an often overlooked source
of private self-interest – the beneficiaries –whose Vesting Control with the Cooperative’s
motivation is to obtain electricity service at Membership
Too often,
a cost that is reliable, widely available, and
financially and operationally sustainable. Too often, electric cooperatives have been electric
Properly constituted cooperatives offer a subjected to excessive top-down control by cooperatives
corporate structure to capture this self-interest governmental administrative and oversight have been
in a workable business format. However, the agencies. Besides the aforementioned extreme subjected to
enabling framework for cooperative development case of partial government ownership and board
excessive top-
is critically important for achieving the intended representation mandated by law in India, there
results. Prior experience with electric cooperative are many ways that enabling and supervising down control by
development points to several crucial lessons authorities of government abuse their powers to governmental
about important conditions for success. undermine the autonomy of electric cooperatives. administrative
Specific elements of the enabling legislation and oversight
Sustained Commitment from Government for establishing such authorities are critically
agencies.
important. First and foremost, government must
The impetus for rural electric cooperative limit itself to a facilitative role, with no direct
development stems f rom gover n ment’s involvement in the constitution or operation of the
fundamental obligation to extend public cooperatives. In particular, the legal chartering
infrastructure and services to disadvantaged provisions for cooperatives, other than for their
populations. This obligation primarily entails licensing and oversight, should be separated
the provision of long-term, low-cost capital for from the enabling legislation for specialized rural
the infrastructure and services. However, it electrification authorities and agencies.
also requires the establishment of an effective
administrative infrastructure to set up the This was not done in two prominent cases:
enabling framework, including laws, regulations, the Philippines and Bangladesh. Both cases
institutions, and organizations, as well as making subordinated the electric cooperatives so as to
these elements work effectively. appear an extension of the enabling authority and
thus an extension of the government. Placing the
These functions are best served by the chartering authority for the legal establishment
creation of a competent central agency of the of cooperatives under the general law for
cooperatives can help prevent this problem.
5
A compendium of case studies carried out by the World Bank’s Preferably, the chartering authority should be
Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) provides placed under a separate chapter of the law or an
a review of lessons learned in various rural electrification experiences
worldwide that point to a number of basic guidelines for successfully entirely new statute that delineates the particular
addressing the special requirements of sustainable rural electrification rights, responsibilities, and institutional features
development. Several of these case histories involve experience with
cooperative approaches and the factors that led to their successes as that are unique to non-profit electric cooperatives.
well as shortcomings. See Douglas F. Barnes, editor, Meeting the
Challenge of Rural Electrification: Strategies for Developing Countries
In addition, it should place limitations on the
(Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 2007). enabling agency’s supervisory powers.
Sustainable success requires emphasis and Assured Access to Markets and Inputs
attention on the employment procedure for
management personnel. Organizations must Because of their economic, demographic, and
use a competitive selection system, based geographic disadvantages, resulting in lower
on prescribed position descriptions, together consumer density and lower revenue-to-
with compensation policies that attract strong investment ratios than urban-based utilities,
candidates. Governing boards must include rural electric cooperatives require special
provisions to assure a strong democratic system treatment in respect to their access to critical
of electing directors, along with the robust inputs that determine their basic economic
participation of cooperative members in their viability and competitive welfare. These inputs
ownership role. This in turn ultimately requires include, primarily, affordable capital financing
effective membership outreach and education. and wholesale power supply. They also imply
important government responsibilities during the
Standardization and Scale initial stages of electric cooperative development
and operations. In the case of financing, long-term,
The standardization of technical, organizational low-cost debt financing must be available over a
and procedural facets of electric cooperative period of 20-40 years to enable the construction
development leads to economies of scale. of distribution infrastructure.
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Similarly, power supply may require the support and policies of government must be fashioned
of government in long-term financing of power to transparently support, and provide help and
generation facilities, or more likely, in arranging incentives for electric cooperatives to build their
wholesale power contracts at discounted prices. capacities. These facets of the enabling system
These factors are true for any form of rural enable both parties to work in a common effort
electrification development. For cooperatives, the to create new strategies and institutions to absorb
laws, policies and regulatory provisions of the the functional responsibilities that government
enabling system must assure their access to these agencies initially provide.
vital inputs on terms that enable the cooperatives
to meet the electricity needs of their members Electric Cooperative Case History
with reasonably competitive costs.
In the
The following example of electric cooperative
Government may also be called on to reduce other institutional and legal enablement provides
Philippines,
developmental barriers for cooperatives. This may helpful points of reference regarding the design NEA developed
include providing access to advisory and capacity- of the enabling frameworks for future electric 119 electric
building assistance, allowing relief on import cooperative industries. cooperatives
duties, supporting the development of related
that today
economic and productive infrastructure (such as The Philippines
agriculture extension services to help farmers to serve nearly
adapt to modern energy-dependent production A public law, formally enacted in 1969, created the 80% of the
and marketing systems), and providing access National Electrification Administration (NEA) to country’s rural
to new technologies such as off-grid electricity take over the rural electrification responsibilities area, with
service systems. of the government from several pre-existing
approximately
programs and agencies. The law contained the
Reducing Dependency on Government authorizing elements for the establishment of 8 million
the NEA and provided the legal authorization consumer-
Cooperative members and governing boards must for the establishment of electric cooperatives. members
view the cooperative as a private enterprise that is NEA provided organizational support, financing
nationwide.
independently responsible for its financial welfare in the form of long-term loans, coordination
and survival. Given initial help from government with government agencies – specifically with
in the form of low-cost capital financing, power the government’s national power company for
supply, and capacity-building, cooperatives must power supply. NEA also served as regulator
ensure that they are geared to meet their financial with extensive authority over the development
obligations. Their obligations include recovering and business conduct of the cooperatives. Over
the full cost of electricity service. In addition, approximately a 15-year period, NEA developed
cooperatives must evaluate and adjust their 119 electric cooperatives that today serve nearly
governance and administrative conduct to comply 80% of the country’s rural area, with approximately
with the provisions of electric cooperative law, 8 million consumer-members nationwide. As
utility licensing, and regulatory compliance. in the U.S., Filipino electric cooperatives are
governed by democratically elected boards and
Cooperatives must also develop, over time, enjoy most of the autonomies of their American
independent capabilities in areas where they counterparts.
initially received government support and subsidy.
Experience has shown that extended reliance However, NEA’s management style was heavy-
on government support erodes the autonomy of handed during an earlier era of its tenure.
cooperatives and weakens their performance. It engaged directly in the governance and
Looking to the long term, the enabling systems management of the cooperatives, resulting in
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In the U.S., the regulatory systems differ from subject to the demand and authorization of the
state to state. membership and Board and as may be permitted by
law. There are various reasons why this is justified,
Given that electric cooperatives differ in substantial including not just the natural authority granted
ways from other types of utility corporations, in democratic self-determination as well as the
any PUC regulation of cooperatives should practical efficiency of maximizing a cooperative’s
accommodate the following special conditions administrative infrastructure in rural areas where
of cooperative enterprises. such services may otherwise be uneconomical.
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The Electric Cooperative Charter, Community and economic development
Bylaws and Governance Provisions
Electric rules and regulations
An electric cooperative’s internal workings are Capital credits
laid out in three mutually consistent documents,
which must generally follow the broader The effective governance and operation of electric
provisions of the basic enabling legislation for cooperatives depends on the clear definition of
cooperatives. These three internal documents responsibilities and the effective exercise of these
are the charter, the bylaws, and the board responsibilities between the three basic elements
policies. Among other things, these documents of the cooperative’s organization – the members, The Board
defi ne the system by which each document the Board of Directors, and the cooperative’s must also
can be amended under the general authority management. Effective governance relies on adopt a set of
of the cooperative membership and its Board several important processes. governance and
of Directors.
administrative
The Democratic Process Respecting the
A cooperative’s Charter (also called Articles policies detailing
Rights of the Owners (Members)
of Incorporation or Articles of Association) is
the specific
the basic legal document that establishes how
The members provide the governing foundation manner in which
the cooperative is organized and governed. In
for the cooperative. They exercise their rights by the cooperative’s
addition, it may specify the responsibilities of
electing representative directors to the governing
a cooperative’s members, responsibilities of the charter and
board. The Board of Directors, in turn, has the
elected Directors, and the general functions of organizational
responsibility of supervising the management of
the co-op manager under the overall supervision
of the Board. The bylaws follow the general
the cooperative in keeping with the wishes of the systems are
members. They accomplished this by defining carried out.
provisions of the charter document. They give
the mission and broader strategic purpose of the
greater detail on the internal rules and regulations
cooperative, through adopting policies, and by
that govern electric cooperative membership
approving business decisions following prescribed
and the duties and functions of the cooperative’s
procedures. The Board must refrain from entering
Board and management.
the realm of management. Its role is to define basic
The Board must also adopt a set of governance goals and business direction for management and
and administrative policies detailing the specific ensure that management applies the policies in
manner in which the cooperative’s charter and accordance with procedure.
organizational systems are carried out. Such
policies may cover the following areas: The Fiduciary Process and Supervisory
Control of Resources and Accountability
Cor porate gover nance and Board of
Directors
The members have the responsibility to provide
Employee relations the capital of the cooperative. It is their elected
Board’s responsibility to assure that the
Advisors consultants and agents cooperative’s assets are adequately protected
Finance and accounting while being productively employed in the most
effective manner. Management is responsible
Operations for presenting plans and actions for the Board’s
Tariff rates approval, demonstrating the appropriate
employment of the cooperative’s resources, and
Procurement and contracting implementing approved actions. The Board’s
Member, public, and governmental relations critical responsibility is to ensure that its policies,
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is to facilitate the establishment of the primary Financing
distribution cooperatives using a reliable,
standardized pattern. However, this is not in Consistent with the lessons learned from past
itself a guarantee of long-term success. There also rural electric cooperative experience, reviewed
must be a responsible approach for incrementally in previous sections, the Agency’s most
transferring functional responsibilities from the important function is to provide a source of
rural electrification agency to its constituent long-term investment capital, in the form of a
cooperative utilities. In a second stage of transparent, needs-driven government subsidy.
institutional development, this process involves The recommended package of financing for
promoting policies and strategies that require system construction involves a combination of
the utilities to formulate secondary cooperatives long-term loans and initial operating grants. The
or other privately organized common-service long-term loans include covenants that enforce the
entities. These entities can then absorb those operational standards required of successful rural
non-regulatory functional services, and can be utilities. The initial operating grants ensure that the
administered on a fi nancially self-sustaining cooperatives can procure and develop the needed
basis. personnel and operating systems (computers,
operating equipment and facilities, etc.) during a
Without a deliberate strategy for accomplishing development period that may last several years.
this second stage, the agency never eliminates
the cooperatives’ dependency on government. Licensing
In turn, the lack of independence has at times
resulted in a self-perpetuating bureaucracy, The role of national rural electrification
increasingly vulnerable to fiscal abuse and development agencies may include a direct
politicization. regulatory function through their powers to
license service providers.8 This could involve
The Role and Structure of an Effective a two-stage process. First, the Agency may
Supervising Agency invite proposals from prospective rural utility
applicants (including but not necessary limited
The legal formation of electric cooperatives, as to cooperatives), awarding the exclusive right to
noted, follows the specifications of prevailing serve to the winning applicant based on defined
law governing cooperative societies. However, criteria. After making the award, the formal
the far more complicated problem is devising a licensing of service providers would follow,
suitable enabling structure for shaping electric including granting exclusive right to serve in the
cooperatives to meet the rigors of regulated prescribed service territory.
public utilities, while shaping both the market
environment and the internal workings of electric In the case of cooperatives, member eligibility
cooperatives so that they succeed as long-lasting would follow the requirements established in the
businesses. This challenge represents the prevailing cooperative enabling laws regarding
purpose and responsibilities of an effective rural the initial steps in the formation of cooperatives.
electrification supervising agency, which may At the same time, the Agency would establish
deal with various kinds of program implementing certifications regarding open and voluntary
partners, not solely electric cooperatives. membership access, establishment of founding
committees and Boards, and other provisions
The enabling agency (referred to as “Agency” including conf lict of interest limitations of
in what follows) must be organized and Directors and senior management personnel.
equipped to deal with six key functions and
responsibilities. 8
In the U.S., utility licensing is a function of the PUC.
The indispensable role of planning, starting with a The Agency will have an abiding responsibility to
comprehensive annual plan, is the foundation for see to the satisfactory organizational and human
assuring program discipline for both the Agency resource development of its constituent utilities
and its constituents. Other plans are required, through training their personnel, including
including long-range service territory plans, which technical and operating staff, management
would be based on rigorous demand analysis staff, and even elected Directors. Such training
and financial forecasts, and construction plans, should be based on the specific technical design,
which must be based on project feasibility studies operating standards and procedures that the
and the disciplined application of appropriate Agency establishes for system construction
Service
technical designs and construction standards for and maintenance, administrative systems,
providers having distribution networks. governance requirements (e.g., Board member
economically training), and customer services including use
weaker Tariff Setting promotion.
demographic
As part of the loan covenanting, each service Organizational Guidelines for the
and demand
provider must be required to furnish tariff plans Supervisory Agency
characteristics based on published tariff-setting methodologies,
typically which assure full cost recovery, including debt T h i s Age n c y mu s t h ave c e r t a i n ke y
must charge service, operating costs and power supply. It competencies. Moreover, its formulation
higher tariffs is vitally important that tariffs be set on an must be sufficiently comprehensive, but also
individual basis. That is, service providers efficient. In addition, it must have the power
than those
having economically weaker demographic and to enforce discipline in its constituent utilities
with greater demand characteristics typically must charge (cooperatives) without being intrusive. Finally,
consumer higher tariffs than those with greater consumer it must be geared to a mission that evolves
density and density and industrial usage. Subsidies to over time.
account for economic disparities among utilities
industrial usage.
are best accomplished through transparent, The underlying organizational principles that
needs-based discounts for wholesale power are of particular importance for the Agency are
supply, facilitated by government power supply the following.
authorities.
Operational Structures and Systems to
Load Promotion Effect Program Efficiency
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Community Welfare and Fairness management and procurement, with strong, built-
Considerations in organizational oversight.
Statewide Associations
State-level, Regulatory
and legislative advocacy,
Safety training, Insurance National Rural
National Rural Utilities programs, Magazines Telecommunications
Cooperative Finance Cooperative (NRTC)
Corporation (NRUCFC) Internet, Electronic sales,
Capitol financing and On-line shopping, Rural
Financial services TV, Long-distance phone,
Remote metering
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set-up for a well-functioning electric cooperative that creates and empowers the governmental
industry. oversight agency that is responsible for
supervising them. That creates an environment
The three most important points to understand ripe for conflicting interests. Instead, adopt
about the relationships in Figure 4 are these. a separate statute for the formation of electric
cooperatives, which allocates regulatory and
Autonomy oversight powers to separate government authorities,
according to functional requirements.
Electric cooperatives must be autonomous.
Cooperatives that remain dependent on Private Enterprise
government for their basic sustenance over
Laws and
extended periods are often those who become Electric cooperatives must be viewed and treated
vulnerable to bureaucratic control, politicization, as private business enterprises. This principle regulations
and corrupt practices. Rarely have cooperatives must be implicit throughout the laws, charters, governing
prospered under the long-term influence of an policies and procedures comprising the enabling electric
interfering bureaucracy. framework for electric cooperatives. Cooperatives cooperatives
require the powers and responsibilities to operate,
must assure
Electric cooperative autonomy depends become financed, charge prices, and be regulated
essentially on their democratic nature, along with as businesses responsible for their own survival. that they
effective governance that should flow from are treated
democratic rule. Nevertheless, autonomy is also In addition, laws and regulations governing equitably
fundamentally tied to the institutions and laws electric cooperatives must assure that they are
and fairly in
under which cooperatives are legally constituted. treated equitably and fairly in the context of
The legal incorporation of cooperatives must their larger sector industries, especially with the context
not be accomplished under the same law respect to tariff setting and taxation. Over time, of their
larger sector
industries,
Figure 4. Electric cooperative enabling framework
especially with
respect to
Cooperative Societies tariff setting
Law
and taxation.
OR Electricity
RE Agency Established Sector Law
Separate Electric Under its Own Statutory
Cooperative Law Authority
Public Utility
Legal Incorporation Licensing
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24 NRECA International, Ltd.
Guide for the Creation of
Electric Cooperatives
The process described here builds on the 6. Cont act gover n ment and reg ulator y
experience obtained from organizing numerous organizations, e.g. the Ministry of Energy.
cooperatives. Using this module to guide the
formation process promotes greater efficiency 7. Conduct a feasibility study.
and promises a higher probability of success. The
methodology presented, though consistent in its 8. Hold a General Meeting to discuss the results
principles, is sufficiently flexible to adapt to on- of the feasibility study. Take a secret vote to
the-ground realities faced by project proponents decide whether to proceed.
in various countries.
9. Develop a business plan and financial
Summarized below are the 18 steps required analysis.
to organize an electric cooperative, based
on NRECA’s cumulative experience and the 10. Hold a General Meeting to discuss the results
methodology outlined in the USDA report, How of the fi nancial analysis and the business
to Organize a Cooperative.1 plan. Vote on whether to proceed.
1. Conduct a leadership meeting to discuss the 11. Prepare the necessary legal documentation
need for a cooperative. and initiate the incorporation process.
2. Meet with people who have expressed interest 12. Ca r r y out a me mb e r reg i st r at ion
in forming an electric cooperative. Vote to campaign.
determine if process should continue. If
affirmative, select a Provisional Committee. 13. Conduct a Founding Assembly with all the
potential charter members to approve the
3. Survey potential members to determine interest Bylaws and choose a Board of Directors.
in the creation of an electric cooperative.
14. Conduct Board Meetings to elect officers
and assign responsibilities to implement the
business plan.
1
Galen Rapp and Gerald Ely, How to Organize a Cooperative, USDA
Cooperative Information Report 7 (Washington, D.C.: USDA, 1996),
available online at http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/rbs/pub/cir7/cir7rpt.
15. Implement the necessary legal steps, e.g.
htm#General%20Rules%20for%20Success. incorporation, service territory concession,
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28 NRECA International, Ltd.
electricity. Steadily, one cooperative after another many commercial electric companies, primarily
was formed. By 1970, 35 years later, an impressive because the return on investment is likely to be
99% of rural communities in the United States had lower than required for profit-oriented entities.
been electrified using the cooperative model.
When the need for modern energy services
The cooperatives formed a service organization becomes evident, many communities begin
in 1942 called the National Rural Electrical to lobby the electric company (state-owned or
Cooperative Association. Its purpose was “to private) to obtain electrical service in their area.
overcome World War II shortages of electric Like most people, they seek quality service at
construction materials, to obtain insurance affordable prices. When it becomes apparent
coverage for newly constructed rural electric that the state or private electric company will
Since the
cooperatives, and to mitigate wholesale power not deliver electricity to them, communities
problems.”4 Today there are more than 900 electric turn to alternatives. A community may decide program’s
cooperatives within the United States. NRECA’s to form their own electric company, following inception,
work began in 1962. Since the program’s inception, these principles: international
international electrification projects developed by electrification
NRECA have benefited more than 100 million The company is owned by the members it
projects
people globally. serves.
developed by
Electricity is a basic and necessary ingredient Each member is entitled to a vote. NRECA have
for sustainable development. Most modern benefited
conveniences require electricity to operate. Often, The surplus revenue (margins) at the end more than 100
access to electric service is taken for granted in of each year is redistributed to members
million people
urban areas, where it is a prerequisite for life’s according to the amount of electricity each
daily activities. In rural areas, however, especially consumed during the year. globally.
in communities in developing countries, the
arrival of electricity is a major event. The day This is the electric cooperative model.
that “light arrives” to an area is a memorable
day that many people later remember with great Definitions
satisfaction. For many, it is remembered as the
moment when the community became part of The following def initions will enhance
“civilization” and truly “joined the world.” understanding of the subject matter in this
module.
When electricity arrives in a community, the
social, commercial, and entrepreneurial dynamics Cooperative: “A cooperative is an independent
transform, providing new opportunities for association of people who voluntarily come
businesses to grow, for people to begin new together in order to face their common
enterprises, and for education, health, and cultural social and cultural needs and their economic
life to advance. aspirations by means of a jointly owned and
democratically controlled company.”5
This brief summary alone should justify efforts
by rural areas to obtain modern energy services. Provisional Committee: Group of people
However, history has demonstrated that rural named from among those who consider it
areas are typically not financially attractive to worth finding out whether sufficient interest
4
“History of Electric Co-ops.” National Rural Electric Cooperative 5
“Information on Co-operatives.” International Cooperative Alliance.
Association. 21 Jan. 2009 http://www.nreca.org/. 21 Jan. 2009 http://www.ica.coop/coop/index.html.
Electric
Founding Assembly: The meeting during which
cooperatives the founding members officially form the BACKGROUND
have proven cooperative.
to be The creation of an electric cooperative often
Board of Directors: A group of people chosen occurs in response to a conventional electric
productive
by the members to govern the cooperative. company’s refusal to extend service to specific
and effective areas, typically rural areas. In general, the return
models General Manager: A person contracted by on investment in less populated regions outside
for rural the Board of Directors to direct the daily urban areas is insufficient to attract conventional,
electrification. operations of the cooperative. for-profit utilities. Electric cooperatives, however,
have proven to be productive and effective models
Member: A person who has fulfilled all for rural electrification. Numerous developing
requirements stipulated in the cooperative’s countries 6 have demonstrated the economic
bylaws regarding membership. feasibility of the cooperative model for rural
electrification. It continues to be an effective
model for rural and peri-urban communities
Purpose
to gain access to modern, affordable energy
In the face of the challenges of life in developing services, provided by an institution responsive
countries, there are leaders who step forward with to community needs.
a strong desire to find solutions. In many cases,
these individuals have either visited or become General Cooperative Concepts
aware of places where problems similar to theirs
have been solved. With this knowledge, they begin A number of commonly understood cooperative
to consider possibilities to achieve similar results concepts apply in all cultures and countries.
within their spheres of influence. This module These include values, principles, social purpose,
provides instruction for such forward-looking and three distinguishing characteristics of the
leaders on the necessary steps to create an electric cooperative model.
cooperative, using specific methods of investigation,
organization, planning, and execution. Values
This module can direct the formation of any size Cooperatives are based on the values of mutual aid,
of electric cooperative, from one organized by a responsibility, democracy, equality, fairness, and
neighborhood group to bring electricity to their solidarity. Members believe in the ethical values
street or locality, to one of much greater scope.
6
Douglas F. Barnes, The Challenge of Rural Electrification: Strategies
The methodology easily adapts to the scale of for Developing Countries. (Washington, DC: Resources For The
the cooperative effort. Future Press, 2007).
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30 NRECA International, Ltd.
of honesty, transparency, social responsibility, through dividends and share price appreciation.
and care for others. If the company prospers, the investor gains
through dividend increases and higher share
Principles prices. In a cooperative, the “dividend” is a
member’s proportional share of the surplus
Cooperative principles are guidelines for revenue (margins) remaining at year end (based
implementation of the values. These principles on each member’s energy consumption).
were approved by the International Cooperative
Alliance as part of the Statement on Cooperative 2. Individual Contribution - Required Investment.
Identity,7 and are in still in effect today. The seven In a commercial company, investors buy
principles are as follows: shares according to their financial capacity
Cooperative
and discretion. In a cooperative, each member
1. Voluntary and open membership is typically required to contribute some capital financial
initially (e.g. a registration fee), and additional policies and
2. Democratic member control capital is provided in the cost paid per kilowatt- conditions
hour consumed. Cooperative financial policies dictate
3. Member economic participation and conditions dictate the capital investment
the capital
required by members to maintain economic
4. Autonomy and independence viability. investment
required by
5. Education, training and information 3. Management Decisions. In a commercial members
entity, only majority shareholders may play to maintain
6. Cooperation among cooperatives a role in the administration of the company.
economic
In a cooperative, all members have some part
7. Concern for community in determining policies and in directing the viability.
general course of business. In some cases,
Cooperatives’ Social Purpose delegates elected by the membership provide
guidance to the cooperative, and in other cases,
The social purpose of a cooperative is to improve membership meetings provide opportunities
the quality of life of its members, to integrate for members to directly influence cooperative
them into the economic development processes of management.
the country, and to advance the electric services
provided in an area towards best-practices In an electric cooperative, all users are co-owners
standards. of the company, except for users who choose
not to become members and simply remain as
Distinguishing Characteristics of the consumers.
Cooperative Model
Electric Cooperatives Compared to
Three fundamental characteristics distinguish Investor-owned and Publicly Owned
the cooperative model from a commercial or Utilities in the United States
for-profit corporate model.
In the U.S., the cooperative institutional model
1. Financial Participation. Typically, investors has proven to be an effective and successful
in a commercial company contribute capital approach to delivering electric utility services.
in order to make a profit on their investment When administered professionally, cooperatives
can offer similar services and tariffs to those
7
Ibid. of private investor-owned and/or government-
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32 NRECA International, Ltd.
Through many years of experience assisting METHODOLOGY FOR CREATING
with numerous projects in many countries,
NRECA learned that the needs and motivation A COOPERATIVE
of people everywhere are similar, when it comes The methodology to create an electric cooperative
to electricity service and improving lives. In developed through experience gained from
particular, people everywhere are willing to organizing numerous cooperatives. The 18 steps
act in their own self-interest as communities described here enable the process to flow more
to obtain electricity. NRECA’s success comes efficiently and achieve a higher probability of
from tapping this motivation; from its basic success. This approach is based on a combination
belief that electrification makes a unique and of NRECA’s international experience, and
comprehensive contribution to development; and information presented in How to Organize With NRECA’s
from the attitude of practicality, flexibility, and to Cooperative.9 The methodology is flexible
innovativeness in its approach to designing and
continued
enough to adapt to various situations in different
implementing projects. assistance over
countries.
the past 30
One of NRECA’s most successful electric The 18 steps for organizing a cooperative are years, REB has
cooperative programs is in Bangladesh. as follows: designed and
Bangladesh Project organized 70
1. Conduct a leadership meeting to discuss the
need for a cooperative. rural electric
As a result of an agreement signed in October cooperatives
1976 with the Power Development Board 2. Meet with people who have expressed interest serving
(PDB) of Bangladesh, NRECA conducted a in forming an electric cooperative. Vote to 7.3 million
comprehensive feasibility and organizational determine if process should continue. If
study for the implementation of a nationwide connections,
affirmative, select a Provisional Committee.
r ural electrif ication program. The study or 45 million
resulted in the establishment of the Rural 3. Survey potential members to determine interest people.
Electrification Board (REB) that has developed in the creation of an electric cooperative.
from a small government body to coordinate
early electrification efforts to one of the most 4. Conduct a General Meeting to discuss the
successful electrification programs in all of results of the survey. Vote to decide whether
Asia. or not to proceed.
With NRECA’s continued assistance over the 5. If the decision is to proceed, choose a Steering
past 30 years, REB has designed and organized Committee.
70 rural electric cooperatives serving 7.3
million connections, or 45 million people, 6. Cont act gover n ment and reg ulator y
and covering almost the entire country. Over organizations, e.g. the Ministry of Energy.
373 substations and 206,000 km of lines have
been energized. NRECA provided assistance 7. Conduct a feasibility study.
to REB in design, construction, and utility
oper at ion s. N R ECA recently prov ided 8. Hold a General Meeting to discuss the results
additional technical assistance to develop of the feasibility study. Take a secret vote to
small, 10 MW power plants as well as an decide whether to proceed.
institutional renewable energy strategy to
complement the conventional electrification
program. 9
Opt.
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34 NRECA International, Ltd.
Is there an existing system available for to proceed with the project. To gauge interest,
acquisition? What deficiencies exist, and how use a sur vey. Sur vey responses provide
will system rehabilitation be financed? proponents with quantitative information
regarding the level of interest in the community
The following factors should also be considered and indicate whether there is sufficient support
to promote the probability of success in forming to set the project in motion. The survey should
a new cooperative: also reveal the community’s willingness to
make capital contributions and pay the tariffs
Lines of communication: Establish reliable necessary to maintain the cooperative’s financial
lines of communication to permit project viability.
proponents access to one another at all times
Project
of the day, and throughout the year. In some countries, government organizations
may require proof of interest in the project
proponents
Population stability: Ascertain whether within the affected community. There may be should
seasonal laborers or nomadic peoples represent a legal stipulation dictating a minimum number consider
a significant percentage of the proposed project of members required to form an electrical these and
population. cooperative. In the Dominican Republic, for
other social
example, the law requires a minimum of 200
Company-owned housing: Investigate the members to form any public service cooperative. concerns that
existence of company-owned housing or A survey can be an appropriate preliminary tool could affect
lodging in agricultural or industrial centers, to address such requirements. the feasibility
where inhabitants have access to housing only of an electric
through labor contracts (and do not have title to The survey form should be unbiased and worded
cooperative
property). If a significant portion of the project to elicit honest answers. Pollsters should be
area population lives under these conditions, thoroughly educated about the project, so they in a target
it could affect the feasibility of the proposed can respond to questions and address reactions region.
electric cooperative. within the community.10
Divisions among population groups: Explore STEP 4: General Meeting: Survey Results
divisions that exist within the community that
could be detrimental to cooperation. Become Hold a meeting with the interested parties to
aware of racial, religious, political, and social discuss the survey results. Following discussion,
class discrimination and biases, and how they attendees should vote to decide whether or not
affect life in the community. they should proceed with the project or not. If the
group agrees to move ahead, they should select
Project proponents should consider these and other a Steering Committee.
social concerns that could affect the feasibility
of an electric cooperative in a target region. In STEP 5: Steering Committee
addition, cooperative developers should ascertain
whether they will be able to fully satisfy both Whereas the Provisional Committee has the
the short-term and the long-term demand for limited responsibility of verifying initial interest
electricity in the communities. and positioning the project to become an official
organization, the Steering Committee has a greater
STEP 3: Survey Potential Members scope of functions. It assumes management of
10
For more information on how to conduct surveys, refer to NRECA’s
Next, ascertain that interest among potential Module 6: Consumer Willingness to Pay and Economic Benefit Analysis
members of the affected community is sufficient of Rural Electrification Projects.
Technical assistance might come from a variety of Prepare a report for the Founding Assembly.
sources and will depend upon the availability of
experts in the country. The committee sometimes If the project includes acquiring an existing
can rely on qualified personnel in a reputable system, obtain necessary legal documents that
government agency. Other sources for technical indicate that the sale of the existing electric
assistance are international donor organizations system can take place.
and non-governmental aid organizations.
Create debate rules for the Assembly.
The Steering Committee is responsible for the
following: Carry out the logistics, preparations, and
arrangements to hold the Founding Assembly
Obtain a template to formulate the cooperative’s meeting.
bylaws from the appropriate government
agency, or alternative source. Convene and run the Founding Assembly.
Discuss the scope of the cooperative’s bylaws. STEP 6: Initiate Contact with
Government and Regulatory Agencies
Manage and coordinate a course on cooperatives
for the founding members. The Steering Committee should initiate contact
with appropriate government organizations and
Carry out a survey to determine the level of regulatory bodies to obtain a clear understanding
interest for an electric cooperative within the of the legal and regulatory aspects related to
community. creating and operating an electric cooperative.
The committee must identify requirements,
Determine approximate project costs, timelines, and actions necessary to comply with
employing technical assistance as needed. existing laws and regulations, and determine
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36 NRECA International, Ltd.
whether new legislation may be required for the the Steering Committee must submit the proposed
establishment of the cooperative. project to the agency that oversees the cooperative
sector and have an official promoter assigned
National Legislation to the project. The promoter is responsible for
helping the founders comply with all the legal
In some countries, the creation of an electric requirements to form a cooperative. Even in that
cooperative may require new national legislation. instance, a cooperative promoter may never have
If electricity in the country is provided solely overseen the creation of an electric cooperative.
by a national utility, legislation is required to Therefore, electric cooperative organizers must
authorize privatization of parts of the national also approach the pertinent electric sector
utility by electric cooperatives. Note also that entities to learn about standards, regulations, Discussions
while most democratic countries have created and legal requirements that apply to electric
cooperatives.
and
laws facilitating the organization of cooperatives,
not all authorize the organization of electric negotiations
cooperatives. Relevant standards and regulations may include must be
the following: conducted at
Consideration of national legislation, therefore,
the national
requires a review of existing laws to determine Requirements for ”Articles of Incorporation”
whether privatization (including electric or ”Articles of Association” level to assure
cooperatives) is possible, and whether the that proper
existing cooperative laws need revision to How to legally define a service territory laws are in
clearly identify electric cooperatives as a type place for the
of cooperative. Discussions and negotiations How to obtain a concession to distribute
electricity (or a concession for generation proposed
must be conducted at the national level to assure
that proper laws are in place for the proposed and authorizations for transmission, if the electric
electric cooperative to be formed. For more project includes those components) cooperative to
information on this process, review Module 1 be formed.
Legal and Institutional Enabling Systems for How to value existing electric assets within
Sustainable Electric Cooperative Development, the proposed territory
and the publications, “CLARITY - Enabling
Cooperative Development – Principles for Legal How to legally transfer existing assets to the
electric cooperative
Reform” and “Creating CLARITY: Assessment,
Analysis and Outreach for Cooperative Legal
Operating license (or charter) requirements
Reform - CLARITY II” publications, available
to authorize an electric cooperative
through the Cooperative Development Program’s
Cooperative Law and Regulation Initiative,11
Employment laws for cooperatives
funded by USAID.
Construction standards
Regulatory Agencies
Public safety
National governments normally rely on agencies
to regulate energy activities. In some countries, Environmental protection
regulatory agencies exist for both the electric
sector and the cooperative sector. In some cases, Power line right-of-way and clearances laws
and standards (e.g. removal of trees and
11
Please visit w w w.ocdc.coop/clar it y/default.ht ml for more buildings) for the construction and operation
information of the electric grid
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38 NRECA International, Ltd.
Steering Committee must contract with experts functions. First, it helps ensure that all aspects
to perform surveys and studies. of the project have been considered. Second, it
serves as a vehicle to inform prospective members
The Steering Committee should consult with and lending agencies about the project. A clearly
experts to develop preliminary project design written business plan forces project supporters
characteristics, including a proposed system map to examine all facets of the business, to obtain
and projected load flow studies. Engineering the best information and reduce the potential
advisors should prepare estimates of project for misunderstandings. Lenders always require
construction costs. If the proposed cooperative a written business plan and financial analysis.
is acquiring an existing system, the costs should It demonstrates that the project sponsors have
include the acquisition price as well as the cost of adequately evaluated the revenues, costs, and
any improvements or rehabilitation required to risks of the project.
provide satisfactory service. Financial advisors
should prepare initial financial projections for The business plan expands on information
the project, including expenditures related obtained for the feasibility study and includes
to establishing offices and acquiring the the following components:
equipment and materials needed to operate the
cooperative. Project history and overview
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40 NRECA International, Ltd.
The Steering Committee must determine what the form a public service cooperative. It is highly
national requirements are and prepare the Articles unlikely, however, that 200 relatively poor rural
of Incorporation, bylaws, and other documents families would be enough to form a financially
accordingly. The required documentation sustainable electric cooperative.
must then be submitted to the corresponding
government agency. Upon approval, the To illustrate the importance of achieving a
cooperative receives the pertinent decree or critical social mass, consider creating an electric
certificate of legal identity. cooperative in a region where 10,000 families
live without electricity. Ideally, all 10,000
The cooperative must obtain not only the legal families would become registered members of
right to exist but also the legal right to operate, the cooperative. However, rarely is it possible A cooperative
which indicates the second category of legal to get 100% of the population to sign up. When
must register
requirements associated with a new electric project proponents find some who do not want
cooperative. Without the right to operate, the to become members, it should not be cause for sufficient
cooperative may exist legally, but it will not be alarm. Yet if a majority does not sign up, project members to
able to distribute any electricity. The preference is feasibility must be seriously reconsidered. If fulfill legal
to obtain its own exclusive concession – a defined granted a concession, by law the cooperative
requirements,
service area within which it has the sole right to will have to provide service to both members
distribute electricity. and non-members and project proponents must obtain a
ask themselves what would happen when faced critical social
Important legal documents associated with the with significant challenges if the cooperative mass, and
relationship between the cooperative and its lacks majority consumer support. What would obtain a
members include the membership application happen, for example, during a hostile takeover
sustainable
form, which serves as the legal basis for a person attempt or unfavorable legislation that threatens
to become a member of the cooperative, and to eliminate electric cooperatives? level of capital
capital contribution certificates. contribution
A critical social mass is also necessary to provide inflows.
Other legal documentation governs the relationship sufficient capital inflows. Continuing with the
of the cooperative with other institutions. One above illustration of a region with 10,000 families,
of the most vital of those legal documents is a if the project costs an estimated US$10 million
purchase contract for energy, commonly called and all 10,000 families join the cooperative, a
a power purchase agreement, signed with one or US$1,000 contribution per family could finance
more entities from whom the cooperative buys the whole project. However, if only 1,000 families
electricity. register, with a commitment to pay US$1,000
each, the cooperative would have only one-
STEP 12: Member Registration tenth of the financing required. In this case, the
Campaign cooperative would have to collect more money
from each member, look for other sources of
A cooperative must register sufficient members financing, register more members, or decide not
to fulfill legal requirements, obtain a critical to go ahead with the project.
social mass, and obtain a sustainable level of
capital contribution inflows. An innovative member registration campaign
helps attract new members. The campaign can
With that said, keep in mind the difference use a variety of methods, such as a series of
between what is legally required and what is simple face-to-face conversations, house-to-house
feasible. For example, in the Dominican Republic visits, small group meetings in homes, or large
the law requires a minimum of 200 members to community gatherings.
National laws often have requirements for The Board of Directors should develop a
notifications and invitations to the Founding written plan to organize the management and
Assembly. The Steering Committee must operational aspects of the cooperative to achieve
comply with these requirements to assure that the cooperative’s goals. The implementation
all prospective members receive advance notice of plan not only serves as an internal guide for
the meeting and that they have all the necessary the organization but also as a tool to inform the
information to participate. membership about expected progress. It identifies
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42 NRECA International, Ltd.
the organizational structure, administrative Obtain Legal Status
functions, requirements for staffing, equipment,
and other needed resources, as well as a schedule The process and time required to obtain legal
to accomplish action items. status for a business varies widely from country to
country. The work of Hernando De Soto illustrates
Preparing an implementation plan may require this point. In his book El Otro Sendero (The Other
technical assistance from external advisors or Path), De Soto describes documenting the time
consultants. Implementation plan action items required to legally incorporate a microenterprise
include: for sewing garments in Peru. The time required:
289 days. De Soto sent researchers to Tampa,
Obtain legal status for the cooperative. Florida to carry out the same exercise. The
If the
time required: 3.5 hours.13 In most developing
Acquire off ice and operations center countries, electric cooperative organizers should
cooperative is
locations. be prepared to spend more than 3.5 hours to being formed
obtain legal status. in a region
Hire a manager and assign him or her functions
and responsibilities. (Expert advice should be
that does not
Obtain the Service Territory Concession
sought for this key task.) have existing
Project proponents must approach the appropriate electric
Comply with financial accounting standards. government agencies or regulators to obtain service,
Transfer saved funds to checking accounts.
a concession or permission authorizing the authorization
cooperative to operate as an electric utility. must be
Register authorized signatures to draw funds. obtained in
Construction Authorization or
Contracts to Transfer Existing order to build
Obtain outside advice and assist the General
Manager during power purchase negotiations. Electrical Infrastructure Ownership an electric
system.
Obtain advisors to assist the General Manager, If the cooperative is being formed in a region
e.g. in proceedings related to concession that does not have existing electric service,
licensing and tariffs, setting up electric service authorization must be obtained in order to build
requirements, defining project costs; etc. an electric system. In areas where the electric
infrastructure already exists, the transfer of assets
Acquire electrical systems within the area. and infrastructure to the cooperative must be
delineated in a formal binding document.
Assist the General Manager in specific
proceedings, e.g. f inancial, acquiring Obtain Tariff Authorization
government endorsements, etc.
Proposed tariffs should be approved by the regulatory
The implementation plan is the cooperative’s agency prior to commencing operations.
road map to a successful launch. The Board of
Directors must make it a priority and take all STEP 16: Capitalization Plan
steps necessary to fulfill this responsibility.
Capitalization refers to the amount and source
STEP 15: Legal Steps of the money required to create and operate the
Capital received from members is called equity. Loans for major construction projects may be
Member’s equity consists of their registration available from government fi nancing entities
fee and their share of the margins (revenue in or international institutions. The Board of
excess of expenses) remaining each year after all Directors should explore all available long-
cooperative expenses have been paid. Margins term loan sources, including savings and loan
are allocated to each member’s equity account associations, commercial banks, and insurance
annually, usually in direct proportion to their agencies.
purchases of electricity.
Preparing a loan application to fund a new
Members may also provide contributions to the cooperative is a significant task. The Board
cooperative in the form of “construction aid” should assemble a technical team for the purpose,
for line extensions, new services, upgrades, etc. including financial experts (e.g. the advisor(s)
These funds are generally credited against the who developed the financial plan), an attorney, a
cost of the project (to reduce debt) and are not licensed public accountant, and others as needed.
included in the member’s equity. The application package should clearly describe
how the loan funds would be used. Financial
Equity, representing ownership by members, is information demonstrating how the loan will be
retained by the cooperative for specific periods of repaid is an integral part of the loan application.
time to provide financial reserves and meet lender Much of the required financial information for
requirements. If the cooperative is fi nancially the loan application will be in the cooperative’s
successful, the Board of Directors may elect business plan.
to return portions of equity to the members at
some future date. In the United States, common Once established, cooperatives often fund
practice is to return equity to members 10 – short-term borrowing needs (up to 1 year)
20 years after it was allocated (assuming the through local banks. A line of credit is often
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44 NRECA International, Ltd.
used to acquire a portion of the money needed Base wages
for operating capital and interim funding
for construction projects prior to receiving a Health certificate
long-term loan. Typically, the total amount of
borrowing is limited, and these loans must be Background check or police certificate
renewed annually. They do not take the place
of a long-term loan. Valid driver’s license
The cooperative must sign contracts with all its Engineering and Technical Services
members and clients prior to commencing sales
of electricity. Initiate this process as soon as the The necessary infrastructure for the distribution
service area concession is obtained. of electricity must be in place prior to the
cooperative becoming operational. If an existing
Operational Infrastructure: electric system is to be acquired, all necessary
Office, Warehouse, Etc. improvements must be completed prior to the
start of operations. The cooperative has to
Before operations can start, the cooperative has either contract or hire an engineering staff as
to construct or rent office space, warehouses, well as linemen and equipment maintenance
workshops, and any other infrastructure required. professionals. The size of this staff depends on
These facilities must be adequately equipped with the cooperative system’s size and complexities.
computer systems, furniture, telephones, etc.
Care should be given when the cooperative is to
Install Computer System: acquire the engineering and technical staff of an
Consumer and Business Information existing utility. Often public utilities overstaff
these departments.
A computerized system is the best way to maintain
consumer and business records. At a minimum, In addition, the cooperative needs to acquire the
it must be capable of preparing invoices and necessary field equipment, computers and software
automating reports. Useful software programs for the tasks at hand. Typically, software used to
include those for consumer database management, model load flows and a geographic information
billing, financial and plant accounting, engineering, system (GIS) software package are recommended.
operations, and human resources recordkeeping. Hand tools and mechanized tools must also be
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procured. The cooperative should seek experts in into the local language. Whenever possible,
distribution system operation and maintenance professional trainers should be contracted to
to develop a complete list of necessary tools, provide a “training-of-trainers” instruction course
equipment, and software. on specific cooperative topics.
acting out of friendship with staff members Owners: These individuals have invested
resources through money, property, or time
procrastinating to create and maintain the organization. A
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Consider and adopt, in consultation with the Review and approve all major legal
General Manager, financial plans and policies contracts, including wholesale power
essential to maintain a sound financial structure contracts, construction contracts, and loan
for the cooperative. agreements.
Inform members about cooperative operations Plan and conduct effective Board meetings,
through newsletters and other publications, with enough frequency to keep Directors
annual reports, and membership/representative well-informed, to provide needed policies,
meetings. facilities and financing, and to assure desired
results.
Be familiar with and comply with Board
It is up to policies and the bylaws of the cooperative. Establish policies governing the payment of
travel, out-of-pocket, and other expenses of
the Board to
Stay informed. Develop skills and understanding Directors and employees.
establish policies to enhance performance as a Board member and
and procedures arrange for regular training programs to keep Approve the appointment of principal
to provide Board knowledge and abilities growing. consultants to the cooperative, including
contracts and agreements for services.
necessary
Assist new Board members to develop a greater
resources. The understanding of their responsibilities and Assure that basic policies are developed for
Board should authority. competitive bidding of large material and
also monitor the supply purchases, and major purchases of
availability of Participate in outside activities as deemed equipment, vehicles, and land, etc.
advantageous to enhance the understanding of
resources on a
the cooperative by members, the community, Board Responsibilities – Resources
regular basis. and national leaders, as well as to strengthen
cooperative operations. An organization cannot exist without resources.
In this context, “resources” means personnel,
Ensure that continuous programs for member, funding, wholesale power, and revenue. It is up
public, and governmental relations are carried to the Board to establish policies and procedures
out to develop understanding and support for to provide necessary resources. The Board should
the cooperative. also monitor the availability of resources on a
regular basis.
Keep members informed of problems faced
by the cooperative that require their support, The Board must assure the availability of four
and of the need for changes that may affect types of basic resources according to the size,
them. needs, and purposes of the cooperative:
Protect the assets of the cooperative and 1. Personnel: Authorize employee positions
assure the provision of adequate insurance and numbers of employees, hire a qualified
coverages. General Manager, delegate authority with
clearly spelled out responsibilities, and provide
Protect the assets of the cooperative by fully adequate and safe working conditions.
complying with policies, regulations, and
mortgages requirements. 2. Funding: Establish policies to assure proper
financial operations, secure loan sources, and
Select and appoint qualified independent clearly define when prospective consumers
financial auditors annually. must contribute towards the cost of new
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Do not overstep you r author it y and 1. Establish Board directives including policies,
responsibility. plans and programs; exercise sound financial
control in attaining cooperative goals and
Consider yourself truly as a “trustee.” objectives.
3. Individual Directors shall refrain from Between Board meetings, meet with the Chairman
directing and discussing management and of the Board to advise and to receive consultation
day-to-day problems with cooperative as needed.
employees, and recognize that the flow of
management and day-to-day operations
shall be through the General Manager. PROPER MEETING CONDUCT
OF DIRECTORS
B. The General Manager shall:
Board members will spend a significant amount
1. Perform functions and duties as directed in the of time in Board and committee meetings. The
General Manager position description. following points are important for Directors to
remember:
2. Carry out the policies, plans and programs
instructed by the Board. Prepare for the meeting.
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Boards can be tempted to assist management The following attitudes or actions by individual
with overly detailed directions, in lieu of Directors can handicap eff icient Board
establishing broad guiding policies that allow operation:
management to make most operating decisions
independently. Remember, the Board sets the Directors may oversimplify, maintaining that
policies and monitors implementation, while nothing should be excessively complex. It
management carries out the policies and reports is important to clarify and try to minimize
to the Board. problems as much as possible, but refusing to
acknowledge a complex problem and failing
Focus on Details to solve it often makes matters worse.
A Director’s duty is to focus on the big picture Directors may fail to understand that multiple
and let the General Manager and staff manage solutions may exist to a dilemma, and that each
the details. However, Boards sometimes focus on one can be modified or adapted, rather than
statistics and minute details instead of results, wholly accepted or rejected. The Board must
losing sight of the larger implications for the attempt to find the right alternative among
cooperative. many.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This module of the Technical Assistance Guides structure of the institution, plans for management
presents an explanation of the role and importance and staffi ng, power supply procurement, and
of a business plan in the development and engineering solutions for distribution line design
promotion of a new rural electric cooperative, and construction, fi nancial analysis based on
as well as a section-by-section description of the estimates of operating costs and revenues, and
key components that a comprehensive and well- regulatory procedures for registration, licensing,
organized business plan should contain. retail power tariffs, etc.
The business plan not only forces the electric If successful, the initial business plan results The business
cooperative organizers to make sure their proposal in the actual implementation of a new electric plan should
is comprehensive and well structured, it also cooperative. This module provides a suggested provide a road
serves as a vehicle for presenting the project format for the business plan and discussion of
map for the
proposal to prospective funding sources. The each key content component. The suggested
business plan should provide a road map for the format includes an executive summary and 10 development
development of the project and fully describe the major sections. The names and order of the of the project
investment opportunity. business plan sections can change, but this is the and fully
same content required in any complete business
describe the
The initial incarnation of the business plan plan.
is an important early step in the process of investment
forming, funding, and operating a rural electric The 10 business plan sections are as follows: opportunity.
cooperative. The business plan first aligns project
organizers towards the same goals and secondly 1. Project History and Overview
promotes the project to both the community
and lenders. Once the project is funded and 2. Market Analysis
built, the business planning process continues.
As time goes by and circumstances change so 3. Power Supply
must the way the electric cooperative responds
and takes charge of its future. Project leaders 4. System Design
capture the changing strategy of the electric
cooperative in regular updates to the business 5. Management Plan
plan. The continual cycle of business planning
allows for new ideas and renewed coordination 6. Operational Plan
and enthusiasm.
7. Marketing Plan
A comprehensive business plan for development
of a new rural electric cooperative or a new utility 8. Regulatory Approval
with another institutional form should consider
all the institutional, organizational, financial, and 9. Financial and Economic Analysis
regulatory issues and steps required for startup
and operation. This includes the organizational 10. Project Implementation
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THE BUSINESS PLANNING cover the major requirements of most electric
system lenders. In promoting the project to
PROCESS lenders, organizers should expect numerous
“The general who wins the battle makes many questions. Answering them may require additional
calculations in his temple before the battle is analysis or revisions to the business plan. No
fought. The general who loses makes but few matter how good the plan, such questions and
calculations beforehand.” – Sun Tzu answers are a normal part of the lender due
diligence process.
This quote from the classic military treatise, The
Art of War, carries significant business wisdom. The business planning process does not end
Few ventures succeed without careful planning once the project is operating. Like most plans in
Drafting a
and hard work. Bringing electricity to a rural life, as circumstances change, the plan too must
community is no exception. Drafting a business change. The electric cooperative should update business plan
plan is an early step for any new venture, even its business plan every three to five years, unless is an early
when the project organizers have significant major events or opportunities suggest earlier step for any
business, or perhaps even electric cooperative, revision. This continual cycle of planning provides new venture,
expertise. In fact, the more experience the an opening to inject new ideas, to adjust strategic
even when
businessperson has, the more likely he or she is to direction, to coordinate among employees and
recognize the importance of early and continued stakeholders (those with an interest in the electric the project
planning as an ingredient of success. cooperative’s success), and to keep the business organizers
fresh and moving forward in a spirit of service have
The preparation of a good business plan is the and innovation. significant
responsibility of the project planners. However,
they must consult various experts to obtain the
business,
analyses upon which they base the plan. The COMPONENTS OF A or perhaps
process demands a high degree of focus and a even electric
BUSINESS PLAN
thorough understanding of the proposed venture. cooperative,
Developing a business plan forces the project The electric cooperative business plan provides
expertise.
organizers to answer all the relevant questions a road map for the successful structuring and
of how the business will be formed, funded funding of the project. While section headings
and operated. Inevitably, this process reveals or their ordering can change, a good business
subtleties, if not significant aspects of organization plan presents all of this important information
and implementation, that were overlooked before in a clear, concise and logical format. A good
the formal planning began. target size for the document is 25-35 pages
(including tables), plus attachments supporting the
Business planning also aligns project organizers analyses. Specialized backup information, such as
towards the same goals. Verbal communication worksheets, detailed assumptions, detailed tables
can allow for multiple interpretations, but a and the like may be gathered into a project file
clearly written business plan leaves little room apart from the business plan and made available
for misunderstanding. The business plan also to interested persons.
helps promote the new electric cooperative to
the community and is always required by lending Remember that the business plan is not a
agencies. theoretical exercise but a blueprint for the actual
creation of the new electric cooperative. A well-
Each prospective lender is likely to have particular written and practical plan helps to convince
requirements for the business plan format or stakeholders, including prospective lenders, that
content. However, the components described here the project is viable and that the project sponsors
1 to 2 pages maximum
As the name indicates, the Executive Summary
The business
is for those who may not have time to read the
plan must entire plan and require a quick yet comprehensive
Key Points
document the understanding of the scope of the project, the Write the Executive Summary last.
justification investment required, projected returns, and project
One paragraph for each major section of
for the project risks. The target audience for this section includes
the plan.
executives from prospective lending institutions,
– its history
policy makers, and community business leaders. Summarize highest level points only.
and the local This section of the plan can also be printed
context that separately later for distribution to supporters and
created the local media as a part of a community awareness Project History and Overview
need for the campaign.
Some of the people who read a business plan
project.
The Executive Summary must succinctly will have little or no knowledge of the project
summarize the entire plan in just one or two background and the community it serves.
pages. That is a lot of information to condense, and Therefore, the plan must document the justification
great care must be taken to use words sparingly for the project – its history and the local context
and describe only the most salient points of each that created the need for the project. The project
section in the business plan. There are two keys history and overview section also makes the
to making this work. First, write the Executive project intelligible in a broader economic and
Summary last. Second, summarize only the social perspective. It should include an overview
highest-level points from each section of the main of the project’s scope and its current status of
document. This may mean one brief paragraph development.
or even just a series of bullet points for each of
the 10 major sections of the business plan. Once readers are informed of the project purpose
and the characteristics of the communities that
For instance, in the body of the business plan, the will benefit from it, it will be easier to describe
section on distribution system design contains the broader goals and objectives. This section
significant detail describing electrical load of the plan is the fi rst opportunity to explain
analysis, area geography, substation location and the path already traveled and the project’s goals
sizing, line construction, and costs. In contrast, for the road ahead. Include basic background
the paragraph in the Executive Summary on issues, such as:
distribution system design need only summarize
the most salient points. The following example Location of the project and area geography
from a business plan for a rural electrification
project in India shows just how simple and concise Area population and demographics, including
such a summary can be: socioeconomic data, employment and poverty
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Nature of the economy, industry and natural Market Analysis
resources
In this section, the business plan becomes more
Sources of energy currently utilized analytical. Prospective lenders need to know that
all aspects of the business have been objectively
Past attempts to improve or start an electric analyzed and that the project is viable. Analysis
system begins with the market. The goal of the market
analysis is to estimate the demand for electricity
Why, how, and by whom the current effort – how much electricity the cooperative will sell
is organized and at what price.
General scope of the project For the market analysis section of the
The goal of the
business plan, include the projected number market analysis
Accomplishments to date and status of the
of customers, by categor y (residential, is to estimate
project
commercial, industrial); the average expected the demand for
monthly usage per customer (in kWh); and
This section is also a good place to introduce electricity- how
any major complexities of the project, especially the price per unit of sales, by category (price
per kWh). much electricity
cultural, political, legal, or other factors or issues
the cooperative
that may either pose hurdles (e.g. past failures)
or facilitate the project (e.g. new laws). Include In areas where the electric cooperative will serve will sell and at
all topics that are essential to understanding the a newly electrified community (or communities) what price.
project and to forming a judgment about it. While a willingness-to-pay survey and economic
a particular issue might be addressed in depth benefit analysis is normally a required part of
later in the plan, if it is significant, introduce it market analysis (for more information please see
briefly here. For a significant obstacle or challenge Module 6 – Consumer Willingness-to-Pay and
to project implementation, present not only the Economic Benefit Analysis of Rural Electrification
problem, but also options that might solve it. Projects).
The project history and overview serve not only All esti mates should be seg mented by
to educate outsiders and prospective lenders, but customer category and based on analysis of
also to refresh and realign fellow organizers, the likely behavior, energy requirements, and
community at large, and ultimately, employees alternative energy sources available. Along
of the electric cooperative. with presenting estimates of the initial
demand, provide a long-term (usually 10-year)
projection of demand based on data concerning
Target Length
population growth trends, industry risk, and
1 to 3 pages other factors. As a general rule, provide
enough evidence in the plan to show that the
Key Points market estimates are sophisticated, but do not
provide an overabundance of detail. Present a
Establish project background, local
table summarizing the initial and long-term
conditions and socioeconomic context.
demand. Supporting documentation can be
Describe project scope and current provided as an attachment or made available in
status. a project file during the due diligence process,
if requested.
Introduce any major contextual issues
and solutions.
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Since those who will review the business plan
Target Length
are likely to have seen systems of greatly
2 to 4 pages varying quality, establish the engineering and
construction standards used in the project
Key Points design. These standards set project targets
regarding component life, safety, energy loss
Present power source and transmission optimization, regulatory compliance, and
supply.
reliability. Standards include, but are not limited
Identif y initial and f ut ure power to, industry standards and best practices for
requirements. unitized construction, single versus three-phase
lines and transformers, delivery point metering,
Describe pricing and other financial terms, The
sectionalizing, and voltage regulation. Investors
along with reliability of supplier.
generally understand the trade-off between the distribution
level of investment in capital equipment and system is
recurring costs, where more money spent on designed to
Distribution System Design better equipment leads to lower operation and receive power
maintenance expenses.
This section of the business plan presents the from the
electrical design of the distribution system. supply source
The business plan should also include a schedule
Prepared by professional electric distribution
of major system components, the number of units and transmit
design engineers, the electrical load analysis
required, and their cost. The cost of these items, it via medium
and engineering solution is normally a report
together with the estimate for engineering and or low-voltage
in itself, which is referenced in the plan along
construction, represent the initial cost of the
with a summary of key characteristics of the distribution
system. The total cost includes other items, such
distribution system design and cost. See Module lines, to
as working capital, capitalized development costs
7, Distribution Line Design and Cost Estimation
and interest, and contingencies, which are part consumers
for Rural Electrification Projects, for information
of the financial analysis of the project. throughout
on how to create the engineering report referenced
in the business plan. the service
Target Length area.
The distribution system is designed to receive
power from the supply source and transmit it 4 to 6 pages
via medium or low-voltage distribution lines, to
consumers throughout the service area. Often, the Key Points
distribution system design includes a multi-phase Present key characteristics of distribution
construction plan, as increased capital investment system design, in phases if appropriate.
and/or increased electrical load make expansion
economically viable. Describe main system facilities and include
a diagram of the electrical system.
Inserting a high-level electrical diagram of the
Include a schedule of major components
proposed system (one page) in the business plan
and costs.
is helpful. It may also be appropriate to insert a
more detailed schematic in an appendix. The
description in the business plan should include Management Plan
the main system facilities: grid substations,
distribution substations, and main feeders, along This section of the business plan communicates
with the length of extensions and lateral lines to the organizational and management structure of
reach the optimal number of initial customers. the project. Typically, the electric cooperative fully
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This section describes the plan for operating the Marketing Plan
rural electric cooperative on a day-to-day basis.
Handling such a broad topic in just a few pages Marketing begins with building enthusiasm
is a challenge, but the goal is not to create a in the community for project implementation
detailed employee manual, rather just to generate and continues through energization and system
confidence that the electric cooperative has a expansion. As an ongoing process, marketing is
well-considered and logical operating plan. important not only during project initiation, but
also for maturing electric distribution cooperatives.
One approach is to begin by stating the electric A well-defined and conceived marketing plan
cooperative’s operational philosophy, including both retains existing consumers and attracts new
priorities and targets for issues such as employee consumer connections. While there needs to be a
person responsible for the effort, marketing is as
Effective
training and supervision, emergency response time,
inventory levels, supplies and materials quality, much a client-focused attitude as it is a distinct marketing
cost containment, safety, customer complaints, program. Institutional cultures are normally requires
and system reliability. The operational philosophy established top-down and from early on, and understanding
establishes a framework for the electric cooperative’s care should be taken to establish an appropriate
the culture,
policies without the need to describe each operational culture towards the community that the system
will serve. lifestyle, and
activity and procedure in the business plan.
consumption
However, do describe major programs, according to As with operations, the marketing plan section habits of the
the priorities of the particular project. For example, of the business plan should include a description community, as
in the case of an initial build-out reaching only of the cooperative’s philosophy with regard to
well as energy
a small portion of the market, the business plan marketing – that is, the relationship it wants
to have with customers, industry and the alternatives or
should describe the operational aspects of member
subscriptions and line extensions to reach additional community at large. The marketing section of competitive
customers. Or, in an area of anticipated high the business plan should explain where, within products
electricity theft, describe the plan for detecting, the cooperative, responsibility for this function available.
policing, prosecuting, and preventing loss. Other lies, its funding level, and its initial focus.
components of the operational plan, if unique or Typically, in the early days of electric cooperative
substantially different than industry standards, operation, marketing is the responsibility of the
should also be mentioned. whole staff. Technical, financial, and operations
personnel must pitch in on membership drives
and customer education, especially in areas
Target Length
never before electrified.
2 to 3 pages
Effective marketing requires understanding the
Key Points culture, lifestyle, and consumption habits of the
community, as well as energy alternatives or
St ate the g uidi ng operational
competitive products available. Expressing this
philosophies.
understanding through a thoughtful description
Address enough detail to express of the marketing effort is the central goal of this
competence in operating a electric section of the business plan.
cooperative.
This section should also establish electricity
Describe major programs or thrusts,
pricing targets, segmented at a minimum by
especially if different from industry
consumer class. For rate-regulated utilities, the
norms.
rates may already be established. Otherwise,
In nearly all countries, the working hypothesis In the case of regulatory oversight, the business
upon which regulatory oversight is based is that plan should describe the regulatory authority,
electric service is a natural monopoly. That is, explain the areas in which the electric cooperative
it is not economically efficient to have more is subject to regulation, describe the process for
than a single service provider in an area. Once a obtaining all required approvals, and provide a
monopoly is authorized, it must also be regulated, status report.
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The output of the financial model is often included
Target Length as an attachment to the business plan. Summary
1 to 2 pages tables and accompanying narrative should appear
in the body of the document and describe central
Key Points findings, addressing key items such as earnings,
cash flow, investment return indices, and project
Identify areas of regulatory oversight and risks. For marginal projects, the analysis should
the relevant governmental authority. show that the project generates sufficient cash to
Explain the approval process. service debt and fund depreciation, and if not,
describe the level of subsidy required to achieve
Report status to date. feasibility.
Typically,
Some lenders also require an economic analysis financial
Financial and Economic Analysis of the project. While a financial analysis takes projections
the viewpoint of the individual participants and for electric
This section of the business plan shows that the estimates the financial effects of the project on utilities are
project’s financial viability has been established them, an economic analysis takes the viewpoint
through a careful analysis of the project’s costs
modeled over
of society as a whole, estimating the benefits of
and benefits. The analysis most often employs a the project to the economy. Both use measures of a minimum 10-
computer-based model to compare the project’s discounted cash flow, but they define and value year horizon.
cash receipts against its cash outflow. Typically, costs and benefits differently. For example, taxes
financial projections for electric utilities are are not treated as costs in the economic analysis,
modeled over a minimum 10-year horizon. but subsidies are. With the above-mentioned items
The analysis should use the most reliable data in mind, plan on performing only a fi nancial
obtainable. analysis for the business plan. If debt or subsidy
providers require an economic analysis, perform
One of the most important steps in applying a it using an accepted methodology.
financial model – and presenting the results in the
business plan – is stating all major assumptions Target Length
and parameters. These include the construction
and system build-out periods, terms on project 2 to 5 pages
debt, sales growth, electricity rates, cost of power,
operation and maintenance expenses, and line Key Points
and technical losses. Take care to have good Perform financial model projections for
supporting data and justifications for all major 10 years and an economic analysis if
assumptions. requested.
The financial model produces detailed projections State all major assumptions and have
of income, cash flow, and sources/uses of funds supporting justification on hand.
statements, along with indicators of project Insert a table and describe key results,
viability and attractiveness (such as internal rate including project returns and risks.
of return and cash return on equity). The model
should analyze multiple scenarios, testing the
impact of changes in key variables on the bottom Project Implementation
line (sensitivity analysis) or identifying the values
key variables must hold in order for revenues to Now that the project has been fully presented,
cover costs (breakeven analysis). engineered, and analyzed, the final section of
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way to orient the visitors upon arrival. Limit it to Also, create a 3-5 page project summary that can While not
10 slides and 20 minutes for best results. be utilized to interest prospective lenders in the always
project. Until initial interest is aroused, lenders are
possible, there
Plan ahead for all stops along the tour route. unlikely to take the time to read the full business
plan. If the business plan interests a prospective is nothing
Include visits with future customers, small and
large, and allow time for separate conversations lender, the next step is the due diligence process, better than
with any sizable industry that may exist in the when clarifying questions are asked and revenue local financial
and cost estimates verified. All supporting studies,
area. Industry or not, it is important to demonstrate support
that the service area has an underlying stable, if facts, and figures should be readily available so as
to provide a quick and comprehensive response to provide
not growing, economy.
to due diligence requests. comfort to an
outside lender.
Utilize the Executive Summary from the business Finally, while not always possible, there is nothing
plan (as is or modified for public consumption) as better than local financial support to provide comfort
a tool to create local enthusiasm for the project. to an outside lender. Even if they are small in amount
It can also provide talking points for community compared to the funding target, local monetary
meetings, be distributed in flyers, and be circulated commitments by future customers, industry, or
to any local and regional media (radio station or lending institutions carry a big and positive message
newspaper). to prospective project financiers.
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A role of government is to appropriate limited reduction of costs linked to the introduction of
public financial resources in a manner that new technology, and the increase of services
assures transparency and objectivity in the resulting from new technology.
prioritization and selection of projects with a
reasonable potential to succeed. This implies Financial analysis: a method for evaluating
that projects must be sustainable and designed and reviewing scenarios to determine the most
to maximize economic impact. Therefore, the viable system design for the community and
government institution or agency responsible for estimating the overall financial viability
for rural electrification programs must compile of the project.
the necessary data to define the rural electricity
market, identify projects with potential, analyze Energy alternatives: candles, kerosene, A role of
the feasibility of such projects, and elaborate batteries, solar panels, and other energy sources
a suitable investment program. This module used as sources of energy in the absence of
government is
provides an important tool in the execution of modern distributed electric services. to appropriate
this process. limited public
Demographic study: the study of the financial
This module describes a methodology to evaluate characteristics of communities and their
resources
the costs, estimate the benefits, and analyze the members within a defined project area. It
feasibility of electrification projects in an efficient determines the communities’ cultural, in a manner
manner. As any project developer knows, a economic, and social characteristics in that assures
rigorous but practical and accessible methodology relation to the objectives of the project under transparency
to categorize projects is an indispensable tool in consideration. and objectivity
defining investment priorities objectively.
in the
Demand study: analyzes the average monthly or
This module presents concepts, terms, and annual energy consumption for each consumer prioritization
methodology for wide application. Its target category, the expected power demand resulting and selection
audience includes economists, engineers, from energy consumption estimates, and the of projects
consultants, and professionals involved in the growth rates and net consumption or power with a
elaboration of electrification projects. It should growth over the project time horizon.
be a useful tool for experienced engineers and
reasonable
economists, as well as for people just beginning Willingness to pay: an assessment of the potential to
their careers in the field of feasibility analysis for amount that consumers are now paying for succeed.
rural electrification. electric and non-electric energy services, as
well as estimates of the “expressed willingness
Essential Definitions to pay” for energy services, using a carefully
defined auction or bid survey methodology.
The material presented in this module will be
easier to understand and apply if some key Organization
defi nitions are established. The following list
of concepts and their respective definitions are This module presents a quantitative evaluation
commonly used in this module: methodology for designing and implementing
rural electrification programs and projects.
Economic analysis: calculates the benefits The methodology includes all elements of
generated by the project for the community project design and analysis, particularly for the
affected by the project. Economic benefits extension of grid based distribution systems. The
result from the technological substitution methodology describes the concepts, objectives,
of energy sources used by the project, the and practical steps required to evaluate technical
A specific rural electrification project, designed After defining the project area, the gathering of
and executed by NRECA in Potosi, Bolivia demographic and infrastructure data starts, along
(referred to as the Tomoyo Project) appears as with the organization of the analysis process. Most
an example throughout the module to provide project data, especially data containing spatial
contextual background information for the attributes, are organized using geographic maps.
concepts being explained. With the recent advent of GIS, it has become
more common and practical to organize data in
electronic, geographically referenced data systems.
Information on the use of GIS appears later in this
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
module.
Each electrification project involves a specific
geographic area and serves a specific group Conventional project maps should present
of rural communities or housing clusters. The cartographic, technical, political and geographic
geographical limits of a rural electrification attributes of the project area. Many of the variables
project relate to factors such as the distance involved in electrification feasibility studies
between the project’s energy source and the contain a spatial component. For example, electric
community, the distance to the existing electric lines are normally located in close proximity to
grid, the distances between communities, the all-weather roads.
electric demand of each community, and the
estimated maintenance requirements envisioned Figure 1 presents the geographic characteristics
during the life of the project. These factors of the Tomoyo project.
have an important impact on the project’s
implementation and operating costs. The Other data that should be included and compiled
project must present economies of scale to in project databases include the number of
be able to serve sufficient energy demand, communities, which municipality they are in, the
and thus collect sufficient revenue, to cover number of inhabitants per community and in total,
operating costs, in the face of factors like the and the number of un-electrified homes in the
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Figure 1. Geographic location of the Tomoyo project
GIS is a potent
tool for the
development
of rural
electrification
programs,
but it requires
a greater
financial
and human
project area. The project analysis database should A GIS offers a more efficient way of organizing
resource
include fields for community names, number and managing geographic information. The GIS
of inhabitants in each community, community platform relates physical, technical, demographic, investment.
income levels, and monthly energy consumption. and natural resource information in a geographic
Census data, if available, can be an important data framework. It allows the user not only to store
source that should be investigated. However, if a data, but also carry out numerical, algebraic and
census is over five years old, the analyst should statistical analysis, as well as create computation
search for other, more up-to-date data sources. programs within the same GIS. GIS is a potent
tool for the development of rural electrification
Table 1 presents an overview of the project programs, but it requires a greater financial and
database for the Tomoyo. It includes community human resource investment. For this reason, it has
location, political boundaries, number of homes, been underutilized in planning a majority of rural
and distances between communities. electrification programs. Nonetheless, it remains
a powerful and flexible tool for evaluating single
To geographically reference the attributes of the or multiple electrification projects in a dynamic
database with the project area maps, a unique and interactive format.
identifier must be established. Normally, this
would be the name of the village or community. Project Energy Source and
However, sometimes communities share the Supply Options
same name. In such cases, establish a data field
containing a code that provides an alpha-numeric Historically, various energy sources and supply
representation for each community, linking the technologies have been employed in successfully
data in the database with its corresponding completed electrification projects. However, the
geographic data managed through a geographic financial resources of the project and the physical
information system. characteristics of the project area contribute to or
Well-designed may limit technology and resource options. For is competitive with conventional energy delivery
projects example, the extension of an electric distribution options and consumer willingness to pay. Well-
grid to an un-electrified community depends upon designed projects focus on the selection of energy
focus on the
the distance from the community to the nearest sources that minimize the operational costs of the
selection interconnection point for a grid substation. Note service provided, in balance with the project’s
of energy that distance includes not only horizontal distance environmental and social benefits and costs.
sources that but also vertical distance, in that hilly terrain
requires more kilometers of line and more poles For each geographic area, options are normally
minimize the
to connect a community to the grid. Similarly, if limited to the specific resources available within a
operational grid interconnection does not appear viable, and serviceable distance from the target communities.
costs of natural gas resources are available, the analyst Not all projects have sufficient wind, hydropower,
the service must take into account the distance to a natural or biomass resources to consider employing these
provided, in gas distribution network. In addition, resource energy options.
surveys are required if the project developer
balance with
wishes to consider renewable energy resources In some cases, hydropower resources may be
the project’s for energy generation, such as wind, hydropower, located within a serviceable distance from the
environmental solar, and/or biomass energy. target community. However, there is no linear
and social relationship between distance and load. The
benefits and Although renewable resources have low operating hydrological seasonality of the site plays a
costs and high environmental benefits, the significant role in its viability for remote power
costs.
analyst must keep in mind two key variables generation. Without a nearby interconnection
for each electrification project: the project energy point with a distribution or transmission grid,
requirements, and the cost of installing and using project planners must perform a preliminary site
renewable technology. For a project to be viable, evaluation to determine it’s the technical and
the renewable resource must be able to satisfy financial viability of hydropower. The preliminary
energy demand at a cost of delivered service that evaluation will be based upon stream flow data,
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estimated head (i.e., the vertical drop between photovoltaic systems may turn out to be least-cost
the system’s forebay tank and powerhouse), cost technology alternative. See Module 10: Design
estimates for turbo-mechanical and electrical and Implementation Guidelines for Stand-Alone
machinery, as well as cost estimates for site Photovoltaic Systems for Rural Electrification
preparation and civil works. In addition, the Projects for more information.
preliminary analysis must consider power and
energy analysis, the energy demands of the Wind turbines are another generation option
community, seasonal fluctuations in stream flow, for rural electrification. Wind turbines require
and costs for operation and maintenance of the relatively high wind velocities to operate
system. effectively. Winds speeds normally need to be
greater than 4 meters per second for small-scale Grid extension
Several projects have successfully initiated systems and greater than 7 meters per second
biomass power generation in selected rural for larger-scale systems. Either these systems
represents
electrification schemes. The biggest challenges are designed to feed into an electric grid, or the preferred
encountered relate to the costs associated with the system is configured as part of a hybrid option for
transporting the biomass to the conversion site energy system– combining the wind turbine with a majority
and generating sufficient energy to offset the another generation technology, such as a diesel
of rural
cost of the boiler and generator infrastructure. generator and battery bank. Wind systems, similar
Where sugar refi neries, rice and/or oil mills, to other renewable energy technologies, are often electrification
or other agricultural processing plants exist, subject to seasonal variation in generation output, programs.
their processing centers may have sufficient challenging long-term project sustainability. The This is due
size and be capable of generating the quantity of analyst must balance the variable generation to its lower
biomass needed to justify a biomass conversion/ pattern of the technology chosen with the need
bulk power
generation plant. Normally, the minimum power to meet base and peak load demands of the
plant capacity for this technology option is around system. costs, higher
1,000 kW. Under normal circumstances, this is reliability,
sufficient to generate electricity at a price below Hybrid wind systems are relatively complex and and ease of
$ 0.10/kWh. costly. In addition, they can present significant
operation.
management risks due to their relatively high
Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy technologies have maintenance requirements. However, when
found success in various projects worldwide. considering overall project financial feasibility,
This technology is well known, and exploitable wind-hybrid systems bear consideration, among
in applications for illumination, water pumping, others, especially in areas where wind resources
electrification of isolated health clinics, schools, are abundant and conventional fuel costs are
etc. The system is very simple, and requires prohibitive.
relatively little maintenance. A basic system
includes a solar PV array, lead-acid battery, charge Conventional electrification options (those
controller, usually one or two service outlets, most often employed) include the extension of
and two or three lamps. Because PV system electric distribution grid systems and deployment
cost varies linearly with energy demand, its use of isolated thermal power plants combusting
is ideal where energy consumption is limited either diesel fuel or natural gas. Grid extension
to lighting and basic entertainment systems. represents the preferred option for a majority of
Moreover, solar photovoltaic energy systems rural electrification programs. This is due to its
do not create any economies of scale. However, lower bulk power costs, higher reliability, and ease
for rural electrification projects consisting of of operation. In addition, rural electric service
dispersed non-electrified rural homes, with a low providers are relieved of the necessity of managing
potential for productive uses of electricity, solar small power plants, which often introduce multiple
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of project evaluation. It also allows engineering that cannot be reached via an existing road is
staff to create reasonably accurate system maps. extremely problematic.
These maps are used to model and evaluate
the distribution system, both technically and It is also important to geo-reference (i.e.
fi nancially, without the need for detailed and defi ne its existence in physical space in terms
costly field surveys. At the conclusion of this of a coordinate system) the location of the
process, the project team is able to generate a communities that form part of the project with a
geographical picture like that in Figure 2. GPS receiver. This information comes into play
in the demographic and engineering analyses
Preliminary design establishes the general to follow. In many cases, rural communities
layout of the distribution system and defi nes are grouped in a highly informal fashion, with
Preliminary
the system parameters. These parameters include a significant percentage of dispersed homes.
line layout, conductor size, substation and line Consequently, establishing the range and lengths
design
device characteristics, etc. The distribution of the proposed primary and secondary lines establishes
lines will extend from the most likely point of requires recording the locations of homes within the general
interconnection with the existing transmission or the community. The analyst must also specify layout of the
distribution grid, to the houses, businesses, and the geographic limits of the town centers (and
distribution
small industries the new system will serve. If the corresponding location of homes within
the new system employs isolated or distribution it), as well as location of the more dispersed system and
generation, the preliminary design includes the homes and/or farms. In addition, the location defines
location of the generation system and the attributes of important consumers (often referred to as the system
of the new substation. Normally, distribution lines productive uses of electricity consumers) such parameters.
follow primary and secondary roads, or existing as factories, processing plants, mines, etc.,
right-of-way, given that housing patterns also should be recorded. These consumers may
generally follow existing roadways. Constructing play key roles in the fi nal design of the system,
the electric distribution lines near roadways depending on their size and levels of energy
facilitates line maintenance. Maintaining lines consumption.
Figure 2. The Tomoyo project location survey results, the path of the electric
lines, and the communities benefited
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the use of photovoltaic solar systems, and multiple electric and non-electric energy use, the sum of
uses such as refrigeration, mechanical machinery, which can be converted into equivalent electric
agricultural products processing, irrigation, and consumption. Performing an energy use survey in
any others found in the project area. neighboring electrified areas provides a reference
point for estimating electric consumption, but the
Energy use and consumer WtP analysis is basis for projecting electric consumption should
examined in further detail in Module 6: Consumer remain the willingness-to-pay survey.
Willingness to Pay and Economic Benefit Analysis
of Rural Electrification Projects. Consumer Distribution
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Using the results of the WtP survey, analysts Consumer Growth Projection
generate a curve describing the willingness/ability
to pay for energy services (in monetary value) As shown in Figure 3, the Tomoyo project’s
as a function of the percentage of community willingness-to-pay study indicates that up to
members. This distribution very effectively 85% of the population is willing to pay up to
predicts the initial and final penetration rates of 25 Bs/month for electricity. However, to project
the new electric service. future electricity consumption and demand, the
analyst must classify the users into their respective
If the amount a consumer pays for traditional consumer categories and project levels of electric
energy sources such as candles, kerosene, and consumption for each category. Using those data,
small batteries is greater than the estimated cost the analyst constructs a growth projection for
The projection
of electric service, including the cost of converting both the quantity of consumers (per category) and
to the service (house wiring, lamps, etc.), then their respective electricity demand/consumption of future
consumers generally choose to connect to the patterns. consumption/
electric service. Figure 3 illustrates the relationship demand
between the number of people surveyed and their The projection of future consumption/demand
provides a key
reported monthly energy expenditures for the provides a key starting point for evaluating the
cost and viability of electrification projects. It
starting point
Tomoyo project. The results demonstrate that 90%
of the beneficiaries of the project have a willingness is a requirement for dimensioning the electric for evaluating
to pay the minimum tariff of Bs 20 (Bolivian Pesos) distribution grid, evaluating generation options, the cost and
that the consumers of a similar electric service and estimating the operating costs and revenues viability of
in the nearby town of Potolo currently pay. Note the project will generate.
electrification
that if the monthly energy bill is as high as Bs 30,
Two main factors inf luence elect ricit y projects. It is
the percentage of likely consumers willing to pay
drops to approximately 55%. consumption and demand projections: annual a requirement
for
Figure 3. Capacity and willingness to pay (Tomoyo) dimensioning
the electric
distribution
grid,
120%
evaluating
100% generation
options, and
80%
% Consumers
estimating
60% the operating
costs and
40%
revenues the
20% project will
0%
generate.
0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40
Potential Years
Community
Beneficiaries 1 2 3 4 5 10 13 15 18 20
Molle Molle (Chuquisaca) 48 24 30 36 42 48 53 56 58 61 63
Molle Molle (Potosi) 124 62 77 92 108 124 138 147 153 162 168
Sorojchi 102 51 63 76 89 102 112 118 122 129 135
Yoroca 58 29 36 43 50 58 63 66 68 71 73
Tomoyo 78 39 49 59 69 79 89 95 99 105 109
Llajtapata 92 46 57 68 80 92 102 108 112 118 122
Isluco 49 25 31 37 43 49 54 57 59 62 64
Joroja 72 36 45 54 63 72 79 85 89 95 99
Sorocoto 97 49 61 73 85 98 108 114 118 124 129
Soroscopa 43 22 27 32 37 43 48 51 53 56 58
TOTAL BENEFICIARIES 763 383 476 570 666 765 846 897 931 983 1020
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Table 3. Consumption growth projection (kWh) for residential and
commercial users categories (Tomoyo)
Potential Years
Category
Beneficiaries 1 2 3 4 5 10 13 15 18 20
Domestic 763 457 533 610 689 770 852 903 937 990 1027
Commercial 42 42 42 47 48 50 65 77 84 96 107
TOTAL 805 500 577 660 741 825 927 993 1036 1104 1154 Energy
consumption
look at their product volume of production and shown in Table 4, based on the best sources naturally
the energy generally used by these consumer of information available. Be careful not to increases
categories to determine their expected electricity overestimate electric consumption from surveys over time as
consumption. performed in the project area, as local officials
consumers
and residents typically overestimate demand. To
As an example, the Tomoyo project team construct a conservative growth model, cross- grow more
established that residential consumers’ average check information, employ proper judgment, and accustomed to
consumption was 25 kWh per month. However, apply reasonable growth rates to consumption electric energy
the consumption estimates for commercial models. Tables 5 and 6 summarize the calculations
use and as
consumers varied more widely. Therefore, the made for the projected kWh consumption growth
project team classified the different commercial for residential and commercial customers, per
economic
consumer types according to a market evaluation, community, for the Tomoyo project. activities
determining average consumption patterns for grow.
each classification. Table 4 presents the results. Public Lighting
Electricity Consumption Growth Rate Public lighting is another key component in the
projection of electricity demand. Some rural
The electricity consumption growth rate is a key electrification projects include public lighting
variable for the estimation of energy demand.
Energy consumption naturally increases over time
Table 4. Estimate of electrical demand,
as consumers grow more accustomed to electric
per activity
energy use and as economic activities grow. This
is commonly due to residents’ acquisition of home Monthly Annual
electric appliances such as televisions, refrigerators, Average Average
Productive Use
blenders, etc. Therefore, analysts must estimate Consumption Consumption
an electricity consumption growth rate and apply kWh kWh
Residential Consumers
Potential Years
Community
Beneficiaries 1 2 3 4 5 10 13 15 18 20
Molle Molle
48 7,200 9,180 11,236 13,371 15,587 19,002 21,306 22,959 23,209 24,938
(Chuquisaca)
Molle Molle
124 18,600 23,562 28,715 34,383 40,266 49,477 55,929 60,564 61,637 66,502
(Potosi)
Sorojchi 102 15,300 19,278 23,721 28,334 33,122 40,155 44,896 48,293 49,081 53,439
Yoroca 58 8,700 11,016 13,421 15,918 18,834 22,587 25,111 26,917 27,014 28,897
Tomoyo 78 11,700 14,994 18,415 21,967 25,654 31,909 36,145 39,189 39,950 43,147
Llajtapata 92 13,800 17,442 21,224 25,469 29,875 36,570 41,091 44,334 44,896 48,293
Isluco 49 7,500 9,486 11,548 13,690 15,912 19,360 21,687 23,355 23,589 25,334
Joroja 72 10,800 13,770 16,854 20,057 23,381 28,324 32,340 35,230 36,145 39,189
Sorocoto 97 14,700 18,666 22,785 27,061 31,824 38,721 43,374 46,710 47,179 51,064
Soroscopa 43 6,600 8,262 9,988 11,779 13,963 17,209 19,404 20,980 21,306 22,959
TOTAL
763 114,900 145,656 177,908 212,029 248,418 303,314 341,284 368,530 374,005 403,761
BENEFICIARIES
Commercial Consumers
Potential Years
Communities
Beneficiaries 1 2 3 4 5 10 13 15 18 20
Molle Molle
4 6,800 6,936 7,075 9,020 9,201 12,190 15,092 17,945 21,424 24,766
(Chuquisaca)
Molle Molle
6 9,154 9,337 11,111 11,334 11,560 16,410 21,285 24,158 29,909 33,340
(Potosi)
Sorojchi 5 6,240 6,365 7,791 7,946 8,105 11,932 14,245 16,467 19,223 23,635
Yoroca 5 6,900 7,038 8,615 8,787 8,963 13,194 15,752 18,209 21,256 26,135
Tomoyo 8 13,632 13,905 15,956 16,275 18,445 24,437 30,255 35,974 42,948 49,648
Llajtapata 2 2,700 2,754 2,809 2,865 2,923 4,840 6,849 7,125 9,452 9,833
Isluco 2 2,100 2,142 2,185 2,229 2,273 3,765 5,327 5,542 7,351 7,648
Joroja 2 2,100 2,142 2,185 2,229 2,273 3,765 5,327 5,542 7,351 7,648
Sorocoto 7 8,400 8,568 9,988 10,188 11,690 15,775 19,785 22,167 26,885 31,467
Soroscopa 1 1,050 1,071 1,092 1,114 1,137 2,510 2,663 2,771 2,941 4,589
TOTAL
42 59,076 60,258 68,806 71,986 76,569 108,817 136,578 155,900 188,739 218,711
BENEFICIARIES
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as an important economic benefit the project conductor, the level of current passing through the
can offer within the project area. Public lighting conductor, and so-called transformer core losses.
is often employed in areas of higher population Non-technical losses include theft and various
density, such as in towns and cities. types of inefficient or ineffective management,
such as unregistered consumers, damaged meters,
Estimate energy consumption and demand for and poor meter reading practices. Electricity
public lighting by using a lighting standard losses constitute an important factor for a project’s
adopted by the distribution cooperative or financial feasibility.
utility, if a standard has been established. The
majority of rural electric service providers Assume that the project interconnects to an
have established an approximate relationship existing electric transmission or distribution grid.
Non-technical
between total demand and public lighting, In this case, the most practical way to register the
wherein public lighting represents 7% of amount of system losses consists in applying, to losses are
residential consumers’ total demand. Other the demand projection, the same loss percentage controllable
service providers determine an approximate used by the respective electric utility. Acceptable and should be
consumption value for public lighting using technical losses for distribution service providers kept near zero
a “per number of consumers” calculation. For vary in the range of 7-12%. Non-technical losses
with diligent
example, a service provider might install a 70 W are controllable and should be kept near zero
sodium vapor lamp or a 125 W mercury vapor with diligent management. Higher losses affect management.
lamp for every 6 to 10 homes within a densely the project’s feasibility. Technical losses are
populated community. For most projects, we relatively easy to calculate using a load-flow
recommend estimating the number of public engineering program. Remember to calculate the
lamps to be installed, then determining the losses only after considering all of the project’s
lamp size, and fi nally calculating the energy energy demand factors.
consumption for public lighting from those two
items of information. Consumption and Electricity
Demand Projection
Be sure to establish a viable payment mechanism
for public lighting systems prior to making The demand projection for the project area takes
the fi nal decision to include them as part of into account expected electricity consumption
the electrification project. The energy cost as well as expected growth in electric power
associated with public lighting can be significant. demand. Calculate the growth in electricity
It can transform a project from being financially consumption using the change in electricity
viable to non-viable. Project planners must make consumption for each category of registered
certain that public lighting bills are accepted consumers, in kWh, as was explained above. The
and paid for, either by the local or national demand is the amount of power that the project
government, or as a line item on the consumer’s area’s loads demand, and that the distribution
bill. company must produce or purchase, to ensure
that all consumers have adequate power available
Distribution System Losses when required. Demand is measured in kW or
MW.
Distribution system losses are important in
estimating total energy and power needs. Project Breaking the demand projection process into
planners must consider distribution system losses steps, begin by constructing a consumer growth
in two categories, technical and non-technical projection over the project life. To this, add
losses. Technical losses are losses of electrical the growth of specific consumption (energy
energy attributed to the impedance of the consumption per consumer), also over the project
Concept Years
1 2 3 4 5 10 13 15 18 20
Total Domestic
Consumption of 114,900 145,656 177,908 212,029 248,418 303,314 341,284 368,530 374,005 403,761
Electricity kWh
Total Commercial
Consumption of 59,076 60,258 68,806 71,986 76,569 108,817 136,578 155,900 188,739 218,711
Electricity kWh
Public Lighting kWh 7% 8,043 10,196 12,454 14,842 17,389 21,232 23,890 25,797 26,180 28,263
Losses kWh 15% 32,121 38,137 45,735 52,740 60,419 76,476 88,544 97,099 103,928 114,835
Total Consumption
214,140 254,247 304,903 351,597 402,796 509,840 590,296 647,326 692,851 765,570
in kWh
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Table 8. Residential demand projection per community in kW (Tomoyo)
Potential Years
Community
Beneficiaries 1 2 3 4 5 10 13 15 20
Molle Molle (Chuquisaca) 48 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 9
Molle Molle (Potosi) 124 7 9 11 13 14 17 20 21 23
Sorojchi 102 6 7 9 10 12 14 16 17 19
Yoroca 58 4 5 5 6 7 9 9 10 11
Tomoyo 78 5 6 7 8 10 12 13 14 15
Llajtapata 92 6 7 8 9 11 13 15 16 17
Isluco 49 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 9
Joroja 72 4 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14
Sorocoto 97 6 7 9 10 12 14 15 16 18
Soroscopa 43 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 8 9
TOTAL BENEFICIARIES 763 40 51 62 73 85 103 115 123 135
Potential Years
Concept
Beneficiaries 1 2 3 4 5 10 13 15 18 20
Residential
1 383 40 51 62 73 85 103 115 123 126 135
Consumers - kW
Commercial
2 42 20 20 23 24 25 34 42 47 56 64
Consumers - kW
Public Lighting
4 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 12 13
- kW
5 Losses - kW 10 12 14 16 18 23 26 29 31 34
Total Coincidental
70 83 99 115 131 163 187 204 218 239
Demand kW
Whether the project will provide single or Moreover, the electric system has to provide its
three phase service consumers with reliable service that complies with
the appropriate quality standards. In addition,
Conductor size the system must supply the required voltage
for the correct operation of electric machines
Line devices, voltage regulation, capacitor
The electric and devices that may run on the system. To
banks, and other system characteristics
achieve this goal, the electric system design must
system has required to control power quality
incorporate solid electric distribution industry
to provide its standards and practices. Above all, the goal of
With all this information resolved, the analyst
consumers can fi nally estimate the construction costs of the engineering design analysis must ensure that
with reliable the project. the system incorporates the main principles of
rural electric systems, namely:
service that
The previous planning phases determined the
complies Establish and maintain voltage levels within
geographic location of the project, including
with the the path and length of the power lines. The a range of +/- 7%.
appropriate demographic and willingness-to-pay analysis of
quality the project yielded the number of beneficiaries as Use the correct caliber of conductor, which
well as the energy demand for the project. Using maintains voltage levels and loss level targets
standards.
these data, the analyst can evaluate alternative over the intended project horizon.
configurations for the substation, distribution lines,
and components of the electric system to ensure Employ design standards to assure that safety
quality and reliability within the system. standards (clearances and insulation levels)
are established and maintained.
This section describes the engineering analysis
methodology used to determine the electrical Employ a well-defined design and construction
parameters of the distribution lines and the standard, to assure cost control and quality of
process used for evaluating the project’s design service over the project life.
options. The energy demand, losses, voltage
drop, and economic evaluations are all factors The engineering and system design analysis
to account for when determining the number of starts by projecting the consumption and
phases, voltage level, and size of the conductors demand on the system. The demand analysis
selected for the project. Project planners must supplies the maximum consumption and
consider and evaluate the construction costs, not demand on the system. Analysts then multiply
only to ensure a reliable feasibility study, but also the maximum demand estimate by a safety
to enable selection of the lowest cost construction factor, usually 1.5, to prevent catastrophic
option, and therefore the lowest investment cost, failures in electrical and mechanical design
possible for the project. of the distribution system.
Factors That Affect System Design The second step consists of determining the
electric system’s voltage level. Most rural electric
Electric systems utilize materials such as poles, systems have fewer consumers per kilometer
transformers, conductors, etc. that typically than urban distribution systems do. In addition,
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rural systems have a greater total length of line. The cost advantages of employing single-
Therefore, the normal practice is to use higher phase construction are so great that project
voltage levels for the primary distribution system, planners should seriously consider single-phase
such as 25-35 kV. In many cases the voltage level construction for all rural electrification projects.
is already established and standardized by the Single-phase construction can save up to 50%
national government, the largest electric company of overall construction cost and can represent
of the country, or by the existing infrastructure the difference between a feasible and a non-
in the project area. feasible project. Moreover, a single-phase system
can be converted to three-phase construction if
The selection of the size (diameter) and type of required in the future. Both recent World Bank
conductor used must also take into account a standards and historic REA of the U.S. design
The cost
few practical factors. For example, the process standards propose the overarching objective of
of changing conductors in rural electrical lines is minimizing construction costs to achieve higher
advantages
very expensive. Therefore, the design commonly levels of access, while maintaining adequate of employing
uses a conductor that meets the required load for safety and quality of service standards for rural single-phase
the duration established for the project, normally areas. Generally, projects should employ single- construction
20 to 30 years. In the case of the Tomoyo project, phase construction as the default option, while
are so great
this was for a 20-year useful-life, according to assuring maximization of the ruling span to up to
the demand projection. 120 meters, where possible. Further, minimization that project
of the secondary (low voltage) distribution system planners
Furthermore, the design of a rural electric system is strongly recommended to maintain low loss should
has to consider these factors in the context of levels. In addition, project planners can couple seriously
minimizing construction costs. Due to the various the secondary distribution system with the use of
consider
factors involved in the design of the system, the small, single-phase transformers, with services
process of minimizing these costs is calculated extending no more than 50 meters in length, to single-phase
by utilizing iterative and interrelated steps when further reduce loss levels and cost. construction
modeling the system. For instance, analysts for all rural
calculate the voltage drop values, calculating Analysts can further reduce the total cost of
electrification
the size/caliber of conductor needed, and/or the primary distribution lines, in areas of very
calculating the voltage level at which operational low population density and subsequently very
projects.
parameters fall within pre-determined acceptable low loads, by using single wire, earth return
ranges. construction. The REA never sanctioned this
design. Concerns with so-called “stray voltage”
Residential consumers in rural areas often request that can result in reduced milking volumes in
three-phase distribution lines, even when building mechanized dairies, along with concerns over
the system with single-phase lines is more cost possible interference between ground return lines
effective. Note that single-phase distribution lines and older commonly non-insulated telephone
are adequate for carrying up to 25 amps of load in circuits prevented its approval.
the primary distribution system. A system requires
three-phase lines to transport loads of more than While this design was never employed in the
25 amps and provide adequate protection against United States, it was developed in Australia in the
overcharges. Lines with individual currents or 1960s, and used there extensively, as well as later
motors greater than 10 hp are also better served in Chile, Mexico, Tunisia, and other countries.
by three-phase lines. However, a new technology The security issues have been resolved, and
called virtual pole motors is now able to serve interference with the non-insulated telephone
larger loads, up to 100 hp, with single-phase lines has become less of a concern, due to
service only. changes and advances in telecommunications
Once the power line parameters are defi ned, Length of conductor
including the voltage level, number of phases,
and conductor size, modeling of the distribution Demand at each load point of the electric
system begins. This process utilizes engineering grid
software to analyze voltage drop and load behavior
over the life of the project. Capacit y (in kVA) of the substation
transformer(s)
Selection of an appropriate engineering package
is important, as some products lack the necessary Characteristics of the distribution transformers
functions and characteristics. At a minimum, the (capacity, primar y/secondar y voltage,
program selected for modeling of the distribution impedance, available taps, connection
system should have the following capabilities configuration, regulation, sequence, and
and characteristics: protection configuration)
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Feeder analysis starts at the output section of the loads, the demand in kW, the reactive power
substation, ending at each line terminal, including (kVAR), the power factor, and the energy losses
its deviations. The analyst can perform load flow in kW. Modelers can also calculate other system
analysis for distinct project phases, such as at the characteristics, and display them according to their
five-year, 10-year, and 20-year marks, using load preferences and interests. Figure 4 presents the
projections for each phase. However, the analysis Tomoyo project’s engineering analysis, calculated
must draw from the project’s final year demand using the listed assumptions and the previously
projection study to define the characteristics of described consumption/demand analysis.
the project’s three-phase feeders. This means
the analyst should carry out an analysis of the Estimating Project Costs
system for year zero and then for the last year of
If the analysis
the project’s evaluation timeline. A central concern of all government agencies
and international donors is how to minimize
shows
If the analysis shows unacceptable levels of project cost, while meeting service quality and unacceptable
voltage drop and/or losses, changes in system safety standards. If a project disregards service levels of
design are required. From here, the project quality and safety standards, this causes an voltage drop
team has a choice of several interventions. For increase in future operating costs for the electric
and/or losses,
example, one may choose to install voltage distribution service provider and its consumers.
regulation equipment such as capacitor banks or Project planners must find a balance between the changes in
voltage regulators to correct high voltage drop economics of construction on the one hand, and system design
levels. Perform this analysis for varying load sustainability considerations regarding operating are required.
conditions, in accordance with the project time costs and quality of service on the other.
horizon, to determine the year when voltage
regulation will be required. To correct the Construction costs relate directly to the standards
problem, the team could also shift the system employed during system design. Construction
from single to three-phase service, or increase standards allow for the optimization of construction
the conductor size. Analysts must consider costs. Standards also aid in facilitating system
various alternatives, and evaluate the associated reliability, service quality, and assuring reasonable
costs, to reconfigure the project to adequately service life of the infrastructure. Standards
meet load projections. often include material specifications and detail
inspection/acceptance procedures during the
This process eventually results in defining the final material reception process. The manufacturers
recommended system characteristics, including who comply with construction standards are
voltage levels, single versus three-phase service, generally widely known within the industry, as
size of the conductor, and the use of other system are those who fail to do so.
devices. By using load flow programs to model
the power lines and system, analysts can obtain Many national rural electrification programs have
information concerning the performance of the not yet adopted design and construction standards
electric lines, according to the project’s estimated specifically for rural electric systems. For this
demand. In addition, the programs enable the reason, standards developed in the United States
user to calculate the time frame requirements and Europe have been adopted and/or adapted by
for additional investment. countries with significant electrification programs.
The REA – now the RUS – offers vast experience
Generally, load flow programs present the results with design and construction standards. In
of the electric system analysis both graphically addition, REA standards include provisions for
and as a text report. The parameters presented both single and three-phase service. Therefore,
normally include the voltage drop level, electrical it may be preferable to use the REA standards as
a starting point when developing standards for a to the voltage level (15, 25, 35kV) for the primary
new rural electrification program. lines, as well as for the secondary lines (110V,
220V, 380V, 440V), since several items differ
Materials, Constructive Units, and Labor by voltage level.
Database
The database should also store a unit cost
To determine project cost, it is necessary to variable for construction units of each kind
create a database of the construction costs for of project material. Additionally, the database
the primary and secondary voltage lines. This should include the cost of labor, based either
database should include data on the cost of on previous construction projects or on current
materials, from which analysts can calculate quotes. Although project designers often employ
costs per construction unit. Base a project’s previously complied material database quantities
materials database on historic costs of projects and costs, it is important to update the unit prices
already executed, as well as current quotes for to account for price increases since the database
similar materials. Combining these resources was originally developed.
helps determine the cost of the primary and
low-voltage lines. Enable the database to store Projects are composed of line segments that serve
unit prices, as well as the required quantities specific geographic service areas. These line
of each unit, per item. The unit prices can vary segments are in turn composed of “structures”
according to the quantity purchased. Generally, – standard configurations of utility poles, cross-
the larger the quantity purchased, the lower the arms, and line hardware assembled to assure
price. The materials must be selected according structural integrity. REA standards, as adapted
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by NRECA for use in Latin America, specify In contrast to calculating the primary line costs,
standard construction units (structures) for each determine the cost of secondary lines by calculating
standard voltage level. the average length of secondary line per user,
sometimes including a connection cost. Then
The use of REA standard construction units present the costs in the form of an average cost
allows engineers to define the number of per connected user. The procedure to determine
distinct structures, then tabulate and group each the cost of low-voltage lines is the same as the
structure with its corresponding set of hardware one described above for primary lines.
components, cross arm characteristics, and pole
type. By developing a matrix of the structures Staking Costs Database
and their components, together with unit costs
for each component item, analysts can calculate Analysts must estimate the cost associated with
the total line segment and project cost. distribution line design as an integral part of the
project budget. The costs database must include
Module 7 contains an example of a database for a the staking cost per kilometer of primary line or
common construction unit: the ZA1. The database per feeder and the staking cost per user for the
combines the description of the component, low-voltage distribution grid. See Module 7 for
quantity of components per construction unit, unit more information.
cost of the component, total cost of the component,
and the total cost of the construction unit. At this point, all necessary cost data have been
gathered and calculated, and the analyst can
The costs database for an electric distribution grid now estimate the total project cost. Table 10
must include all proposed construction units for demonstrates an example of an estimate for a
building not only the primary and secondary lines, project’s total costs.
but also the transformer banks. To add a further
level of sophistication, add a “type of terrain”
column to the database to create a distinction ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE
between line construction on level or rugged
PROJECT
terrain. This way, project planners can adjust unit
costs for different segments of the project and The many and multiplicative benefits of a
model final cost estimates with more precision. project are sometimes difficult to quantify in
In addition, this creates a tool for the field analyst real terms. Yet economic development requires
to apply an appropriate cost per unit based upon the implementation sustainable electrification
that unit’s surroundings and location. projects.3 Therefore, it is important to perform
an economic benefit analysis, evaluating several
It is quite useful to establish an historical cost well-defined categorized benefits including,
database, containing data on material costs, educational benefits, health benefits, entertainment
construction units, and staking costs, as a and communication value added, quality of life
reference for future projects. Naturally, one must improvements, security benefits, and increases
update this database before using it in subsequent in productivity. While the economic value of
projects. However, by storing historical cost each categorized benefit can be estimated, the
data for each endeavor, the analyst will find that methodology to estimate these values varies with
updating stored cost data takes less time and the category of the benefit. A detailed explanation
effort than starting anew. of the methodology for estimating the economic
3
Douglas Barnes, The Challenge of Rural Electrification: Strategies
A database for construction units per kilometer for Developing Countries. (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the
of feeder can be found in Module 7. Future, 2007).
Molle Molle (Sucre) 4.2 52 7 1,560 $5,731.6 $16,352.7 $20,012.7 $1,262.9 $43,359.9 $833.8
Molle Molle
1.4 130 17 3,900 $11,158.8 $5,557.5 $50,031.8 $2,002.4 $68,750.5 $528.9
(Potosi)
Sorojchi 2.2 107 14 3,210 $9,527.6 $8,396.7 $41,180.0 $1,773.1 $60,877.4 $569.0
Sorocoto 3.2 104 13 3,120 $9,661.7 $12,632.1 $40,025.4 $1,869.6 $64,188.8 $617.2
25.8 805 106 24,150 $75,038.0 $100,593.0 $309,812.0 $14,563.0 $500,006.0 $621.0
Analysts benefits of electrification projects can be found service provider for the electric connection,
measure in Module 6: Consumer Willingness to Pay and as well as for the purchase and consumption
Economic Benefit Analysis of Rural Electrification of energy. Project costs include payments for
financial
Projects. long-term debt, the cost of purchased power,
viability by and management/labor expenses associated with
evaluating operating and administering utility operations.
one of several FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
Financial analysis normally proceeds by
investment
This section describes the financial analysis developing and employing a fi nancial model,
recovery methodology used for rural electrification projects. commonly via a spreadsheet. The time horizon
indicators, Financial analysis is the process of evaluating the used to model rural electrification projects is
such as return revenues and costs associated with offering electric usually 20 years, roughly equivalent to the
on equity service. It evaluates overall project viability from expected life of the electric distribution system.
the point of view of the investment value of the This aspect of time is important since rural
(ROE), internal
project. Whereas economic analysis, described in electrification projects take several years to
rate of return the previous section, evaluates the non-monetary reach maturity, when consumer connections
(IRR), or the benefits to the community, fi nancial analysis have reached the saturation point.
net present measures the financial costs and benefits to the
value (NPV) investor and/or to the project itself. Financial The objective of financial analysis is evaluating
analysis considers the investment cost of the project viability, measured against investor
of project net
electric system infrastructure, as well as the expectations. Analysts measure financial viability
revenues. operating cost of the project and the revenues by evaluating one of several investment recovery
derived from tariffs on electric sales. indicators, such as return on equity (ROE), internal
rate of return (IRR), or the net present value (NPV)
Using financial analysis, the project team can of project net revenues. The investment institution
evaluate the stream of revenues and costs over the that may finance the project then evaluates these
life of the rural electrification project. Revenues indicators against their required “hurdle rates.” If
consist of consumer payments made to the electric the project financial performance equals or is greater
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than the hurdle rate, investors consider the project energy consumption and demand growth, so
viable. If the investment indicator does not meet the the analyst can evaluate revenues and energy
hurdle rate, investors consider the project non-viable. costs for each year of operation. Additional input
However, assistance for non-viable investments may requirements for the financial model include the
be available through capital subsidies. number of customers for each consumer category,
the population growth rate, the total number of
Most rural electrification projects require some customers, and the average monthly consumption
level of subsidy to reach viability. Subsidies are for electricity by consumer category.
assigned against investment costs (not to cover
operating costs). Development experts usually The cost of purchased power is usually in the
consider subsidies justifiable when the economic range of 60-70% of the total operating cost
When the project
benefits of a project is greater than the subsidy of an electric utility. Evaluating the energy
requested consumption by year, and the total cost associated envisions forming
with power purchased is therefore crucial. a new electric
Financial Analysis Data Requirements Similarly, the tariff paid by consumers to the cooperative
rural electric service provider, and the amount or utility, the
The information required to perform a financial of energy sold to them, represent the primary
development
analysis includes investment costs, market data, source of revenue for the rural electric service
and operational costs. This section explains provider. If the rural electrification project of a synthetic
and provides comments on each source of requires distributed (or isolated) generation, (conceptual)
information. then the model must also evaluate the cost of distribution
energy generated, including all costs (fuel, utility can enable
Investment Costs plant maintenance, spares, lubricants, labor,
the estimation of
etc.) associated with the remote power station.
The investment costs include all costs required The cost should also include the depreciation the operational
to build and fi nance the electric system during allowance and long-term debt service required costs.
construction. These costs include the purchase to finance the remote power plant, in addition
of land and other infrastructure (such as offices, to other operating costs.
substations, right of ways or easement access);
the design cost of the electric system; the Operational Costs
cost of materials, such as poles, conductors,
transformers, etc.; labor costs for construction; The operational costs include the total costs
and the cost of the electric generation plant and related to the administration and operation of
transmission system, if applicable. These costs the electric system. These costs include the
should also include a contingency allowance; purchase of energy, customer service costs, fixed
costs related to vehicles and tools; an estimate costs, operation and maintenance variable costs,
for the amount working capital required; and administrative and general expenses, and the
other initial costs associated with electric system costs for other external services. In addition,
start-up. other operational cost items include the estimated
taxes, invoice collection efficiency, insurance,
Market Data and other expenses.
To perform project financial analysis, the When the project envisions forming a new
analyst requires the market data collected and electric cooperative or utility, the development
analyzed during the demand analysis. The of a synthetic (conceptual) distribution utility can
market data consist of the projection of consumer enable the estimation of the operational costs. To
connections (by year of the project) and the evaluate synthetic utility costs, create a list of
Module 8: Financial Analysis of Rural Electrification Finally, net earnings take into account all the
Projects, presents a financial analysis model project’s expenses, including taxes.
designed specifically to evaluate rural electrification
projects. The following sections summarize some Net Income Flow Analysis
of the information presented in more detail in
Module 8. The statement of net income flow represents the
results of the projected revenues and expenditures,
Statement of Earnings and Expenses including collections, cost of operation, costs
associated with the investment in infrastructure
The balance sheet, which also evaluates earnings (payment of interest and capital), and taxes. As
and expenses, presents several indicators related mentioned in the previous section, EBIT is the
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sum of all revenues and costs not associated with the project is feasible. If it is negative, then the
the payment of interest and taxes. Therefore, the project is not feasible.
net income flow analysis requires calculation of
EBIT and evaluation of the interest and taxes, if Several factors can influence the results of the
they are applicable to the project. fi nancial analysis, including the interest rate,
electricity tariffs, and the project cost structure.
This analysis applies the calculation to obtain net The analyst must strive to employ realistic and
earnings for each year of the project implementation defensible data within the financial projections.
period. Since earnings and costs fluctuate with If analysis results indicate a non-viable project,
the purchase and sale of electricity and with the then the elements contributing to non-viability
fluctuation of consumers over each project year, should be evaluated in greater detail. However, Annual net
to the analyst must model the project for each year analysts adjust project elements to improve project
of the project implementation period. financial performance with great care and never
income
without adequate justification. indicates
Net earnings include all associated costs and the project’s
take into account any subsidy applied to the The financial analysis process demands that the financial
project investment cost. This is the most important analysts identify the project risks. Any project
performance
indicator for performing financial analysis on has inherent risks, and the best way to mitigate
a given project. The net earnings figure shows those risks is by identifying and evaluating them for every
the net amount available after all revenues and as objectively as possible. accounting
costs have been accounted for, including any term of the
subsidies that may be applied to long-term debt Financial analysis must consider the inherent project,
obligations. uncertainty of the data. Adjusting inputs across
applying
a specified bandwidth allows for an evaluation
of how a specified range of assumptions will all tariffs,
Evaluating the Feasibility of the Project
affect project outcomes. The analyst can define operational
Project analysts commonly evaluate fi nancial and analyze a worst case (high costs, low sales) costs, and the
feasibility by analyzing the project’s annual and a best case (low costs, high sales) to see the
capital costs
net income. Annual net income indicates effects on viability. The best case and worst case
the project’s fi nancial performance for every define the extreme for project possibilities, and
of the project.
accounting term of the project, applying all they surround the more probable scenario, known
tariffs, operational costs, and the capital costs as the base case. This type of analysis, called
of the project. Analysts must evaluate net bandwidth analysis, is a way of evaluating the
revenues provided for each project year using weakness or robustness of the financial scenario
a discounting technique to evaluate the net that is presented within the business plan or to
present value of the investment. However, this donor and funding entities.
requires that the discounted revenues be reduced
using a discounting value. The value used to Normally, the final financial scenario is primarily
discount a net revenue stream is the weighted presented as the result of the financial analysis.
average cost of capital of the enterprise – the However, it is useful to include a description of
weighted average of the interest on long-term the minimum and maximum financial cases as
debt and the estimated rate of return on equity. well.
Many investors set the investment hurdle rate at
the weighted average cost of capital. Evaluating In addition to bandwidth analysis, consider also
the average cost of capital leads to calculation conducting a sensitivity analysis, which can
of the net present value (NPV) of the annual aid in evaluating the risks related to project
net revenue stream. If the NPV is positive, then implementation. Most commonly, sensitivity
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to the electric distribution system over the total 3. Evaluation of the projected energy consumption
number of potential connections and power demand over the life of the
project
Population coverage – Percentage of the area’s
total population served by year end 4. Analysis of the engineering characteristics
of the project, including an evaluation of
Financial Indicators
the substations and primary distribution line
design
The following indicators are commonly used to
evaluate investment viability. All values evaluate 5. Economic evaluation of project costs and
discounted net revenues or some derivative of net benefits
revenues, as indicated below.
6. Final evaluation of project f inancial
Debt service coverage ratio – Ratio of net viability
revenue to debt service (interest on long term
debt and principle payments) The sections below summarize the steps required
for each of these six studies.
Additional working capital requirement –
Amount of additional working capital needed
to cover projected operating deficits Project Identification
The steps required to complete the process of
Internal Rate of Return on Equity (IRR) – project identification and definition include the
Standard measure of project financial viability following:
reflective of the average annualized rate of
return on equity generated by the project Define the scope of the project. Take into account
local geography, topography, housing cluster
density, and specific energy consumption, among
CONCLUSIONS other factors.
This module provides an overview of the process 1. Determine the population served by the project,
of defining, designing, and analyzing rural by utilizing census data or conducting a
electrification projects. While other modules in demographic survey of the project area.
this series provide more in-depth descriptions of
each individual process, this module integrates 2. Identify potential energy supply sources and
each individual step into a consistent whole, select the most cost-effective and reliable
describing how each step fits into the project resource.
development process.
3. Estimate the project cost by developing a
This final section on the project feasibility process preliminary project map, estimating line
summarizes the steps required for each phase of length and path and the approximate number
feasibility analysis. Feasibility studies include of consumers using unit cost estimates for
six components: distribution system construction.
1. Design and conduct a community survey. Its 5. Calculate losses based upon historic loss levels,
purpose is to profile economic and demographic coupled with loss reduction measures. For new
characteristics of the community as a whole. infrastructure projects, loss levels should not
Electric system exceed 8% for urban systems or 12% for rural
design also 2. Design energy use surveys for both residential distribution systems.
contributes and commercial energy use within the surveyed
population. Assure that all forms of energy 6. Estimate total energy consumption by adding
greatly to
are included in the survey, including electric the estimated consumption for each consumer
infrastructure and non-electric energy supplies. category, public lighting consumption, and
cost. losses.
3. Determine the sample size of the surveyed
population for residential and other consumer 7. Finally, determine the power demand projection,
categories. in kW, for each year of the analysis.
4. Evaluate willingness to pay for electric service, Engineering Design & Analysis
making certain to survey for specific energy uses.
The most frequently measured consumption The design of the distribution system is a critical
type is illumination, due to its importance in factor affecting overall sustainability, and project
residential energy consumption. financial viability. Electric system design also
contributes greatly to infrastructure cost.
Demand Analysis and Projection Therefore the project team must ensure that the
design process includes engineering discipline
Evaluating the market for electric service is and takes into consideration the long-term safety
a fundamental task. Analysts must undertake and security of consumers and utility staff.
this task with a comprehensive scope and with a
sufficient degree of accuracy to ensure relevant The following are the required steps to assure
results. Demand analysis and project require the proper engineering design and analyses:
following steps:
1. Establish design standards. If standards have
1. Evaluate the number of potential consumers not already been adopted by a the utility
through a survey or census. Classify consumers or a national standards committee, project
into customer categories such as residential, management should adopt a standard based
commercial, industrial, and other categories. upon internationally recognized best practices
for design purposes.
2. Estimate the likely penetration rate of
consumers by category who are expected to 2. Define final line routing. For ease of conversion
connect in the first and subsequent years. to an engineering model, georeference the
intended path of the electric distribution system
3. Determine the growth of consumers and growth with global positioning system receivers
in energy consumption for each project year. whenever possible. This process creates a
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geographic information system with which of light to the service that will be provided via a
to manage these data. new electric grid. The steps required to evaluate
the economic benefits of rural electrification
3. Convert the electric distribution system map to projects therefore include:
an engineering model. The engineering model
should define the locations of distribution lines 1. Design and conduct an energy survey in the
(with line lengths and impedances assigned), project area. The energy survey should include
substation locations, distribution transformer an evaluation of traditional energy sources, the
locations (with load assigned to each transformer economic activities that these energy sources
or line segment), and other line devices. serve, the level of energy consumption, and
energy cost.
4. Evaluate load flows and voltage drop in the
engineering model. This exercise adjusts 2. For each energy use (and corresponding
the distribution system characteristics to economic activity), evaluate the comparative
maintain projected voltage levels within design cost of the traditional source of energy per
parameters. Voltage should not drop more unit of consumption. Perform a comparative
than 5% of nominal during any project year. If analysis of the traditional energy source to the
voltage drops exceed the maximum allowable cost of serving the same economic activity
values, the distribution system characteristics with electricity from the rural electrification
(conductor size, number of circuits, or project.
configuration) may require adjustment to assure
that power quality is not compromised. 3. To the extent possible, and based on available
data, determine the economic value of the
5. After evaluating the system design and project by summarizing benefits from each
deeming it adequate, use the final design energy type (with corresponding economic
characteristics to estimate total system cost. activity) for each consumer categor y
The adjusted system cost should be used as the (residential benefits, commercial benefits,
basis for the financial viability analysis. and industrial benefits).
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Calculating Consumer Willingness to Pay for
Electric Service and Economic Benefits of
Electrification Projects
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Economic benefit: the increased benefit that question. For an electrification project, this
a beneficiary could receive from a proposed refers to a situation where electric service
project compared to his or her present situation. has limited hours or is subject to frequent and
In the case of an electrification project, this prolonged blackouts, requiring consumers to
represents consumers’ monetary benefit resort to alternative energy sources for lighting
accruing to from the use of electricity when and other household energy applications. In
compared with their use of current energy such instances, the cost of alternative resources
alternatives. of energy and the cost of electricity (if the
individual already receives some type of electric
Alternative sources of energy: candles, service) are included in the WtP calculation.
kerosene, dry cell and car batteries, and other
fuels and materials used as sources of energy Purpose
for lighting and appliances in the absence of
reliable electric service. Note: This module This module contributes to a more objective
does not quantify certain common energy classification of electrification projects, so as to
resources, such as biomass for cooking, for optimize the investment of development funds.
which electricity is not a direct substitute. More specifically, it provides a comprehensive
guide on how to estimate consumer willingness
Demographic study: the study of the project’s to pay for electric service and the economic
target population to identify and determine benefits of electrification projects. Its principles
distinct characteristics that would affect project complement and supplement the other tasks
feasibility. involved in rural electrification project analysis,
including demand assessments, engineering
Demand study: in the context of an design, and fi nancial analysis. The combined
electrification project, this study determines results of these different analyses determine the
the demand for the electric service that will feasibility of the project.
exist in terms of number of users, amount of
energy consumption, and power required. The The content of this module will help the
aforementioned study includes an estimate of practitioner conduct an energy use survey,
the initial demand, as well as projections for calculate consumer willingness to pay for electric
future demand. service, estimate the economic benefits of an
electrification project, and present the results.
Willingness to pay: the maximum amount that Incldued are brief explanations and guidance
a person indicates that he or she is willing to on the following 17 steps:
pay for a good or service.
1. Identify the information needed.
Expressed willingness to pay: the maximum
amount that a person expresses that he or she 2. Define the variables.
is willing to pay for electric service, typically
registered in monetary units/month, in response 3. Formulate the necessary questions for the
to a specific question. survey.
Revealed willingness to pay: the maximum 4. Design and test the instrument.
amount that a person indicates that he or she is
willing to pay for a product or service through 5. Design the database.
their actual expenditures on alternatives or
substitutes for the actual good or service in 6. Define the target population.
This module was designed for use in developing Economists defi ne “effective demand” as the
countries. The concepts, terms, and methodology demand for goods and services that are backed
of this module are broadly applicable. Our by the resources to pay for it. Consumer
wish is that it may be useful for experienced “effective demand” or willingness to pay (WtP) is
economists, as well as for those new to the use of determined through data acquisition and analysis
willingness to pay and economic benefit analysis from consumers in the proposed project area.
for electrification projects. Using interviews conducted in the field, analysts
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determine, in the most reliable way possible, the expenditures on energy sources, reflected in the
actual expenditures for existing energy sources, Revealed WtP.
and other aspects of their economy that indicate
the availability of resources to pay for the electric Economic Benefits
service. For an electrification project, data are
collected from surveys and other reliable sources Multiple benefits result from the electrification
of information to determine, through empirical of a community. NRECA’s analysis of lighting
and quantifiable analysis, what a target population cost and output across a variety of countries has
is willing to pay for the electric service. unequivocally demonstrated that the provision of
light via an electrical source provides exponentially
For example, researchers ask the interviewees greater lighting value at a fraction of the cost of
what they currently pay for alternative sources traditional fuels and lighting appliances, such as
of energy like kerosene, candles, batteries, or for kerosene lamps or candles. In addition to the visible
electricity in the case of communities already and instantly recognizable benefits associated
receiving some sort of electric service. This is with cheaper and more efficient lighting, other
known as “Revealed WtP” because it reveals benefits relate to education, health, entertainment
what the consumer is actually paying for a good and communication, comfort and protection,
or service. convenience, the environment, and productivity.
Researchers can also describe to the consumer While empirical analysis has identified and
a hypothetical electric service and then ask for quantified some of these benefits, 2 many of
the maximum amount they consumer would be the benefits resulting from electrification are
willing to pay for such service. This methodology difficult and costly to quantify. Thus, not all of
is known as “contingent valuation” because it the benefits figure into the analysis described in
implies the creation of a realistic scenario in this module. Although the methodology presented
which the interviewer offers the consumer a here is practical and sufficient to analyze and
reliable electric service at a rational rate which classify electrification projects, by no means
is also feasible for the project. The method yields does it capture all of the ancillary benefits of an
what is known as “Expressed WtP” because it electrification project. The NRECA economic
reflects what the consumer expresses that he benefit methodology is conservative in nature, and
or she is willing to pay. This methodology can we acknowledge that the total project economic
be very subjective and unreliable because the benefit may be much greater than the more narrow
potential beneficiaries may not know enough benefits quantified through this process.
about the service and its benefits to be able to
offer a realistic response, or they may offer a high This module describes how to estimate the
but unrealistic figure in the hopes that it might economic benefit derived through changing from
increase the potential for electric service. using alternative sources of energy to the use of
grid-based electricity. Regardless of the source
NRECA uses both methodologies to determine of generation, distributed electricity delivers a
the consumer’s WtP. However, the Revealed much greater energy value per unit at a lower price
WtP results provide preferable input for the than any traditional energy source. (The units are
project fi nancial analysis because they reflect the lumen for light or kWh for appliances.) This
the consumer’s actual expenditures on existing methodology quantifies the economic benefits the
energy sources. The Expressed WtP is subjective,
reflecting a consumer’s perception of the value of
2
the electric service. Nevertheless, it is useful as See “Rural Electrification and Development in the Philippines:
Measuring the Social and Economic Benefits”, ESMAP Report 255/02,
a basis for comparison with consumers’ actual May 2002.
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lumens, while a gas lamp has a range of 300-700 lamp to a lamp using a traditional fuel, such as
lumens.3 The cost associated with lighting is kerosene. It demonstrates the economic benefit
expressed in cost per kilolumen-hours ($/klmh). accrued to the consumer who makes the transition
After completing the cost analysis, the analyst from a traditional fuel and lighting source to
can organize the cost data for easy comparison electricity. The consumer pays a lower price,
between the cost of electrical lighting and the and receives more light at the lower price. The
cost of light generated by alternative lighting/ accrued economic benefit is called a consumer
energy sources. Thus, it becomes possible to surplus. In Figure 1, it equals the area above the
evaluate the financial or economic benefits for the corresponding horizontal price line and below the
two distinct alternatives in graphical form. The demand curve. The consumer surplus represents
variables evaluated in this process include: the economic value received by the consumer
through electrification at no additional cost.
The price of light produced (US$/klmh)
The monthly cost for alternative energy sources
The quantity of light produced for this priceper is represented by the rectangle (Pa * Qa). For an
month (klmh/month) electrification project, the cost of electricity per
month appears in the rectangle (Pe * Qe).
The price of light produced by using an electric
lamp (US$/klmh) The data presented in the graph illustrate that
electricity offers the consumer a more efficient
The electricity consumption associated with lighting source, with a greater return, and at a
use of electricity for lighting purposes much lower price, when compared to alternative
energy sources. The surplus or benefit to the
Next, to the analyst graphs these values. Figure consumer is represented by the sum of the
1 illustrates a simple comparison of an electric triangle
3
See Table A3.1 in Robert van der Plas and A.B. de Graaff, A Comparison
of Lamps for Domestic Lighting in Developing Countries, (Washington,
((Qe-Qa)*1/2(Pa-Pe)) and the rectangle (Qa*(Pa-
D.C., World Bank Industry and Energy Dept.: 1988). Pe)).
40
Cost of Traditional
35 Energy Sources
30 Pa
Cost per Month for Electricity and
Benefit to the
Traditional Energy Sources
Consumer
25
20 Pe
15
Cost of
Electricity
10
0 Qa Qe
0 20 40 60 80 100
Kilolumen hrs/month
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energy consumption used for all household lighting energy uses (including radios, televisions,
electrical appliances. However, this is neither irons, fans, etc.) in similar communities that are
simple nor straightforward, as each household already electrified by the actual cost of power
often uses various types and brands of electrical in US dollars per kWh. This formula appears
appliances that consume energy from different in Equation 3.
sources. This can result in an enormous amount of
information that requires great effort to compile, This way of calculating the benefit of additional
digitize, organize, and analyze. One way to kWh consumption for other uses in non-electrified
reduce some of the required effort is to record areas hinges on the assumption that if every An alternative
all the household electrical appliances and hours individual is willing to pay for the electric methodology
of use per day, and estimate average power service, then it is justified to assign a value at
for calculating
and/or consumption by appliance, rather than least equivalent to that of the prevailing retail
determining the actual energy specifications residential electric rate. While this methodology the economic
of each appliance and requesting specific does not necessarily capture the total economic benefit of
information on its use within the household. benefit for non-lighting energy uses, it is still used energy use
The most precise way would be to write down as an easy and conservative way to determine at for electrical
the power of all the appliances, but such data least part of the benefit.
appliances
are not always available. Instead, analysts can
use an average of power for each device based For instance, if the total consumption of an utilizes
on homologated charts. average rural household is 50kWh/month and 20 recorded data
kWh are used for lighting, the economic benefit on electricity
This methodology is easier to apply in areas of the additional 30 kWh used for appliances
consumption
where consumers use only a few household is estimated by multiplying 30 kWh times the
electrical appliances. In Bolivia, NRECA’s team residential retail electric rate. If the rate is US$
for non-
used this methodology for the economic benefit 0.10/kWh, then the benefit of the additional kWh lighting
analysis of communities in Potosí (the Tomoyo is US$ 3/month. purposes
project) because the only electric device in in similar
frequent use was the radio, whose energy came In non-electrified areas where residents frequently
communities
from dry cell batteries. Not much time was use a variety of household electrical appliances
required to calculate the average consumption and energy sources, the project managers must that are
and expenditures from one device and for only make an informed decision concerning the use already
one energy source. Using the formula indicated of the two methodologies described above. They electrified.
in Equation 2, we were able to calculate the must carefully take into account the circumstances
economic benefit of US$11.50/month for other of the region, the time and resources available,
energy uses for the Tomoyo project. and the precision of the data needed to make
further decisions.
Methodology Using Data on Energy Use and
Consumption in Similar Areas Equation 3. Alternative formula to
calculate the economic benefit of other
An alternative methodology for calculating the energy uses
economic benefit of energy use for electrical
appliances utilizes recorded data on electricity D = Pe* Qe
consumption for non-lighting purposes in similar
Where:
communities that are already electrified. Instead of
Pe = Price of Electricity (US$/kWh)
recording actual consumption and cost of energy
sources for non-lighting appliances, analysts Qe = Consumption of Electricity for Other Uses
(kWh/month)
simply multiply the kWh consumed for all non-
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Bolivia. The proposed project was located in would pose similar questions for consumption of
Tomoyo, which borders the departments of and expenditures on traditional energy sources
Chuquisaca and Potosí, respectively, and which for appliances, including dry cell batteries or car
is north of the city of Sucre. The Tomoyo batteries to power radios and small televisions,
project would extend the existing electricity kerosene or propane gas for refrigeration, as well
grid from the town of Potolo up to Llajtapata, as diesel for water pumps, small portable power
resulting in electricity access for six communities generators, and other internal combustion engines
with approximately 600 potential consumers. and equipment used for household or business
NRECA conducted interviews in each of the purposes. The data on current expenditures for
six communities located along the main project traditional energy sources used for lighting and
route, including Molle Molle 1, Molle Molle 2, appliances serve as an acceptable estimate of what
Sorojchi, Yoroca, Tomoyo, and Llajtapata. Maps that household could pay for electric service.
highlighting the Tomoyo project are presented
in Module 5. In addition to questions on consumer expenditures
on traditional energy sources, it is useful to ask
Researchers also conducted various field questions that might provide supporting evidence
survey interviews with consumers in the town regarding whether the target population has enough
of Potolo, which already had electric service. income to pay for electric services. This could
Analysts used this information as a basis for include questions regarding expenditures on other
comparing information on energy consumption goods, such as housing, food, transportation,
and expenditures in the six communities that education, health, and telecommunications, such as
encompassed the project. cell phones. Data on expenditures for these types
of goods and services could also provide useful
In a southwestern area of the Dominican Republic, indicators of how much the consumer or household
NRECA conducted a consumer willingess to would be willing to pay for electric service.
pay study and an economic benefit analysis
of a proposed rural electric cooperative and After completing a list of data requirements
electrification project. The proposed project needed to determine consumer WtP, one can then
included the communities of Las Matas de Farfán, focus on the data requirements of an economic
Comendador, El Cercado, Hondovalle, Matayaya, benefit analysis. Based on Equation 1, the data
El Llano, Bánica, and Pedro Santana—collectively required to calculate the consumer and project
referred to as the Cooperative Electrica Fronteriza economic benefit would include the electricity
(Fronteriza Electric Cooperative or CEF). tariff, along with the cost and consumption of
traditional energy sources. Two methods provide
Identifying the Necessary Information for estimation of the electricity tariff. First is the
and Questions use of a proxy tariff in an adjoining electrified
village. Second is estimating consumer penetration
Since consumer WtP greatly affects the based on consumer WtP and calculating a cost of
determination of project feasibility, it is important service tariff that would provide sufficient revenue
to verify its results using several tools. For the to cover the utility’s operating and maintenance
Revealed WtP, this includes gathering data costs.
concerning all current expenditures for energy
sources that would no longer be purchased once As previously explained, the four main variables
the population has reliable electric service. For used to calculate the project economic benefit
example, the survey would ask how much the (for lighting) are:
household spends on candles, dry cell batteries,
kerosene, and other liquid fuels for lighting. It Pe = Price for electricity (US$/klmh)
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With field experience, the practitioner will come Q4071ST = Question 407 the first offer in the
to realize that candles of different sizes are used expressed WtP auction
in most rural areas of developing countries, so
the questionnaire must be adapted to include all Q4072ND = Question 407 the second (last) offer
sizes. On the other hand, not all rural households in the expressed WtP auction
use candles. The researcher can therefore save
time by asking one question at the beginning of To determine revealed WtP, one would add up all
the section on lighting, for example: Do you use of the expenditures for all the alternative energy
candles for lighting? If the interviewee provides sources used for lighting and appliances for
a negative response, then you can skip to the which electricity would immediately subsititute.
next series of questions. A similar interrogatory As previously mentioned, we can assign names
After
framework applies for other traditional lighting for the specific variables with letters taken from
fuels, such as kerosene for lamps. their names as follows: identifying
the specific
After identifying the specific information required SCQT = Small candles, quantity/month information
for project analysis, it is possible to define the required
variables, formulate the questionnaire, and then SCP = Small candles, price
for project
design the database to store and analyze the data
to be collected. SCCM= Small candles, cost/month analysis, it is
= SCQT * SCP possible to
One way to define questionnaire data variables define the
Alternatively, the variables can follow the sequence
for the corresponding database is by assigning variables,
of the questions on the survey instrument. For
acronyms from the words that describe the
the CEF project, the question concerning small formulate the
variables, such as:
candles was No. 201. The designation for such questionnaire,
variables in the CEF database was:
EWTP = Expressed Willingness to pay for and then
electric service design the
Q201SC = Question 201 Small candles,
quantity/month database to
RWTP = Revealed Willingness to pay for
electric service store and
Q201SC1 = Question 201 Small candles, price
analyze the
Alternatively, one can assign names to variables Q201SC2 = Question 201 Small candles, cost/ data to be
according to the corresponding number on the month = Q201SC * Q201SC1 collected.
questionnaire. For example, in the questionnaire
for the CEF project, question 407 of the survey In addition to the data requirements, it is also often
instrument related to expressed willingness to important to obtain more subjective information by
pay. This question was posed in the form of asking simple questions concerning the opinions
a bidding process, in which the interviewee held by the population. Examples include:
would make a first offer and then the researcherr
would raise the monthly cost up to a point at System technology. What opinion do you have
which the interviewee would no longer be concerning electric meters? Do you trust that
willing to pay more for electric service. The the meters are accurate?
fi nal bid was then converted into U.S. dollars
according to the prevailing exchange rate on Stakeholders and counterparts. Who are the
the date of the survey. The variables used in most respected leaders in your community,
the CEF database for these two questions were and who can be counted on to assist us in
the following: executing the project?
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electricity, record consumer opinions on their thoroughly and made adjustments to incorporate
current electric service and their perception of local terminology, the Bolivian currency, and
the quality of that service. In some systems, other corresponding variables. Among other
the consumer has a meter that bases their changes, they eliminated turpentine as a lamp fuel
monthly bill on actual consumption. In other because it is not used in Bolivia, and substituted
cases, the consumers do not have a meter, “wick” for the term “wick lamp.”
or the meter is broken, and they pay a fixed
amount measured by “point loads” within the Once the questionnaire is complete, it should
house, which normally are light bulbs or plugs. be field tested. Although this could include trial
Another important aspect of the analysis of field surveys in the project area, location is not
electricity consumption is its use within the critical in evaluating the instrument itself. No
The draft
home. Normally a home has several light bulbs matter where it is tested, the draft questionnaire
for lighting, and depending upon the socio- must be vetted to determine whether the questions
questionnaire
economic level of the family, there might also that are posed are understood by interviewees, must be vetted
be daily-use household electrical appliances, and to make sure it includes all the forms of to determine
such as fans, irons, or a television set. energy that are used by the target population. whether the
The project team leader and staff should evaluate
questions that
Income and expenses. Data on the consumer’s the questionnaire and make revisions based on
income and household expenditures allows the information learned in the initial field trial before are posed are
project team to calculate monthly household using it as part of a formal survey. understood by
energy expenditures as a percentage of total interviewees,
monthly expenditures. In the majority of the Designing the Database and to make
rural areas where electrification projects take
sure it includes
place, consumers maintain a fragile economic Once the revisions of the survey questionnaire are
equilibrium that mostly depends on the harvest complete, it can serve as the basis for the design all the forms
and sale of their agricultural products. Many try of the electronic database that will compile the of energy
to supplement their agricultural income with information recorded in the field survey. Carefully that are used
other types of work, such as manual labor, or they considering the information processing methods
by the target
receive income from family members that have employed during the data entry phase contributes to
steady jobs in a town, city, or foreign country. the logical and simple organization of the database.
population.
Modifications to the design of the database based
Participation and disposition toward community on changes to the questionnaire implemented while
organizations. For electrification project planners the field survey is in progress are permissible. For
contemplating some form of community-based greatest efficiency, finalize the initial design prior to
or cooperative framework, it is useful to analyze the commencement of field surveys, so as to speed
and verify the presence of existing community up the process of transferring the questionnaire
organizations/cooperatives in the community, information to the database.
the level of participation of the consumers
in these organizations, and their disposition If the person designing the database has enough
towards these organizations as providers of experience in database design, then he or she may
the service. proceed with the design. If not, the project team
must hire external experts for the task. NRECA
In the case of the Tomoyo project, the demographic has used both options.
group leader designed the questionnaire using
an examplar questionnaire that NRECA had There are several types of software available for
formulated for other similar studies in Latin data management and reporting, and, in some
America. The team went over the questionnaire cases, analysis. A common database program
Figure 2. Relationship among the target population, sample frame, and the sample
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the proposed cooperative concession area that was were conducted in eight different locations that
used as the sample frame for the CEF project. represented a broad sample of socioeconomic
conditions within the surveyed area. The black
Figure 3 illustrates the extension of the proposed points shown in Figure 4 indicate the communities
electrification lines of the CEF project. The project where household surveys were conducted.
included locations in eight municipalities west
of San Juan de la Maguana, from Pedro Corto in Determining the Size of the Sample
the east, up to the border with Haiti in the west,
and from Pedro Santana in the north to Batista The next step in the design of the survey consists
in the south. in determining the size of the sample. The analyst
must specify three key criteria to select an adequate The target
A GIS was used to prepare the maps that are sample size: the level of precision, the level of
population for
presented in this section. The target population reliability, and the degree of variability.
can be subdivided using the GIS according to the survey is
the criteria considered necessary or practical Level of Precision generally the
for the survey. For an electricfication project in population
northwestern Uganda, the city of Arua was divided The level of precision, also called sample error
of the
into seven specific zones, which encompassed or interval of reliability, is frequently expressed
areas with and without access to electricity, as in percentage points. If a survey shows that 62% electrification
well as a wide range of socioeconomic levels. The of the interviewees are in favor of a proposal, and project.
GIS helped subdivide area into the houses located the sample error was + or – 5%, then it could be
in the city center, houses located 300 meters or concluded that in the entire population of the
less from the distribution grid, and communities proposed area 57% to 67% of the population
more than 300 meters away from the grid. Surveys were in favor of the proposal.
The analyst
must specify
three key
criteria to
select an
adequate
sample size:
the level of
precision,
the level of
reliability, and
the degree of Level of Reliability population is more homogeneous, then the sample
variability. can be smaller. A proportion of 50% indicates
The level of reliability indicates the degree of maximum variability. Thus, if the actual degree
certainty of the results based on the principles of variability is unknown, a conservative value
from the Central Limit Theorem, which is the of 50% variability is used to determine the size
second fundamental theorem of probability. of the sample.
It states that the sum of a large number of
independent and identically-dist ributed Strategies to Determine the
random variables will be approximately Size of the Sample
normally distributed (i.e., following a Gaussian
distribution, or bell-shaped curve) if the random With smaller populations, such as less than
variables have a fi nite variance. Formally, a 100 houses, field workers should survey the
central limit theorem is any of a set of weak- entire target population. This is based upon two
convergence results in probability theory. In justifications. First, the main cost to conduct a
simple terms, a level of reliability of 95% means survey is not the marginal cost of conducting a few
that 95 out of 100 samples reflect the real value additional surveys. Rather, the main costs are those
of the population. associated with the design and preparation of the
questionnaire, transporting the enumerating team
Degree of Variability to the field, and the data processing and analysis.
Second, smaller populations require samples that
The degree of variability refers to the distribution include the majority of the population to obtain
of the population’s attributes. The greater the an acceptable level of precision. The formulas
variability, the larger the sample required. If the indicate that for a population of 100, a sample of
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80 is needed for a level of reliability of 95%, an With a level of precision of 6%, instead of 5%,
interval of reliability of + or – 5%, with a degree the size of the sample for an unlimited population
of variability of 50%. If the target population is of size is 267.
100 or less, we therefore recommend interviewing
everyone available. The cost of completing a In practice, NRECA has used a sample size of
few additional questionnaires is not significant, 300 for many surveys. A sample size of 300 is
and the additional questionnaires help ensure a applicable for a maximum population of 1,376
statistically valid analysis. people at a level of reliability of 95%, an interval
of reliability of 5%, and a maximum degree of
Another strategy to determine the sample size is variability of 50%. However, if an interval of
to use the sample size used for similar studies. reliability of 5.66% is used instead of 5%, then
This approach is valid as long as the conditions a sample of 300 can be used for an unlimited
are substantially similar and the previous study population size. If the interval of reliability is
was statistically valid. maintained at 5% for a population of 100,000
or more, then a sample of 384 to 400 is needed,
A third option is using published charts detailing
depending on the formula applied.
valid sample sizes. There are charts available that
have been prepared using formulas regarding
A sample size of 300 was determined for the CEF
valid samples sizes for various population sizes.
project. As mentioned above, for an unlimited
To use such charts correctly, the user must fully
population size, this results in a level of reliability
understand the predetermined parameters upon
of 95% with an interval of reliability of 5.66%
which the charts were prepared.
with a degree of variability of 50%. To obtain
at least 300 valid interviews, it is important to
Finally, several sample size-determining formulas
conduct at least 15-30 additional interviews
exist. Equation 3 shows one such formula.
beyond 300 to account for interview errors and
Equation 3. Formula to determine sample size of other potential data faults. The final number of
a large population of unknown total amount valid interviews processed for the CEF project
was 302.
ss = (Z^2*(p)*(1-p))/c^2
Selecting the Sample
Where: ss = sample size
The selection of the sample population is as
Z = Z value (for example: 1.96 for a level of
important as the selection of the final size of the
reliability of 95%)
sample. The following example illustrates this
point. Suppose we want to conduct a survey in a
p = percentage that selects a response, expressed
region of a country, and it has been determined
in decimals (.5 is the most conservative
that the size of the sample must be 300. If the
value)
field workers conduct all 300 interviews in the
c = interval of reliability, expressed in decimals richest area of the most prosperous city of the
(For example: .04 = ±4) region, then the results from the interview would
not be representative of the entire region, even if
For example, when conducting a survey for an 300 questionnaires were completed.
unknown population size with a level of reliability
of 95%, and a level of precision of ±5%, calculation Some Sampling Methods
of the size of the sample is as follows.
The methods for selecting a sample population so
ss = (1.96^2*(.5)*(1-.5))/.05^2 = 384 that it is scientifically representative of the target
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houses one by one to determine which should be candidates during the interview process, as well as
subject to an interview. For example, to conduct in any formal contract for services. In some cases,
25 interviews in a community that, according to the enumerators receive pay for each questionnaire
the census, contains 462 houses, first randomly completed, and in others, they may recieve a daily
select a number between 1 and 19. Hypothetically, rate for their work. An expert supervisor can
if the number 4 is selected then the enumerator determine which method is most convenient and
would start conducting interviews begining with suitable, given the circumstances.
the fourth house and would then count 19 houses
before knocking on the door to conduct another During the preliminary selection of enumerators,
interview. If the owners of the house are not there, include one or two individuals more than the
then the enumerator should simply proceed to amount estimated to be necessary to complete If you know
the next house. the work. The fi nal selection of enumerators
proceeds after observing how these individuals
or suspect the
Because the communities that formed part of the respond to the training and practice interview. existence of
Tomoyo project were very small, it was easy to It is always a good idea to maintain contact with subgroups with
select the sample. Each community was divided least two alternate enumerators in case one or very different
into different zones, and one member of the team more of the selected candidates is not able or
circumstances
conducted interviews in each zone. For example, willing to participate.
a community of 80 houses was divided into four or behaviors,
zones roughly equal in size. Within each zone, It is important to adjust the training of the then to preserve
two or three interviews were conducted, with the enumerators to the level of their previous statistically
houses in each zone selected at random. experience. Fully review the questionnaire in at representative
least one training session. During this session,
conclusions,
Selecting and Training Field Workers the supervisor must ensure that all enumerators
comply with the basic requirements needed to it is necessary
The field workers, or enumerators, are the ones complete the work. Ask for feedback to ensure that to conduct a
who record the information provided by the the candidates understand the concepts and the stratified sample.
interviewee onto the questionnaire. For the vocabulary of the questionnaire. This feedback is
integrity of the data, qualified and competent also useful in setting the level of vocabulary used
enumerators must conduct the fieldwork. in the questionnaire for the target area. The training
must include instructions on how to formulate
When selecting enumerators, consider their questions in a direct and impartial manner. Bias
previous experience in censuses and surveys, on the part of the interviewer can greatly affect the
fluency in the language(s) spoken by the target responses they receive from their questions.
population, clear penmanship, and willingness to
travel and stay at the field location for extended The questionnaires intended for communities that
periods of time, often under difficult conditions. already have access to electric service contain
Depending on the local culture and customs, the specific details that are different from those for
interviewing team should include both men and communities without electric service. What differs
women. Often, suitable candidates arise through is a question concerning the consumption and cost
recommendations from the national state census of electricity. The enumerator should courteously
agency, or via other academic institutions and request the respondent’s last three electric bill
non-governmental organizations that conduct statements in order to provide a verifiable record
surveys for their own purposes. of past consumption and expenditures, rather
than simply rely on consumers’ memories for
Clearly present all details regarding salary, the same information. Be aware that a significant
travel expenses, and transportation to potential consumption variation could exist in regions with
It is not always convenient to conduct a field The field survey supervisor should assemble and
test in the proposed project area. If the cost of have ready at least 10% more than the minimum
field testing is too high, the project planners may required quantity of questionnaires, so as to
choose to perform the field test in a local area, or compensate for errors in printing or transcribing
even in the training room. In this method, each data. For example, if the sample size is 300 then
enumerator is responsible for completing a trial there should be at least 330 photocopies of the
questionnaire, preferably by interviewing a person questionnaire. Enumerators should always receive
who has never seen the questionnaire. This is not extra writing instruments to ensure that time is
as effective as conducting the test in the field, but not lost while conducting interviews.
it can still provide useful results. The supervisors
must pay special attention to the manner in which Provide the enumerators with some form of
the enumerators conduct the interview, either credential or documentation, such as a badge or
in the training room or in the field, to evaluate hat, which identifies them with the organization
their competence for the job. After the field test, conducting the interview. Do this only if it does
managers modify the questionnaire and make the not influence the results of the interview.
final selection of the enumerators.
Prepare a list of equipment and materials for
For the CEF project, NRECA hired an expert in the entire survey group and for each individual.
household energy surveys who had conducted The equipment and materials may include maps,
similar studies for NRECA in the Dominican compasses, a GPS, a first-aid kit, communication
Republic. This field survey expert selected and equipment, sun block, mosquito repellant, umbrellas,
supervised the enumerators conducting the field a lantern, a pocketknife, and a camera. Besides
surveys. the minimum materials required to conduct the
interview, the field survey supervisor must ensure
Conducting and Supervising the that enumerators are prepared for the circumstances
Interview they will encounter. For example, when conducting
field work in a very remote area, it is important to
Previous Preparations for the Field Work take along enough food and water.
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and the sample size. The location affects Field Work
transportation needs and the time required
to get to each sampled household. The size of The design process of the interview and the
the sample affects the number of enumerators preparation of questionnarie materials culminate
needed to complete the work in the time frame with the field work itself. If the enumerators are
indicated. sufficiently motivated, and conduct their work in
an efficient manner, the quality of the data and
If all enumerators live in the city where their thus the analysis will be much higher.
interview will be conducted, then transportation
arrangements could be as simple as telling each Completing the Questionnaire
enumerator where and when to show up to set out After
to conduct the interviews. On the other hand, if the The process of filling out the questionnaire can
appear simple and easy. Even though the design
completion
project area is very remote, it will be necessary
to coordinate one or more transportation options, of the questionnaire helps the enumerator conduct of the design
such as plane, bus, 4-wheel drive vehicle, boat, the interview, there are many opportunities for of the
or motorcycle. mistakes when recording response information. questionnaire
Each interviewer has his or her own way of
and the theory
In the past five years, NRECA has developed a writing, and in some cases, the questionnaire
standard methodology for conducting interviews uses a language they are less familiar with. The portion of the
with a size sample of 300 surveys. Questionnaires enumerator also has the difficult task of trying training, the
vary in scope and number of pages, but six to to maintain the flow of conversation over the enumerators
eight pages is common. Typically, completing a course of the interview, while recording the must conduct
standard questionnaire takes 20 to 30 minutes. data and responses given by the interviewee.
a field test.
Add additional minutes for the time required It is essential to emphasize the importance of
in a certain community to advance from one extreme care while recording the data obtained
interview to the next. On average, an enumerator during the interview.
can complete 12 questionnaires in one day.
Five or six enumerators, with a supervisor, Enumerators must use clear penmanship that
can usually conduct 300 interviews in five is easy to read. With predetermined codes and
days. If the proposed project is in a remote shorthand, the enumerators may avoid having
area, additional time is required to arrive at to write as much text. For example, instead of
the site of the project and then return to the writing “four liters per day”, it would be faster
base or main city. and to record “4 l/d”. It is also vital that the
enumerator write down the interviewee’s actual
One key aspect of logistics planning concerns response and avoid the temptation of performing
funds or money management. Money is required mental calculations to convert the data, for
for travel and other expenses, and it is important example electricity consumption over time.
to purchase and account for all necessary Finally, it is important to take physical care of the
equipment or materials required to complete questionnaires so that they are not lost, damaged,
the field work in a timely manner. Depending or destroyed. The response information is useful
on the circumstances, it might be best to give only after it has been properly recorded on the
the travel expenses to the field workers on the questionnaire and entered into the database.
first day or leave this duty to the supervisors.
Determine whether the field supervisor will Tasks of the Field Supervisor
have to carry cash or will be able to go to bank
branches or other financial institutions for cash The field supervisor has several key responsibilities
withdrawls. throughout the field survey process. For instance,
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etc.). The enumerator must provide a clear and refuses, the enumerator would lower the price in
brief introduction of the project and explain the increments until the potential consumer accepts
purpose of the interview. The enumerator should it and therefore indicates the price that he or she
emphasize that there is still no commitment to is willing to pay for electricity. Alternatively, the
complete the project, and that the decision to enumerator could start the “offer” at a very low
implement a project would depend greatly on monthly price and then increase the price until
the data acquired during the various interviews the interviewee closes the offer, indicating the
conducted within the community. The enumerator maximum price that he or she would be willing
must never provide false expectations, regardless to pay for electricity.
of the data that might encourage.
This same section of the questionnaire usually For most rural
The interviewer should then answer any questions includes the Expressed WtP for the consumer’s
connection costs. In most rural electrification
electrification
that the interviewee might have, then initiate the
interview. For the section concerning lighting projects, the consumer pays for some or all of the projects, the
with alternative energy sources, the enumerator connection costs to their house, which includes the majority of
must request to see the candles and lamps used cost of the meter, other related devices, and the interviews
and the typical container used to store fuel such physical installation of the service. The enumerator
conducted on
as kerosene. If the home utilizes solar panels, uses the same bidding or auction strategy described
the enumerator must record the brand name, above to determine the maximum amount that the energy use and
capacity, the number of modules, and the number consumer would be willing to pay for a connection, WtP involve
and type of batteries used within the system. either as a one-time payment or as a monthly fee, community
Concerning the use of energy for household imposed over a defined period of time (e.g. US$3/ members and
electrical appliances, the enumerator must try month for 36 months).
their homes.
to record the watts of power for each appliance.
This information will determine their kWh To determine the consumer’s income and
consumed per month. If the household uses a expenditures in a clear and detailed manner,
private generator, then the enumerator must ask the enumerator must ask questions concerning
permission to inspect it. Then, he or she must fill several sources of income, such as agricultural
in the corresponding section of the questionnaire products that are sold (including the amount and
regarding the generator’s brand name, capacity, price received), and the typical expenditures of
type of fuel used, cost of maintenance, the amount the family, such as food, school registration,
of hours per day during which it operates, and clothing, transportation, etc. In many cases,
above all, the amount of fuel used per time period consumers in rural areas purchase their food
(e.g. 10 liters/week). supply and essentials at traditional markets and
weekly fairs. If the interviewee does not know
In the Expressed WtP section of the questionnaire, the exact amount of the expenditures, then the
the enumerator should describe a scenario in enumerator could reach an estimate of their
which the household receives reliable and monthly expenditures by asking for the total
high quality electric service. Following this expenditures for purchases at each fair.
hypothetical scenario, the enumerator then
seeks to determine by means of an auction or If the house already has access to electricity,
bidding strategy the maximum amount that the then the consumption and cost of electricity
consumer would be willing to pay for such electric can be arrived at from the household’s electric
service. There are two ways of conducting the bills. The enumerator must try to examine at
bidding. The enumerator can propose a maximum least three past monthly bills and record the
monthly price for the electric service. Then, the data in the appropriate box of the questionnaire,
interviewee can accept the price, or if he or she keeping in mind any potential seasonal fluctuation
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of a data entry file. A file programmed to detect decide to eliminate an entry of 12,000 entered into
errors and to skip automatically to the next field the field that corresponds to a question regarding
can speed up the data entry process. how many small candles a family uses per month.
If the range of responses to this question in the
Ideal transcribers are individuals who can rest of the database is between 2 and 100, 12,000
enter the data quickly and without errors. The would clearly be an unrealistic response.
transcribers must receive training to know what
to do when questions arise, when information Data Processing
is missing on the questionnaire, or when it is
hard or impossible to read the response. For the Once the entering of data into the database is
CEF Project, NRECA hired transcribers, but for complete, data processing begins. This involves A “productive
the Tomoyo project, given the small size of the applying formulas to obtain sums, averages,
frequencies, percentages, etc. It might also involve
use” is any use
sample, the local NRECA team entered the data.
One member of the team read the information programming the database to reorganize the of electricity
while another member entered the data into the data in an ascending or descending manner or that generates
Excel database. presenting the data in a graph or table. The goal income for the
of reorganizing, categorizing, or processing the
user.
The first step in data review and revision is data is for an expert to analyze and to interpret
to make sure the transcribers have verified all the data and recommend actions according to
of the information entered. The contracts for the results of the analysis.
transcribers could include fi nes for errors or
simply state that they will not be paid unless the Sometimes the expert in charge of the interview
database contains no errors. performs all the data processing. Other times,
he or she prepares detailed instructions for
After entering all data from the questionnaires programmers to process the data, so as to obtain
into the database, the supervisor must perform a the necessary results for the next steps of the
detailed and systematic revision of the database. analysis. The analyst can study the results of
To verify the data, the supervisor can randomly the processing, look to see whether anomalies or
select a percentage of the questionnaires to review. outliers are present, and determine whether further
Then the supervisor would compare each entry in assessment of the database is necessary.
the database to the answer on the questionnaire.
If the percentage of errors is greater than the Analyzing and Interpreting Data
minimum acceptable, then the entire database
must be rejected, with the contractor or transcriber The next phase of data analysis and interpretation
instructed to start the process of data entry again is important because its results become inputs
from the beginning. The CEF project had to for the economic benefit analysis and financial
follow this procedure. projections, as well as providing estimates of the
total demand of electricity in the project area.
After verifying that the information in the
database exactly ref lects the information The person who performs the data analysis and
recorded on the questionnaires, the supervisor interpretation should ideally have a reasonable
must perform another level of revision. This task amount of experience and expertise gained from
includes eliminating data that contain errors similar assignments. If the analyst does not have
that are obviously out of the reasonable range experience in data analysis and interpretation,
of the dataset. Only an expert with the adequate he or she should work with an individual with
experience required for this delicate task must experience in the matter until acquiring a
do this. For example, the project manager might minimum amount of experience.
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members in a foreign country (remittances), are conducted. For example, in marginal rural
etc. The questionnaire also contains a list of areas of Bolivia where the use of household
all expenditures for products and services. The electrical appliances is very low, an average
analyst must use the data related to income and consumption of 25-35 kWh/month is normal,
expenditures cautiously, especially if there is while in rural areas that exhibit a higher socio-
evidence of a distortion of reality due to factors economic profile, as in the Dominican Republic,
such as the following: the average consumption is approximately 130
kWh/month.
The interviewees do not have a clear idea of
what they earn or spend. For the Tomoyo project, the NRECA team leader
analyzed the database to determine whether the It is important
They gave out wrong information or information data were far out of the established ranges and
whether there were gross errors in transcription or
not to allow
that does not make sense.
other related problems. The team leader examined biases,
They refuse to give out information for any expenditures for different energy sources as well preconceptions,
reason. as total expenditures to determine consumer WtP or premature
for electricity. The data clearly indicated that
conclusions to
In such cases, the results must be purged and the majority of the consumers had low incomes.
considered unreliable. When a consumer’s reported It also indicated that the majority consumed influence the
income is high, confi rm that the consumer’s kerosene for lighting, and had a portable radio analysis.
expenditures also correspond with this income. to listen to the news and other programs. There
Generally, there is a direct relationship between were no other electrical appliances in use in
income and expenditures for energy sources, and these communities, nor were there any portable
if the income is much higher than average, the generation units.
expenditures are normally above the survey’s
average as well. Calculating Willingness to Pay
When attempting to record actual electricity The data concerning willingness to pay must
consumption and expenditures from households be processed in such a way that the results can
that are already electrified, enumerators may find be presented not only as an average but also as
that the consumers do not have past electric bills distribution curves or charts with ranges.
available. If this occurs, results could be subject
to distortions due to insufficient information. Calculating Expressed WtP is as simple as
Another obstacle in the way of reliable results applying the formula to obtain the average to
occurs where electriticity consumption is all responses to the question of how much each
estimated rather than metered by the company person is willing to pay for the electric service.
that manages the distribution system. In such The CEF project had an average expressed WtP
cases, it is essential that the analyst compare of US$ 7.63/month for the last offer from question
the consumption shown on the past electric bills 407. However, to better understand the economy
with the consumption estimated by counting of the target population it is useful to present the
light bulbs, household electrical appliances, and WtP results in the form of a distribution curve as
hours of use. In this manner, it can be determined observed in Figure 5 for the Tomoyo project.
whether the estimated consumption shown on
the electric bills is reliable or not. To process the Revealed WtP data, the analyst
concentrates on one energy source at a time, and
The range of electricity consumption varies converts it to a common unit of measurement, such
greatly according to the area in which interviews as $/month spent for each energy source. Then the
$16.00
$14.00
$12.00
$US/monthh $10.00
$8.00
$6.00
$4.00
Generally, $2.00
there is a direct $0.00
relationship
2%
%
11
20
29
38
47
56
65
74
83
92
between income
and expenditures
for energy
analyst can obtain the sum of all the expenditures estimated consumers for the project. To express
sources, and if for each energy source. Table 1 illustrates this the economic benefit in terms of the scope of the
the income is procedure for small candle consumption within project analysis, the net present value (NPV) of
much higher than the CEF project. To begin, the amount of small the benefit is calculated. The net present value is
average, the candles used in each household was multiplied defined as the total present value of a time series
by what the interviewees indicated was the unit of cash flows. It is a standard method for using
expenditures are
price per candle. Then, an average of the results the time value of money to appraise long-term
normally above was taken. On average, each household spent projects. Used for capital budgeting, and widely
the survey’s US$ 2.31/month on small candles, as indicated throughout economics, it measures the excess or
average as well. in Table 1. The analyst then calculates each shortfall of cash flows, in present value terms,
other energy source in the same manner to once financing charges are met.
obtain its expense per month. (Be careful not to
multiply the average of the amount of an energy Taking the analysis one step further, the NPV
source by the average of its unit price. The result of the economic benefit of the project indicates
obtained from multiplying averages is not the a limit to the acceptable level of subsidy for the
same mathematically as the average expense implemention the project. In economic terms,
calculated per household.) Figure 5 shows the there would be no point in implementing a project
Revealed WtP for the Tomoyo project. whose subsidy would be greater than the NPV of
the total consumer economic benefit.
Calculating Economic Benefits
At a glance, calculating the economic benefit
In this section, we apply the basic theoretical seems simple because the formula requires only
concepts described earlier in this module to the price and quantity of electricity (Pe and Qe),
estimate the economic benefit of an electrification and the price and amount of alternative energy
project. The fi rst step is to add the economic sources (Pa and Qa). However, the calculation
benefit for lighting and the economic benefit for usually becomes tedious because there are many
the energy consumed by electrical appliances. alternative energy sources, and the data for each
Then, to estimate the total economic benefit of must go through processing and conversion. We
the project, simply multiply the economic benefit now provide an explanation of how each variable
of one average consumer by the total number of is calculated.
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Price of Electricity (Pe) Equation 4. Calculation of power consumption
for lighting
The electricity price for the CEF project was taken
from the tariff specified by the government of the Lighting (kWh/month) = (((W1*H1) + (W2*H2)
Dominican Republic when the financial analysis + …. + (Wn*Hn))*30.4)/1000
was performed. On that date, the electricity tariff
for energy use was US$0.121/ kWh, with an W1 = power in watts for lighting 1
additional fixed or demand charge of US$2.10/
month. Based on an average consumption of 133 H1 = hours per day used for lighting 1
kWh/month, this results in a tariff of US$0.137
30.4 = days/month (365 days/ 12 months)
/kWh. Dividing the tariff in US$/kWh by the
To express
conversion factor of 5 klmh/kWh for alternative
1000 = conversion factor from watts to kW the economic
sources of energy, the electricity price obtained
was US$0.027/klmh. benefit in
On average, a rural household consumes 24
kWh/month for lighting. By multiplying 24 terms of the
Quantity of Electricity (Qe) kWh/month by the lighting conversion factor scope of
of 5 klmh/kWh, results in a consumption of the project
An estimate of the quantity of electricity (Qe)
120 klmh/month. analysis, the
consumed by the average consumer can be
obtained by gathering data on consumer demand For household electrical appliances, each net present
for electricity in electrified communities that appliance was assigned a standard number of value (NPV) of
exhibit similar socio-economic profiles as the watts. For example, 80 watts were assigned the benefit is
proposed project. The data compilation uses to fans and 200 watts to standard television
billing records from the electric company, calculated.
sets. These standard reference numbers were
consumer electric bills, and asking questions then multiplied by the hours of use for each
concerning the amount, watts of power, and hours appliance that the consumer indicated during their
of use for each energy source used for lighting, interview. The study assumed that refrigerators
and for each electric device. were plugged in all the time and assigned a
standard consumption of 100kWh/month. For the
In the CEF project, data from the electric company CEF project, average household consumption of
showed average residential power consumption electricity for appliances was 109 kWh/month,
of 121 kWh/month and 408 kWh/month for and thus the total average residential power
commercial consumers. consumption amounted to133kWh/month.
For the CEF project, very few consumers were Price of Alternative Energy Sources (Pa)
willing or able to provide their electric bills,
so the enumerators relied on data provided by As shown in Table 1 above, for the CEF project
the type and use of lighting and appliances. the average expense for alternative energy sources
Equation 4 illustrates how consumption was for lighting was US$ 6.81/month. The same chart
determined utilizing the basic data described also indicated that the total klmh/month was
above. For lighting, this included the sum of the 8.89. With these two data points, we were able
multiplication of the watts of power of each energy to determine the cost per lighting unit simply by
source used for lighting by the daily hours of use dividing US$6.81 by 8.89 klmh, and arriving at
(hours/day). The sum of all the energy sources US$0.77/klmh.
used for lighting was multiplied by 30.4 days/
month and then divided by 1000 W/kW to obtain The CEF project was exceptional because
the kWh/month value consumed for lighting. the potential beneficiaries of the project had
already benefited from an electric service, albeit multiplied by the 18 kWh results in US$2.53. The
with frequent and prolonged blackouts. The surveyed population thus would obtain a total of
expenditures cited in the preceding paragraph 98.9 klmh/month at a cost of US$9.34, resulting
were for alternative energy sources used during in a value price (Pa) of US$0.094/klmh.
these blackouts. The lack of reliable electric
service resulted in consumer consumption of Quantity of Alternative Energy Sources (Qa)
both alternative energy sources (Pa), which
means that actual consumer WtP and overall As described above, the Qa for the CEF project
consumption of energy would have to include was 98.9 klmh/month.
both Pe and Pa.
The data shown in Table 2 were inserted into
Let us assume a scenario in which an electric Equation 1 to calculate an estimated economic
service provides an average of 18 hours/day benefit for an average residential customer of
of electricity. We further assume that for the US$7.34/month. The NPV calculation assumes
remaining 6 hours without electricity, consumers a time period of 20 years and an 8% interest rate.
use alternative energy sources, and the electricity Therefore, the NPV of this benefit is approximately
outage is proportional over a 24-hour period. US$865 per consumer.
Then 18 kWh/month of electricity is obtained for
lighting. Multiply the 18 kWh/month by 5klmh/ To estimate the economic benefit of the energy
kWh, resulting in 90 klmh/month of benefits. Add consumed for operating electric appliances, one
this figure to the 8.89 klmh of alternative energy must subtract the electricity consumption used for
to get 98.9 klmh/month. Distributing the fixed lighting from the total consumption. The average
electricity rate to a lower amount of kWh makes consumption, calculated from the CEF project
the average cost increase to US$ 0.14/kWh, which survey, was 133kWh/month. This estimated what
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Table 2. Summary of variables needed to calculate the economic benefit for
lighting (CEF project)
the consumer would use if they had electricity and other alternative energy sources equated to
24 hours a day. With electricity service for only approximately 1.25kWh/month, for which the
18 hours/day there was an estimated unsatisfied average residential consumer paid almost 19
demand of 25kWh/month, of which 6 kWh was Bolivianos/month. The expenditure per unit was
for lighting and 19 additional kWh for other thus US$1.91/kWh. Therefore, the unit cost for
uses. Multiplying 19 kWh/month by US$0.140/ lighting in communities without electricity in
kWh results in US$2.66/month; added to the Potolo was almost 20 times greater than the cost
economic benefit for lighting of US$7.34, that of electricity. The economic benefit for lighting
renders a total of US$10.00/month and a NPV, at was estimated at US$17.88/month.
20 years and an 8% interest rate, of approximately
US$1,179. The disparity between the amount and cost of
klmh for electricity and alternative energy sources
For the Tomoyo project, energy consumption data was clearly dramatic, and resulted in a substantial
recorded for the community of Potolo indicated economic benefit for the non-electrified consumers
an average residential consumption of 18.5 kWh/ of Tomoyo.
month for lighting, at a cost of approximately 15
Bolivianos per month. The total cost per unit was As a corollary, Table 4 presents the formula and
US$0.10/kWh. In non-electrified households, calculation for the consumer economic benefit
consumption of candles, fuel for wick lamps, for non-lighting uses of energy.
*Source: World Bank Report No. 255/02, “Rural Electrification & Development in the Philippines: Measuring the Social & Economic Benefits”
*Source: World Bank Report No. 255/02, “Rural Electrification & Development in the Philippines: Measuring the Social & Economic Benefits”
25
20
15
10
5
0
2% 9% 17% 24% 32% 39% 47% 55% 62% 70% 77% 85% 92% 100%
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the results indicate only the Revealed WtP for intersects with the US$20/month line at the
alternative energy sources. The chart indicates point representing 20% of the population. This
that the majority of surveyed individuals spent means that 20% of the population spends more
more than US$5.00 per month for alternative than US$ 20/month and the remaining 80% of
energy sources. Their Expressed WtP reveals the population spends less than US$20/month
that they were willing to pay more for electric on energy sources.
service than indicated by their current Revealed
WtP. Obviously, there exists a large gap between the
results illustrated for the Dominican Republic
The results from surveys conducted in the and Haiti, not only in their respective levels of
Dominican Republic offer a perspective on a consumption, but also in their Expressed WtP.
different reality. In this case, the majority of In the Dominican Republic, the interviewees
interviewees had access to electricity, but due indicated that they were not willing to pay more
to frequent and prolonged blackouts, they had than what they were presently paying for energy.
to spend additional money on alternative energy However, in Haiti respondents said they would
sources. Therefore, their Revealed WtP adds be willing to pay more for electric service than
together their expenditures for alternative energy their Revealed WtP indicated.
sources and for electricity from the national
grid. Another way of showing Revealed WtP is in the
form of a table or chart. Table 5 demonstrates
Figure 7 shows the Revealed and Expressed the Revealed WtP of energy consumers in the
WtP for the CEF project in the Dominican Dominican Republic. At one extreme, 7.1% of
Republic. Note that the Revealed WtP curve the population spends US$2.50/month or less
140.00
130.00 Revealed WtP
120.00 Expressed WtP
110.00
100.00
90.00
US$/Month
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
-
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Percentage of the Population
on energy, while 5.5% spend more than US$100/ 15% of the population consumes more than
month. The reader can see that in the accumulated 200kWh/month. Between these two points, there
percentage column, almost 71% of the residential exists a flat section of the curve (extending from
population spends US$20 or less per month. approximately 15% up to 65% of the population)
equating to 50% of the population consuming
Figure 8 illustrates residential and commercial between 100 to 200kWh/month.
electricity consumption in the CEF project area
in the form of a demand curve. For such purposes as tariff studies or subsidy
considerations, it is important to view the WtP
In the figure below, 35% of the population results in terms of unit costs. Table 6 indicates
consumes less than 100kWh/month while roughly consumer WtP in US$/kWh for residential
1600
1400
1200
kWh/Month
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
Percentage of the Population
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consumers in the Dominican Republic. The Using the WtP Results in Technical and
exhibit demonstrates that the unit price of Financial Analysis
electricity is more expensive for the consumers
on both extremes of the consumption curve. The feasibility analysis of an electrification project
Those who consume the least (who in turn requires understanding the relationship among the
are the poorest) and those who consume the economic, financial, and engineering analyses,
most (the majority of which have their own as well as the contribution of each analysis in
portable generator) are the ones who pay the determining the feasibility and design of the
most per kWh. For example, from the residential project.
population, consumers of less than 50kWh/
month paid an average of US$0.30/kWh, while The analyst requires multiple parameters from
those who consumed more than 1,000 kWh/ different sources for a complete analysis. Table
month paid US$0.32/kWh. 7 shows a summary and examples of parameters
used in a feasibility analysis of an electrification
The next to last column of Table 6 shows the project and the source of each parameter.
monthly expenses for energy sources (Revealed
WtP) as a percentage of the general monthly Along with the parameters in the chart, the
expenses included in the fourth column. The last information intake includes vital demographic
column shows the expenses for electricity as a information, such as the number of families
percentage of monthly expenses. The survey asked that live in the target region of the project.
certain questions related to monthly expenses, The engineering analysis must also have
such as expenses for food, housing, health, information available concerning the location
education, etc. The sum of all these expenses of the houses and the energy source. Tools
was used as an estimated indicator of family such as GPS data, satellite images, and aerial
income. This amount appears in the fourth column photographs are useful in this process, along
of Table 6. with physically counting the number of houses
in the community.
Results of economic benefit analysis are normally
shown using charts, but they can also be presented Growth rates for consumer demand projections
as bar graphs that illustrate the difference between and project load forecasts can be procured
energy costs and value of the alternative energy from a variety of sources, as illustrated in
sources and electricity. Table 8.
The data and analysis on consumer WtP represent Project engineering analysis requires knowing the
essential input for project financial analysis, as estimated number of consumers to be connected
they influence the determination for a cost of to the system, the estimated amount of electricity
service tariff, project penetration rate, and the that will be consumed, and the geographic location
number of consumers that are estimated to be of the consumers. The WtP study and economic
connected by the project, from implementation benefit calculation can contribute to these three
onward for a defined time period (often 20 years). variables depending on how responsibilities are
Combining the average consumption in kWh/ assigned and what data already exists.
month, the number of users, and the consumer
WtP allows the project manager to run models of With reference to the number of users, the first
analysis for different scenarios and in this way, thing to know is the total number of houses
determine the final tariff rate. in the region of the project. There are several
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ways to obtain this information. In some cases, Contribution to Determining Subsidy
recent census data is available and reliable.
In many cases, however, either no census has Analysts use the economic benefit results to
been conducted recently or the results are not determine the maximum subsidy that should be
reliable. Data can also be obtained from satellite provided to the project. If the cost of investment per
images or aerial photographs. These images and consumer required to execute the project is greater
photos must have a resolution that allows for the than the economic benefit, then the investment is
counting of each house. If it is not possible to not justified. To obtain this information, calculate
obtain “number of houses” data by other means, the NPV of the economic benefit for the term of
then field workers must physically count the the analysis (often 20 to 30 years).
houses in the community. This becomes more
Analysts use
feasible when the community is small and in a For the Tomoyo project in the Department of
relatively compact region. Since it is important Potosí, Bolivia, the total economic benefit to the the economic
not to duplicate efforts, coordinate such counting consumer was US$29.36/month or approximately benefit results
with other project teams, such as the engineering US$352 per year. Considering a term of twenty to determine
team. years, the NPV of the economic benefit is the maximum
approximately US$3,000 per consumer. An
subsidy that
After counting the total number of houses in the investment cost of US$500,000 was assumed
region, determine the percentage of the population based on estimated material and equipment costs should be
that will connect to the project. The results from to connect 600 consumers. The cost per consumer provided to
the WtP study will help define the percentage of was US$833. Therefore, the project is justified the project.
coverage and/or the penetration rate. Using the because the NPV of the economic benefit is If the cost of
WtP study and an estimate for consumption in greater than the investment cost. This project
investment
kWh/month, along with the rate scenarios, the could be subsidized at 100% of the capital cost
analyst can create and evaluate a corresponding of the project and still present a net economic per consumer
model for the analysis. benefit for the country. required to
execute the
Average consumption of electricity can usually For the CEF project in the Dominican Republic,
project is
be determined from the willingness-to-pay data the total economic benefit was US$10 per month.
of communities without access to electricity. The NPV was approximately US$1,179. The greater than
The amount of electricity that the beneficiaries engineering analysis and the financial analysis the economic
could acquire, at different rates, derives from the estimated a total of 16,000 consumers (even benefit, then
amount of money spent monthly on alternative though this number could grow up to 17,000 or the investment
energy sources. more in the future). The cost of the CEF project
is not justified.
was estimated at approximately US$7 million,
Geographic location is another important aspect which, when divided by 16,000 consumers,
in the design of the electric system. Preferably a results in a cost of US$438 per consumer. This
team of trained technicians conducts a geographic project is also justified because the NPV of the
study. In some cases, the WtP survey team can economic benefit is greater than the investment
take a GPS device with them to obtain some cost. As with the Tomoyo Project, 100% of
preliminary geographic information, such as the the capital cost of the CEF project could be
locations of existing substations, electrical poles, subsidized and still present a net economic benefit
large transformer banks, etc. for the country.
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Application of single-phase primary lines Compilation of available information on the
consisting of phase and neutral as a principal area to be electrified. The electric company
means of rural distribution. The use of single- or jurisdictional institution in charge of
phase lines, while providing adequate service supplying the electric service in the adjoining
for most uses and for the existing demand area should provide the initial information,
for electricity in the rural area. Three-phase especially if the project is connected with
lines are required to maintain system balance this entity and this entity will operate the
between phases in the system as well as to serve service once the project is executed. This
specific concentrated three-phase loads. information is necessary, but not sufficient
to characterize the area, for reasons to be
Application of single-phase transformers. explained shortly.
Application of
The application of single-phase 5-25 kVA
single-phase
transformers is preferred, leaving the modules Analysis of the area to be electrified. This
of over 25kVA only for specific requirements means determining the location of consumer primary lines
such as three-phase banks. The use of a concentrations, based on the actual conditions consisting of
larger number of relatively small transformer of the project area. During this process the phase and
modules, as compared with a smaller number information gathered from the electric service
neutral as
of larger transformers used in an urban system, operator in the adjoining area should be
improves the quality of service for scattered confirmed, to the extent possible. a principal
users, reduces the investment in low-voltage means of rural
systems and reduces system losses, even though Analysis of the loads and configuration of distribution.
the transformers themselves may cost more. the proposed system. This step determines
the loads represented by the concentrations
Limit the length of low-voltage networks. of potential users and designs the system
This limited length reduces technical losses, configuration to supply them, including route
improves service quality, and reduces the design, the features of primary lines, and the
possibility of illegal connections. location of transformer points.
This design methodology for a rural electrification What follows are the details of the process of
project represents an integrated philosophy, and it analysis development and the use of the necessary
should be applied as a whole. Its presents a basis tools, and an example how the process applies to
for design and provides the professional user with a real project. The project used as an example is
the necessary tools for its application. an electrification project in the Tomoyo region,
near the city of Sucre in Bolivia.
comply with
Every distribution company has preferences as The electric company may have or know about an
the technical to the use of materials and line hardware. Some expansion plan for the present system, which would
criteria companies use wooden poles while others use affect the project being considered. Examples of
included in this concrete or metal or a mix of all. Normally, possible expansion plans are the construction
module. electric companies have standardized structures, of new sub-transmission lines, substations and/
often based on RUS standards. It is also usual to or generating plants. Such information would
have standardized conductor sizes for a company’s have great value for planning the new project.
distribution systems. Therefore, the project Take expansion plans into account with caution,
engineer should start the electric design from however, because most distribution companies’
the standards established by the electric company, expansion plans for rural areas are either overly
as long as they comply with the technical criteria general, without financing, or based on out-of-
included in this module. date information about major configurations
for transmission systems. Although taking into
Plans for Network Extensions in the Project account the plans of other companies may prevent
Area unnecessary expenditures in the development
of a project, it is important not to condition the
The electric company may have plans to extend design on the existence of other projects that may
its lines to the area contemplated in the project, not be executed in time.
and they might even have a final design for the
extension project. Many times these plans are When associated projects have received the
compiled by local governments, such as the necessary approval from financing sources and other
prefecture or the municipality,and can be highly approvals such as those related to environmental
politically motivated. The designs prepared under impact, it is valid to consider those projects in
these conditions usually have many serious flaws the planning of a rural electrification project.
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Point of Origin or Supply for the Project and respect various design criteria. If no physical
neutral exists at the initial point, it is necessary
During the visit of the project designer to the to determine where the neutral of the existing
office of the electric company, obtain all available system ends, so as to take into account the costs
information on the source or supply point for of adding the neutral.
the new project. Whether or not the electric
company has all the necessary information, it Distance from Substation
is also necessary to pay a visit to the project site
to verify the data. The data to be obtained from If the electric company has updated and sufficiently
the electric company are the following. detailed maps, one can determine with their help
the distance from the substation to the initial point
Voltage Level of the Existing Distribution of the project. This information is necessary to
Lines model the voltage drop in the existing line, as
well as to simulate the power flow and the voltage
Existing voltage levels may be of the 15kV, 25kV, drop in the proposed project.
or 35kV class, each of which comprises a number
of options. For example, the 15kVvoltage class Existing Conductor Size from Substation to
includes 11kV, 12.47kV, 13.2kV, and 13.8kV. The the Project
25kV level includes 20kV, 22kV, and 24.9kV, etc.
The 35kV level includes voltages like 33kV and To carry out a power flow analysis, one needs to
34.5kV. An electric company must have more than know the cross-section of the existing conductor
one voltage level in its system, e.g., 12.5kV and in the line from the substation up to the initial
34.5kV. Then, even if a line is currently energized point of the project to be studied. The cross-
at a lower voltage, for example at 12.5kV, the section of the neutral conductor (if it exists) must
company may be willing to consider a conversion be determined, as well as the cross-section of
to 34.5kV, if this is technically justifiable. In phase conductors. If there are conductors of more
Bolivia, the system voltage used by distribution than one cross-section in the line between the
companies is in the process of being standardized substation and the initial point, record each cross-
at 35kV, 25kV, and 15kV. Few companies there are section of the conductor in the corresponding
still maintaining systems in other voltages. stretch, as well as its respective length.
Number of Phases Available
Load in the Existing Line
It is important to know how many phases are
available in the project sector: one, two or three The load in the existing line is another critical
phases. If three phases are not available at the component in defining the conductor cross-section
initial point (usually at the end of the existing line), and/or number of phases of the system that will
one must find out how far the three-phase line be analyzed in the power flow study in order to
goes, so as to take it into account if conversion determine the voltage drop in the existing line.
to a three-phase line is necessary. If there are important loads, record their location
so as to be able to model their effect in the power
Physical Neutral flow study. If the existing line has to be divided
into segments, for the reasons indicated in the
Some rural area distributors have adopted previous section, be sure to divide the existing
systems without a physical neutral. The system load among the same segments.
used for single-phase configurations without a
physical neutral, is referred to as Single Wire
Earth Return (SWER), must still comply with
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demand of each transformer to be able to calculate of transformers and the way in which the neutral,
the capacity available for the proposed project. if any is grounded. This information is usually
If there is a lack of capacity in the substation presented on transformer name plates as %Z at
transformers, either an increase of capacity would the self cooled or OA rating. In the case of an
have to be budgeted at the existing substation or autotransformer or a three-winding transformer,
a new substation installed closer to the project record three impedances: primary secondary,
area. primary tertiary, and secondary tertiary. In
some substations, where it is necessary to limit
Voltages on Both Sides of the Transformer the magnitude of the fault current to ground,
an impedance may be installed in the ground
In every transformer at the substation, record the connection. If such an impedance exists, record its
Always record
rated (nameplate) voltage for both the high voltage value, so as to include it in the power flow model.
winding and the low volage winding. In many If the relation X/R of the transformer impedance
the presence
instances the nominal voltages of transformers is not specified, adopt the relation 10:1. of voltage
are not the same as the nominal voltages of the adjusting
system and the difference may influence the Transformer Connections taps on both
results of power flows.
sides of the
All three-phase transformers, or single-phase
Available Taps in the Transformer transformers connected in three-phase banks, can transformer,
be defined by the connection configuration of delta as they
Always record the presence of voltage adjusting or star windings, both on the high voltage side and influence the
taps on both sides of the transformer, as they on the low voltage side. Record the configuration transformation
influence the transformation relationship and of the connection on both sides of the transformer.
relationship
therefore the output voltage of the transformer. This configuration does not influence the power
There are usually five taps of +/- 5% on the high flow model, but it does influence the fault current and therefore
voltage side, i.e. +5%, +2.5%, 0% (nominal), model, which is normally calculated using the the output
-2.5% and –5%, but this varies according to the same model of the electric system. The calculation voltage of the
manufacturer and the purchase specification of of these fault currents influences the determination
transformer.
the transformer. Also determine the position of of the protection system that the project will need
the tap switch and therefore the tap position on so as to be reliable.
which the transformer is operating.
Characteristics of Overcurrent
Existence of Automatic Voltage Regulation Protection Devices
Another important factor to model in the power At every substation there should be overcurrent
flow is the presence or absence of devices for protective devices (such as fuses, reclosers,
voltage regulation. If the substation has voltage breakers, etc.) both on the high voltage side and
regulation equipment, verify whether it is low voltage side. For each device, record these
incorporated into the transformer or separated, characteristics:
along with whether it is automatic or manually
operated. the type of device,
the brand,
Impedance of the Transformer and
Ground Connection the pickup current,
There may be other equipment in the substation Georeference of All Sites with GPS
There may
that could have a great influence on the power flow
be other model, such as capacitors and reactors, so be sure During the visit to the site, the engineer should
equipment in to record their capacity and form of connection use the GPS to obtain georeferenced data for
the substation to the system. For capacitors, record the control the routes followed (and/or the probable route
that could mode, whether it is automatic or manual. For for electrical lines to be installed) and of all the
automatic capacitors, also record the operation points of interest, such as the substation, the end
have a great
criteria (voltage, phase current, power factor, or of the three-phase line, the initial point of the
influence on time of day). project and the center of each community to be
the power flow considered in the project.
model, such as Field Inspection
capacitors and Tracks or Routes
After compiling the available information at the
reactors, so be
office of the electric operator, it is necessary to All along the route, the GPS can mark out and
sure to record confi rm and complement that information by record the route followed. The engineer must
their capacity visiting the project area to establish the geographic make certain that the GPS is in the right mode to
and form of relationship between the loads to be electrified. mark and record the route, because upon returning
During this visit, the basic configuration of the to the office, this information will be very useful
connection to
system to be installed will take shape, subject to in determining the length of both the existing
the system. modification during the process of analysis. For lines and those to be installed.
this reason, during this visit, one needs some way
to establish distances and locations of towns and Waypoints
probable loads. The traditional way to perform
this task is to get the best map available of the The GPS capacity can also mark the location
area and measure the distance between key points of points of interest for the project, such as
using the odometer in the vehicle. Although the location of the substation, the end point of
this procedure meets the needs of the project, the three-phase line, the initial point and the
modern technology affords a more accurate and center of each community to be considered in
advantageous option through use of GPS satellites the project. Each such point should be recorded
for establishing geographic references. A GPS with an indicative name, which could be the
unit is portable and low cost, with geographic complete name of the community (according to
accuracy of +/- 7 meters in autonomous operation. the GPS capacity) or a simpler indicative name.
Additional technologies offer the capacity for In any case, keep a written file of all waypoints
greater accuracy, but for this kind of project with the indicative name, the real name of the
design they are not necessary. community, and the additional characteristics
of each point.
Apart from their ability to accurately locate key
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Files vs. Active Memory Verify Key Data
During the registration of points and routes, the If visiting the substation, the engineer must verify
active memory of the instrument fills up. The all data compiled in the office and obtain all the
engineer must ensure that the memory does not missing data. The following table list shows the
become full, because the GPS then erases the minimum data to be obtained:
older data or simply stops recording new data.
In either case, data are lost. Depending on the Capacity of the transformer
model, the active memory may fill in half a day
or one whole day. When the memory is full, the Maximum load in the transformer
engineer must download the data to the computer,
so as to make room in the memory. If the GPS Nominal high voltage rating
model permits it, the instrument operator should
transfer the data of the active memory to a GPS Nominal low voltage rating
internal file, so as to empty the active memory
later, without losing data. Most GPS models have Existence of tap changer in the transformer
room in their memory for at least eight files of
route data, besides their active memory. Present position of the tap, if any
Although all the necessary data can be obtained Between Substation and Initial Point
in the office of the electric company, it is often
necessary to visit the substation and verify After obtaining the data on the substation and
personally all the data on the equipment name its georeferenced location, survey the existing
plates. If the engineer can obtain permission for line between the substation and the initial point
such a visit, it enables the collection of data that of the project. Along the way he must record the
are often not archived in the office, such as the route track with the GPS and mark the points of
voltage taps in the transformers. interest, such as the center of the communities
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Figure 1. Sample graphic of GPS points and routes data (Tomoyo)
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Table 2. Count of users by class for the Tomoyo project
Community Residence Shop School Mill Medical Center Phone kiosk Total
kWh/month 25 75 100 250 150 120
Molle Molle
54 1 1 1 – – 57
(Chuquisaca)
Molle Molle
146 2 1 1 1 1 152
(Potosi)
Sorojchi 105 2 1 – 1 1 110
Yoroca 98 3 1 1 – – 103
Tomoyo 114 4 1 3 1 1 124
Llajtapata 50 1 – – 1 – 52
Isluco 30 1 1 – – – 32
Jirota 60 1 1 – – – 62
Kasapata 50 1 – – 1 – 52
Sorocoto 160 2 1 – 1 – 164
Soroscopa 60 1 1 – – – 62
TOTAL 927 19 9 6 6 3 970
Calculation of Total Energy Consumption kWh factor (Factor B), where Factor A reflects the
per Community fact that diversity increases with increases in the
number of consumers, and Factor B reflects the
The next step is to calculate the total energy improvement in the load factor with the increase
consumption per community, by multiplying the in specific consumption.
number of potential users in each category by the
specific consumption of that category, as included
Table 3. Demand and Consumption of
in the demographic study described in Module 5:
Energy per community (Tomoyo)
Methodology for Evaluating Feasibility of Rural
Electrification Projects. Table 3, column 3 shows Community Users kWh kW
the results of this step, taking as an example the data
Molle Molle (Chuquisaca) 57 1,775 8
of the Tomoyo project, as recorded in Table 2.
Molle Molle (Potosí) 152 4,420 19
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the project can supply the anticipated maximum i.e. at the client’s energy meter. Usually, the
demand under acceptable service conditions. regulations set a range of acceptable voltage, both
above and below a nominal value. Sometimes two
In addition to determing the voltage behavior ranges are included, one for normal conditions
of the project, the power flow study permits an and another for contingencies.
evaluation of losses and allows the engineer to
examine the required number of phases, the In Bolivia, for example, the acceptable range is
eventual need to reinforce the existing supply +4%/-7.5% for normal conditions and +7%/-10%
systems, or the requirement to establish a for emergencies. Where there are regulations on
distribution system with a different voltage level the voltage level, apply the regulated acceptable
from the existing one in the area. values for normal conditions for planning purposes, The engineer
leaving the additional margin for emergency
Criteria for Analysis conditions during the operation of the system.
should base
If there are no rules in a given country, use the the electric
To determine whether the study has met its values +5%/-10% for planning purposes. design of the
objective, it is necessary to establish criteria for system on an
the evaluation and acceptance of results. The It is important to point out that the limit values
analysis of
criteria normally used in planning studies relate for voltage level have been set at low voltage
to the level of voltage, the capacity of equipment at the point of delivery to the client, i.e. at the power flows or
and lines, the reliability of the service, and the meter. For planning studies it is not customary voltage drops.
level of losses. to perform the analyses down to this level, but
rather at a system level. Planning studies that
Voltage Level use the methods presented in this module are
based on the voltage at primary level, i.e., before
Minimum voltage levels are normalized in most the voltage drop represented by the distribution
countries, with the measuring point for purposes transformer, the low voltage (secondary) lines,
of application of regulations at the interconnection and the service drop. As reference criteria, use
node between the supply system and the client, the following values:
Service reliability, i.e. the frequency and duration For systems of 24.9kV phase to phase – 330
of interruptions, depends more on maintenance of amp.
the system during operations than on the decisions
made during the design, with one exception. For systems of 34.5kV phase to phase – 460
This exception is the provision for a coordinated amp.
protection system against faults. A coordinated
system ensures that for phase-to-phase faults, By applying the normal rules of uses the recloser/
as well as for phase-to-ground faults, there are fuse coordination system, one can derive the
protection elements sensitive enough to detect and maximum load allowable for the circuit and
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branches to ensure a coordinated system. By However, the selection of the conductor cross-
applying a similar reasoning to various voltage section is within reach of the system designer.
levels and considering the features of commercially This selection process optimizes investment
available fuses and reclosers, the following results expenses and guarantees more efficiency in the
may be obtained: distribution of energy, considering both the cost
of construction and the cost of technical losses
For systems of 12.5kV between phases: resulting from the energy flow through the line.
The process consists of applying Equation 4 for
– Maximum load, main circuit – 70 amp several levels of loads and of line construction
costs with several alternative cross-sections of
– Maximum load, branches with fuses – 25 conductors.
amp
Equation 4: CA = K A*(Const) + K L*(Loss)
For systems of 24.9kV between phases:
Where:
– Maximum load, main circuit – 140 amp
CA = Total annual cost of one kilometer line
– Maximum load, branches with fuses – 65
amp K A = Fixed charge rate for investment costs,
typically = 0.15
For systems of 34.5kV between phases:
Const = Construction cost of one kilometer
– Maximum load, main circuit – 200 amp line with a specific conductor cross-
section
– Maximum load, branches with fuses – 80
amp K L = Acquisition cost of one kWh energy at the
beginning of the project
These limitations are substantial when dealing
with circuit loads, especially for systems of 12.5kV. Loss = Annual loss in kWh of one kilometer
While some devices for the electronic control line with the specific conductor cross-
of reclosers allow this range to be extended, section for a specific peak demand and
protection coordination should be an element in load factor.
the integral design of the system.
= (LLF)(n)(I2R)*8.76
Control of Technical Losses
Where:
The control of technical losses has many aspects
to be weighed, and not all of which are part LLF = Load factor of losses = (Load factor)2
of the system design process. An example of *0.84+ (Load factor) *0.16
an extraneous factor is limitation of losses in
the distribution transformers. When purchasing n = 3.0 if the line is three-phase, 2.0 if the line
distribution transformers and evaluating their is single-phase
cost, one must use a formula that determines a
financial value for losses, both for no load losses I = Phase current in amps for the specific load
and load losses. This procedure applieds during
the process of purchasing the equipment, not at R = resistance in ohms of one kilometer of the
the system design level. specific conductor
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Annual fixed charge rate: 0.15 Code (NESC). 3 This rule, which requires
more horizontal separation for conductors
Cost of line construction based on 2005 prices smaller than #2 AWG ACSR, has the effect
of materials of making the spans shorter in primary lines
with conductors smaller than #2 AWG ACSR.
The gray values represent the minimum costs As a result, its cost per kilometer is higher
for the load indicated. A #4 ACSR conductor than the lines using #2 AWG ACSR or those
has an application range of only up to 400kW, of greater sections.
so it should not be considered as a conductor
for standard use. Instead, #2 ACSR has an After determining the cross-section of the phase
application range from 600kW to 1,600kW, conductor, the engineer must determine the cross-
which enables it to serve as a standardized section of the conductor in the neutral. If the line
conductor. A #1/0 ACSR conductor has an is single-phase, the neutral should be of the same
application range of 1,800kW to 2,500kW, cross-section as the phase conductor, because both
although its range of advantage over #2 is not conductors share the same current. For a three-
too marked below 2,000kW. A #2/0 ACSR phase line, consider the use of a conductor with
conductor has no preferred application range, a smaller cross-section for the neutral, because in
while the #4/0 conductor is preferred from a three-phase line with balanced loads, a reduced
3,000kW to 6,000kW. For loads over 6,500kW, current flows through the neutral.
the optimal conductor is 397.5 MCM. In this
example, the company would then remain with The RUS Bulletin #61-4 recommends that the
four normalized conductors, each one with a neutral conductor should have at least 20% of the
substantial application range, as follows: capacity of the phase conductor in three-phase lines
with balanced loads, and that they have similar
For loads up to 1,600kW: #2 AWG ACSR characteristics in their sagging. Considering all the
above, Table 6 shows a table of conductors with a
For loads of 1,601kW up to 3000kW: 1/0 AWG reduced cross-section for the neutral.
ACSR
Considerations in Power Flow Studies
For loads of 3001kW up to 6500kW: 4/0 AWG
ACSR A power flow study can be conducted with the
help of specialized software, with general-use
For loads of 6501kW and over: 397.5 MCM
ACSR 3
American National Standards Institute, National Electric Safety Code
(New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 2002).
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Coming back to the Tomoyo project, the feeder This graphic shows the points of interest, such as
for this project has 83% single-phase lines from communities included in the project and the routes
the substation. Therefore, trying to study this between them, along the line. In the lower corner
system with a power flow based on values of of the screen, the scale of the drawing appears
positive sequence would not give a reliable result. along with geographic coordinates of a selected
Thus the power flow program for a distribution point. Figure 4 shows the communities of the
system should always have the capacity to make Tomoyo project superimposed on GPS data.
calculations with unbalanced loads, either with
symmetrical components (an approximation) or Selection of Primary Voltage Level
with matrices (preferably).
After creating the geographic model, it is
necessary to determine the voltage to be used The reality
Capacity to Calculate Unbalanced
for the new extension. The choice of a voltage of rural
Impedances
level for a given project depends to a large extent
electrification
on the levels already used in the area. Selecting
Apart from their inability to model unbalanced
a primary voltage that differs from the standard
lines,
loads, analysis programs using positive sequence especially
used in the project area requires the installation of
approximations have no capacity to model
substation, and possibly transmission, equipment. those with
unbalanced impedances. It is possible, though
This decision should be carefully examined prior long, single-
not very common, for a three-phase line to have
to final design. With that said, a voltage level
different conductors in the different phases. For phase
of the 25kV or 35kV class may be reasonably
instance, it might have been constructed originally
introduced in the following circumstances: branches,
as a single-phase line with a given conductor is that it is
cross-section and then converted into a three- If the existing voltage (whether 5kV or 15kV) difficult to
phase line with another conductor cross-section cannot be extended to serve the new project,
for the two new phases. A still more common case without investing in substations and sub-
achieve a
of unbalanced impedances is a bank of single- transmission lines balance of
phase transformers in which impedances are very currents.
similar but seldom exactly alike. Thus the power If the system has to serve large specific loads,
flow program for a distribution system should which are scattered over a wide area, such as
always have the capacity to calculate unbalanced an irrigation project, in which case a different
impedances, preferably by using matrices. voltage level from the existing one that serves
residential loads in the same area may be
Considerations for the Power Flow Model acceptable
for the Tomoyo Project
If the client or group of clients to be served
represents a pilot project for a more extensive
The power flow analyses for the Tomoyo project,
development of similar projects in the area
used as an example for this module, were
performed with the Windmil analysis package If a sub-transmission voltage within the same
(Milsoft Utility Solutions, Texas, USA). This company exists that may be used for distribution
package has all the required technical features (In those cases in which the electric company
for a power flow program and has an additional has historically utilized a 34.5kV or 22kV as
function called “LandBase,” which very usefully a sub-transmission voltage, these lines may
creates the model of the system by directly be converted to fit distribution applications at
importing the tracks and waypoints from GPS an attractive cost.)
units. Figure 3 shows the Windmil screen with
the GPS data of the Tomoyo project imported In the Tomoyo project, none of these considerations
by LandBase. applied, so the project was developed at 14.4 kV
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(class 25kV) as an extension of the existing The need for alternative solutions to the extension
system. of single-phase lines must always be justified on the
basis of economic and/or regulatory considerations.
Determination of the Number of Phases Where the requirement for a three-phase service
is only potential and not immediate, the design
After determining the length of the proposed of the single-phase lines as standardized by
system and calculating the demand of potential RUS facilitates the conversion to a three-phase
loads in existing lines and those proposed for configuration, with the addition of a crossarm
the project, the engineer must determine the and two phase conductors. With the services of
number of phases required in the proposed lines a properly trained contractor and with adequate
of the project. As indicated at the start, the RUS equipment, it is possible to realize this conversion In situations
integrated design system assumes that rural lines without de-energizing the single-phase line. For
where loads
should be single-phase, for economic reasons, certain cases, it is possible to plan, initially, single-
i.e. phase and neutral. However, some situations phase construction, to be converted to three-phase are scattered,
require consideration of the extension of two- in the future, without losing the economic benefits and with little
phase lines (two phases and neutral) or three- of the initial single-phase solution. growth potential,
phase lines, for the following reasons:
some companies
The Tomoyo project did not require modification
and electric
The current in one of the single-phase branches of the initial design, and the system was designed
exceeds the limit established for a system of with single-phase lines. authorities have
coordinated protection. applied the SWER
Determine the Application of a system.
The result of the power flow studies indicates Physical Neutral
that using a single-phase system for the
projected loads will not maintain maintain In situations where loads are scattered, and
voltage levels within regulatory limits. with little growth potential, some companies
and electric authorities have applied the SWER
There are three-phase loads in the project area system, which consists of a single phase conductor
that are large enough to make a conversion into without physical neutral. This system also can
single-phase impossible. Generally, motors of be found in areas where there are problems with
over 10HP are three-phase, though the technology the theft of the neutral conductor. The SWER
exists to overcome this limitation. system has been successfully applied in many
countries, including Australia and Tunisia, among
The nature of the loads to be covered by others.
the project rules out the use of single-
phase systems. For example, a project to The main considerations in its application are
develop an extensive irrigation system with as follows:
electric pumps of over 10HP each should be
designed from the beginning with three- For situations with no anticipated hope of
phase lines. load growth beyond a very low initial level
(8 amperes per circuit), it is possible to use
There is a need to distribute the loads among steel conductors, long spans of around 250
phases to ensure a better balance of phase meters, and a narrow right of way. This
currents at the source. This is a necessary application achieves a 50% reduction in the
consideration in cases where the permissible construction cost of a conventional single-
percentage of current imbalance is regulated phase line with aluminum conductors steel
by law, as in Bolivia. reinforced (ACSR).
To limit the voltage gradient to adequately The conductor cross-section should be determined
ensure the safety of persons and pets, limit according to the criteria set forth in the section
the maximum value of the resulting voltage in on Criteria for Analysis, based on an economic
the grounding of the primary winding of the choice and limited by considerations of protection
transformer, to 20 volts. To obtain this value for coordination and voltage drops. For the conditions
transformers of different capacities, one must of energy costs, load factor, and power factor
ensure that ground resistances do not exceed described in the same section, the economic
the values indicated in Table 7. Particularly for matrix of conductors for 14.4kV single-phase
the 7.2kV MRT/SWER system, achieving these lines appears in Table 8.
values may increase the cost of grounding,
especially in difficult types of soil. Again, the gray results represent the most
economical conductors for the load indicated.
Another consideration is the separation The #4 conductor has an application range up
between the primary system grounding and to 200 kW, whereas the #2 conductor has an
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application range of 250 kW to 550 kW, and the Minimum Voltage Calculation
#1/0, from 600 kW to 900 kW. As previously,
the #2/0 conductor has practically no application After selecting the number of phases and cross-
range and the #4/0 conductor is applicable only section of the conductor, run the power flow
above 1000 kW. Taking into account that the model to determine whether the selections made
limitation owing to the coordination of 14.4kV are adequate, or whether they have to be adjusted
single-phase branches is 65 amp, or nearly 1000 by increasing the number of phases and/or the
kW, a #4/0 conductor cannot be considered for conductor cross-section. Decisions should be
this application. Preferred conductors for 14.4kV based on the following criteria.
single-phase lines are clearly the #2 ACSR for
loads up to 550 kW and the #1/0 ACSR for loads Voltage in the First Year
If values under
from 600kW to the coordination limit of 1000kW.
Since the load projected for the Tomoyo project Upon running the program with the projected load 95% of the
is 124 kW for the first year, with a projection to for the first year, the result should show voltage nominal voltage
be increased up to 250 kW until the year 15, the levels of +5%/-5% with respect to the nominal are found at
standardized, utilized conductor for this project voltage. The loads applied come from the analysis any point in the
is the #2 ACSR. of the demand, which takes into account a certain
model, increase
either the number
Table 8: Comparison of total annual cost for 14.4 kV single-phase lines of phases or the
Conductor #4 ACSR #2 ACSR #1/0 ACSR #2/0 ACSR #4/0 ACSR
conductor cross-
Cost of Construction US$/km $5,668 $6,015 $7,138 $8,163 $9,839
section, according
Load kW Total Annual US$/km
to the parameters
100 $873 $917 $1,080 $1,232 $1,480
specified in
150 $902 $935 $1,091 $1,241 $1,486
previous sections.
200 $943 $960 $1,107 $1,253 $1,494
250 $995 $993 $1,128 $1,270 $1,504
300 $1,059 $1,033 $1,153 $1,290 $1,517
350 $1,134 $1,080 $1,183 $1,313 $1,532
400 $1,221 $1,135 $1,217 $1,341 $1,549
450 $1,319 $1,197 $1,256 $1,371 $1,569
500 $1,429 $1,266 $1,300 $1,406 $1,590
550 $1,551 $1,342 $1,348 $1,444 $1,614
600 $1,684 $1,426 $1,400 $1,486 $1,641
650 $1,828 $1,517 $1,457 $1,531 $1,669
700 $1,985 $1,615 $1,519 $1,580 $1,700
750 $2,152 $1,720 $1,586 $1,633 $1,734
800 $2,332 $1,833 $1,656 $1,689 $1,769
850 $2,523 $1,953 $1,732 $1,749 $1,807
900 $2,725 $2,081 $1,812 $1,813 $1,847
950 $2,940 $2,215 $1,897 $1,880 $1,889
1000 $3,165 $2,357 $1,986 $1,951 $1,934
Description of Item Historical Unit Price Taxes Inflation Projected Unit Price
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Figure 5. Sample three-line diagram of the power flow at year 1 (Tomoyo)
This database
should include
the unit price
of each item
of material,
including
the cost of
shipment,
and the total
amounts for
each purchase.
because some items differ according to their voltage previous projects. The costs on this database
level (insulators, transformers, etc.). must be disaggregated by construction unit and
not by kilometer, to be able to differentiate lines
One must also consider taxes, if applicable to the with different features. To apply historical costs
project in question. Most projects financed with to future projects, the engineer has to apply an
external aid are exempt from local taxes, but in inflation rate. Table 10 shows a typical format
other cases, one must determine the applicability for a labor database.
of taxes and their amount. Another very important
factor, in being able to apply historical costs Database by Construction Unit
to future projects, is the projection of the cost
itself. The historical cost of materials may be The next step in determining project costs consists
projected to the future by using an inflation rate or in calculating the investment costs by construction
a percentage of change in the cost of metals.4 unit. Calculate these costs by adding the cost of
materials for all the items included in the unit,
Labor Database plus the cost of labor for that unit. Table 11
shows a typical format for the database on cost
Apart from a database for the cost of materials, by construction unit.
the designer should maintain a database for the
cost of labor, using the construction costs of Database on Previous Designs
4
A good database for metals is the London Metal Exchange at: The engineer in charge needs to maintain another
http://www.lme.co.uk.
database on construction units by kilometer of line,
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Table 10. Format for a labor database
Description of the Unit Historical Unit Price Inflation Projected Unit Price
for the feeders between communities (called trunk electric lines differ greatly between these two
lines or main feeders), and on construction units for types of land. Then, when going to the field, the
distribution networks in the communities (i.e., taps engineer will evaluate the line to be built and will Apart from
off the primary line, transformation points, and low be able to determine its cost per unit. a database
voltage distribution networks). The database for
for the cost
feeders between communities must include poles, Table 12 shows a format for a database on
primary structures, conductors, anchors and all the construction units by kilometer/feeder. of materials,
primary line hardware. The database on distribution the designer
networks for the communities must include all Database on the Costs of Service Drops should
the units used in primary lines, underbuild, and
maintain a
secondary lines, and the transformation points in After developing the cost by kilometer of primary
the communities. lines for feeders between communities and the
database
cost by user for the distribution network in each for the cost
In the database on feeders between communities, community, develop cost estimations for the of labor,
distinguish between three-phase and single-phase service drops. As in the preceding steps, base using the
lines. Likewise, the database on feeders between these estimations on a database of historical
construction
communities must distinguish between lines in data, which includes the cost of materials and
flat, level areas and broken terrain or areas with labor. There are various types of service drops costs of
many line angles, because construction costs of to take into account, each with its particularities. previous
projects.
Table 11. Format for a database on cost by construction unit
Unit: ZA1
Description Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost
Square washer, 2-1/4”(5/8”) 3 $0.13 $0.39
Locknut, 5/8” 2 $0.11 $0.23
Spool insulator, 1-3/4” 1 $1.22 $1.22
Compression connector, ground to neutral 1 $0.33 $0.33
Preformed armor rods, single support, phase 1 $3.01 $3.01
Preformed armor rods, single support, neutral 1 $2.17 $2.17
Machine Bolt, 5/8” x 10” 2 $0.55 $1.10
Spool bolt , 5/8” x 10” 1 $2.43 $2.43
Pin-type insulator, ANSI 56-3 1 $30.22 $30.22
Pole top Pin , 20” 1 $3.68 $3.68
Aluminum tie wire, feet 15 $0.07 $1.04
Total Material Cost $45.81
Labor Cost $5.79
Total Unit Cost $51.60
Table 13 shows an example of a database on To have an idea of its cost, keep a database of
the distribution of different types of service the historical costs of staking in recent projects.
drops. This database must include the cost by kilometer
for feeders between communities and the cost
Database on the Cost of Staking by user for the staking of the distribution
network in each community. With this, the
The only cost component still to be determined engineer can make a projection of the annual
is that of staking (design) of the proposed project. cost, taking into account an inflation rate. Table
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Table 14. Costs of electric line staking Tables of Indicative Line Costs
Add these costs to the Excel worksheet described Description of the Project
previously.
Keep the description simple, so it is useful for
the evaluation of the project’s feasibility. Table
Table 15 shows an example of a worksheet that
17 shows a scheme for clarifying the description
arrives at the total cost of the project.
Tomoyo km phases users KWh kW Staking Feeder Distribution Total Cost $/User
Molle Molle (ambos) 6.4 1 200 6,000 25 $4,723 $28,160 $94,000 $126,883 $634
Sorojchi 2.7 1 105 3,150 14 $2,240 $11,880 $49,350 $63,470 $604
Yoroca 2.5 1 98 2,940 13 $2,084 $11,000 $46,060 $59,144 $604
Tomoyo 4.2 1 114 3,420 15 $2,893 $18,480 $53,580 $74,953 $657
Llatapata 2 1 50 1,500 7 $1,326 $8,800 $23,500 $33,626 $673
Isluco 2 1 30 900 5 $1,086 $8,800 $14,100 $23,986 $800
Jiroja 1 1 60 1,800 8 $1,083 $4,400 $28,200 $33,683 $561
Kasapata 3 1 50 1,500 7 $1,689 $13,200 $23,500 $38,389 $768
Sorocoto 3.5 1 160 4,800 20 $3,191 $15,400 $75,200 $93,791 $586
Soroscopa 1 1 60 1,800 8 $1,083 $4,400 $28,200 $33,683 $561
28.3 10 927 27,810 121 $21,397 $124,520 $435,690 $581,607 $627
of the project. The numerical values correspond included when the study warrants the inclusion
to the Tomoyo project. of some voltage regulation equipment during the
life of the project, or during the time allowed for
Power Flow project analysis, so as to show where, when, and
with what capacity this equipment is required
The power flow proves that the design is adequate to be installed. In these cases, the power flow
for the project throughout the period evaluated. should include a table of results showing the
Consequently, there will be at least two power data for each point of the study and a three-line
flows: one for the fi rst year of the project and diagram that displays the results in a graphical
another for the last. A third power flow may be format.
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Financial Analysis of
Rural Electrification Projects
horizon of 10 VIABILITY
Financial modeling provides decision makers
years or more, A key reason for the formation of rural electric with a picture of the financial viability of
because these cooperatives is that profit-making utilities often the proposed project. As with all projections
projects require cannot economically reach and serve remote into the future, fi nancial modeling is neither
areas, especially where industry is limited and infallible nor completely accurate. Modeling
several years
electricity consumption is low. Rural electric accuracy improves with careful estimation of
to complete infrastructure is costly, and the decision to extend capital and operating costs, as well as well-
the design, electric service to rural areas requires a careful documented and conservative sales forecasts:
procurement, balancing of costs and benefits. the better the input assumptions, the more
and construction accurate the model.
In financial analysis, the cost side of the equation
cycle. comprises the expenditure for new or additional The goal of fi nancial analysis is to evaluate the
electric facilities required to extend service, profit or loss attributable to the proposed project.
together with the expenses associated with For marginal projects, the analysis should
operating expenses. Benefits derive from revenues include a subsidy component. Governmental
resulting as a function of sales of electricity to assistance, usually in the form of sharing the
consumers. Financial analysis uses spreadsheet- initial capital costs of the project, is justified
based anticipation (modeling) of future cash by demonstrating the larger benefits to society
outflow and income associated with the proposed resulting from the project. Such benefits go
project. beyond those captured in fi nancial analysis.
They typically include savings to consumers
Simplistically viewed, if project income exceeds on energy expenditures as well as employment,
operating costs, the project is financially health, and environmental benefits (or costs).
viable, and if operating costs exceed income This broader defi nition of costs and benefits
generated, the project is not fi nancially viable. takes place in economic analysis, which is a
Rural electrification projects are generally step normally performed in cooperation with
evaluated on a time horizon of 10 years or a government entity or development bank. The
more, because these projects require several fi rst step, however, is projecting the fi nancial
years to complete the design, procurement, viability of the project.
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THE FINANCIAL ANALYSIS After refining the most viable scenario, the analyst
can use the financial model to identify project risks
PROCESS and determine minimum feasibility requirements
Perform project financial analysis after capital through sensitivity and breakeven analyses. At
and operating costs have been estimated for the the end of the financial modeling process, the
project, and the business team has developed team has a higher degree of confidence in the
estimates of administrative operating costs and viability of the project and is in a better position
electricity sales. to discuss the project with the community and
financial stakeholders.
It is common to evaluate multiple system design
alternatives, which results in differing cost Many analysts prefer to design and employ Financial analysis
scenarios, which in turn can be evaluated in their own model and indeed often build a new
model for each project to accurately capture the
is a method
parallel with distinct sales projection scenarios.
Sales projections are based on population and particularities of that project. There is no better for evaluating
economic projections for the area. The sales way to fully understand the nature of the project and reviewing
projections may be affected by design alternatives than to spend hours structuring the fi nancial scenarios to
that might extend electricity service to alternate calculations that describe the project cash flows.
determine the
villages and housing clusters. However, this approach runs the risk that the
complexity of designing each new model may most viable
Financial analysis is a method for evaluating lead to undetected formulaic errors. Even an system design for
and reviewing scenarios to determine the most experienced financial analyst may work through the community
viable system design for the community and for several versions of a new model before clearing and for estimating
estimating the overall financial viability of the all errors. NRECA has balanced these issues
the overall
project. Analysts input data from the various by developing and making available a tested
scenarios into the financial model and tracking model specifically designed to analyze small financial viability
the relative viability of each design alternative. rural electric grid extension projects. of the project.
Thus the financial analyst must not only validate Typically, the business plan presents only the single,
all input data values, noting the data source, but most likely scenario (referred to as the base case).
also make a conscious effort to identify and verify However, it is sometimes beneficial to describe the
all underlying assumptions. This practice should low (conservative) and high (aggressive) cases in
apply to data generated by the project team (such the business plan text to inform the reader of the
as capital costs) as well as to those external to the range of possible project outcomes.
project (such as population growth projections).
When possible the analysts should use multiple Analyzing a range of project outcomes helps to
data sources as a verification tool. identify project risks. Since every project has
some amount of risk, the best way to mitigate
Remember that just because the financial model that risk is through evaluating and identifying
results are calculated and printed by a computer, it mitigation strategies. For example, if it becomes
does not necessarily yield correct results. Before clear that the most significant project risk is the
inputting the data, the fi nancial analyst must industrial sales forecast, then this risk can be
check and validate all values and assumptions, mitigated by coordinating the project with a
and when variables change, check again. community economic development program that
supports industrial expansion through recruiting
Scenario Analysis new businesses to the community.
All rural electrification projects, and all investments In addition to bandwidth analysis, two other
in general, include some degree of uncertainty. types of scenario analyses can help analyze risk,
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both of which are typically applied to the base or earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation
case (not the high and low bandwidth cases). and amortization. This measures the operational
The first is sensitivity analysis where a single profitability of the project. A project that cannot
variable is changed among a range of possible cover operating expenses will not survive without
values while all other variables are held constant, operating subsidies, support that is not likely to
with observation of the resulting impact on the be provided to most projects.
project outcome. The project outcome may be
identified to be sensitive to changes in certain Next on the Income Statement, depreciation
variables (those that produce a large change in and amortization expenses are subtracted,
project indicators) and not as sensitive to changes resulting in EBIT, or earnings before interest
in other variables. and taxes. While depreciation is a non-cash The Income
expense, recovering the depreciation allowance
is critical, as this represents the utility’s reserve
Statement
For example, the project outcome might vary
little with changes in operation and maintenance for plant replacement. Revenues sufficient to fund shows revenue
expense (over a range of reasonable values) but depreciation will allow for plant replacement, for the project
vary greatly with possible shifts in the interest while failing to cover depreciation calls into broken down by
rate on project debt. As a logical follow-up, the question the long-term sustainability of the
customer class,
analyst would increase the interest rate until the project.
model shows revenues equating costs, that is, from which
financial breakeven. Called breakeven analysis, Then, interest is deducted from earnings resulting, expenses (by
this tool helps project promoters and prospective in earnings before taxes. If the project cannot major categories,
financiers understand the limits of the project generate sufficient revenue to service debt, then the largest of
with respect to specific key variables. some type of capital subsidy or debt deferment
which is typically
will be required. Finally on the Income Statement
taxes are subtracted, resulting in projected net purchased power)
Model Output
income. are subtracted.
The particularities of each project dictate which
combination of the evaluation tools (bandwidth, Cash Flow Statement
sensitivity, and breakeven analysis) the analyst
employs. All analyses may not be appropriate or The Cash Flow Statement presents cash receipts
useful in every situation. In any event, whatever and expenditures. The first block in the statement
useful information emerges from scenario analysis shows the cash expenditure on capital items – the
should be incorporated in the financial model actual cash equity outlay (not the borrowed or
description in the business plan. The model donated portion) for a new or expanded electric
description in the plan generally focuses on the plant in any single year.
model results, or output. The output section of
the NRECA Financial Model includes four main The second block on the statement shows other
components, described below. cash adjustments, both outlays and expenditures.
First, net income is carried over from the
Income Statement Income Statement, from which the actual
cash outlay for principal payments on debt is
The Income Statement shows revenue for the subtracted (principal payments are not shown
project broken down by customer class, from on the Income Statement) and depreciation is
which expenses (by major categories, the largest of added back (originally expensed on the Income
which is typically purchased power) are subtracted. Statement, but actually a non-cash item). The
The net of total income less operating expenses is result of these adjustments is net cash from
referred to by the accounting acronym EBITDA, operations.
Energy Requirements (MWh) – Annual amount Some of these indicators (especially Cash Return
of system energy requirements, defi ned as and IRR) are not always meaningful in the analysis
energy sales and energy losses of rural electrification projects, as a low equity
investment (denominator) can skew the ratio of
Coincident Peak (MW) – Annual coincident investment return. However, together with careful
peak demand, which is differentiated from analysis of the output statements as described
billing or non-coincidental peak demand above (including earnings projections, funding
of depreciation, debt service coverage, and net
Primary Line (km) – Annual year-end cash flow) these indicators make a full picture
number of kilometers of primary electric of the project’s financial performance available
line constructed and operating to decision makers.
Households Served – Annual year-end number Rural electric cooperatives or utilities are sometimes
of residential customers served established even when profits cannot meet the hurdles
of commercial rates of return. Thus, the objective
Population Coverage – Annual year-end often results in identifying the means by which
percentage of projected area population projects can successfully eliminate or minimize
served the need for governmental grant assistance.
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FINANCIAL MODEL DATA Market Data
REQUIREMENTS Market data define the target population and the
size of the project market. The model requires a
Data collection is the first step in preparing the
projection of the project population at the end of
financial model for project analysis. This section
the planning horizon and an estimate of average
provides an overview of the key data required
household size. Population data are generally
by the NRECA Financial Model. Following this
found at the government agency responsible
section is a user guide that offers specific step-
for demographic statistics. Since government
by-step instructions for data input and model
demographic data rarely identically match the
operation.
geographical boundaries of a proposed project,
interpolation of the data may be necessary.
The capital
Capital Costs cost data must
Historical and projected population growth statistics come from
Data in this category define the cost of constructing
provide the analyst a context for projections of
the proposed electric system. Arriving at this project-specific
residential customer growth. The model applies
cost requires identifying the major system engineering
those projections to the initial customer connection
components, the number of each component
estimates in the engineering study. studies, which
required, and the cost of the component. All cost
figures must include construction and installation
include current
Data on the agricultural, commercial, and industrial
as well as the cost of any land and civil work local costs for
segments of the market must be also be estimated
required (line right of way and substation). Note
and inserted into the model. These data are typically
materials and
that these costs vary from project to project and construction.
gathered through market surveys and/or studies
should be adjusted to account for local material
on willingness to pay or energy end-use.
and labor costs.
Data required by the model for each customer class
Another item contributing to capital cost and include the number of customers, customer growth
required by the fi nancial model is the cost of rates, and average monthly electricity usage.
engineering design. In addition to engineering
design costs, estimate any required pre-operating Finally, tariffs for each customer class must
costs (preliminary engineering studies, etc.), in be estimated and inserted, including customer,
addition to projecting the tools, equipment, and fixed monthly and energy usage charges.
vehicles that will be purchased for the project. Pricing data are determined by such factors
as customer willingness and ability to pay, the
Finally, the model requires estimation of the cost of providing service, the price of alternative
capital structure of the project, identifying the fuels, neighboring utility pricing standards, and
grant, equity, and debt portions of the capital regulatory considerations.
cost, along with loan terms.
Operating Costs
The capital cost data must come from project-
specific engineering studies, which include Data in this final input category define project
current local costs for materials and construction. operating costs. These include the cost of
Working together with the engineers, the financial purchased power, customer expense, variable
analyst needs to pull the relevant data from the and fixed operations and maintenance expense,
design studies and input it into the model. If costs administrative and general expense, and
for several design alternatives are presented, the professional services expense. The project engineer
analyst may use this data to evaluate multiple should provide estimates of operating costs,
financial model scenarios. especially operations and maintenance expenses.
SCENARIO NAME
FINANCIAL MODEL USER GUIDE
The NRECA Financial Model is an Excel-based The user should input a name for each scenario.
spreadsheet developed as a part of this module. The input name carries through the remainder
It analyzes the financial feasibility of proposed of the sheets to differentiate the various models
small, grid-connected rural electrification in scenario analysis.
projects.
A-1 Input Block: FEEDER, SECONDARY
General Information AND SERVICE COSTS
In the spreadsheet, white boxes indicate cells The total cost of materials and construction
that require user input. Be careful to input data for single and three-phase line, in dollars per
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Table 1. The A-1 input block
A B C D E
A-1 FEEDER, SECONDARY AND SERVICE COSTS
7 Feeder Line Single Phase Three Phase Notes
8 Total Cost Constructed (per km) 6,294 10,766
9
10 Secondary and Service
11 Meter and Base 69 Service drop total (new and repaired equipment)
12 Duplex
13 Cuadruplex
14 Secondary and Transformer 179
15 Transformer Bank 480 Three phase service drops
16 SECONDARY AND SERVICE TOTAL $ 248 $ 480
kilometer, goes into the A-1 input block, illustrated to fit the particular situation in Column A and
in Table 1. Note that values for medium voltage add notes in Column E.
(Feeder Line) and low voltage (Secondary and
Service) must be entered for single and three- A-2 Input Block: TOTAL ELECTRIC
phase components. These costs depend upon PLANT COST
the quantity of material purchased and local
construction costs. Enter here the remaining cost of the electric
plant, excluding feeder, secondary and service
Feeder Line costs already inputted in the A-1 block, along
with other basic information needed to define
Enter the total cost, in dollars per kilometer, of the project. For each line item or component,
constructing feeder, or primary line here. be sure to enter the unit quantity and unit costs,
unless already entered in block A-1.
Secondary and Service
New Construction
Enter here, in dollars, the installed costs of the
components of secondary and service drop – meter In column A, list all construction components
and base, duplex, quadruplex, secondary and for transmission and distribution construction
transformer unit costs and transformer bank. The with corresponding cost estimate for each. The
analyst can change the names of the components user can change these construction components
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project will serve in ten years without significant by the payment term, annual interest rate, and
additional investment, and second, it can help the estimated percentage of residential customers
prevent runaway customer growth projections who will contribute equity to the project.
resulting from invalid initial assumptions. Note
that, as the model is structured to stop the growth Pre-Operating Costs
of the number of residential class customers one
year after the population cap is reached, it is Enter any pre-operating costs that need to be
important to review the interaction of this cap capitalized, including project development
with the annual customer growth rate assumptions expenses, consulting expenses, and other project
and adjust both as necessary. “soft” costs, in cell G46 along with the number
of years in the amortization period for this asset
A-3 Input Block: ADDITIONAL CAPITAL (cell D46). Many rural
REQUIREMENTS AND CAPITAL electrification
STRUCTURE Vehicles and Equipment projects
In this block, enter additional capital costs of the Enter the cost of utility vehicles and equipment require
project, along with data describing the means of (including office equipment and furnishings in member or
project financing. cell G47, along with the amortization period (in consumer
number of years) in cell D47.
equity
Equity per Member
Initial Working Capital participation,
Although this model was designed for electric often
cooperatives, it also applies to other, non- Initial working capital is the amount of funds the
referred to as
cooperative utilities. Part A-3 thus applies to utility needs to begin commercial operations, and
cooperatives and non-cooperatives alike. Many that is “turned over” in one production cycle.
counterpart
rural electrification projects require member or Typically, the analyst leaves this cell blank until contributions
consumer equity participation, often referred to the model has been run with all other variables. to project
as counterpart contributions to project funding. Then, working iteratively by entering different funding.
For projects that require membership equity or amounts in this cell and reviewing the resulting
counterpart contributions, the analyst should enter project indicators on the Results page, the user
the contribution here. Note that contributions can get a feel for the financial sensitivities of
can be received by the electric utility in a lump the project. Understanding gained by successive
sum in the first year of the project or over time. model iterations will likely suggest changes
If counterpart contributions are received over required to the capital structure of the project (the
time, the terms of the contributions should financial resources required by the project from
be included here. Enter the dollar amount of equity, loans, or subsidies and grants), not simply
individual membership dues/counterpart, followed the amount of working capital required.
This is the connection charge that each customer No. of Customers % Increase per Year
requesting and receiving a service connection
must pay. It is a one-time charge assessed by the Enter the estimated annual increase in the number
utility to all consumers. of customers in three stages (Years 2-3, 4-6, and
7-10), to allow the model to project energy sales
Fixed Charge $/month growth over the project life. Note that the growth
rates are applied to the number of customers at
This is a fixed amount, in dollars per month, the end of previous year.
charged to every customer to cover customer-
related fixed costs, and with no associated Monthly Usage (kWh)
allowance for minimum energy usage. It does
not include any minimum amount of energy Enter the average monthly energy usage of each
usage. customer class.
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Table 4. The A-4 input block
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
A-4 ELECTRICITY SALES
Connection Fixed Charge Energy Demand Initial Monthly % Increase Non-Coincident Coincidence Coincident
$/customer $/month $/kWh/month $/kW/month Customers Number of Customers % Increase per Year Usage (kWh) Usage/yr Load Factor Demand (KW) Factor Peak (KW)
60 Years 2-3 Years 4-6 Years 7-10
61 Residential 2.10 0.17 12,000 3% 7% 3% 121 3% 0.3 6,722 0.95 6,386
62 Commercial 3.26 0.17 450 3% 7% 4% 408 4% 0.3 850 0.75 638
63 Agricultural 3.26 0.17 50 2% 6% 1% 1,000 0% 0.4 174 0.75 130
64 Small Industrial (<50KVA) 3.26 0.14 22.40 2 3% 3% 2% 10,000 1% 0.5 56 0.80 44
65 Large Industrial (>50KVA) 5.62 0.14 10.95 2 3% 3% 2% 25,000 1% 0.6 116 0.85 98
66 Street Lights 3.26 0.12 Street Lights kWh/residential customer/mo. 0.7 0.5 24 0.95 23
67 7,941 0.92 7,319
68 Local Currency Name Pesos /US$ ex. rate 29.0 Initial Sytem Energy Sales (kWh) 211,700,880
69 Pesos Energy Losses (kWh) 9,073,234 Losses Converted to C- peak KW 2,954
70 Residential - 60.90 4.93 Initial Energy Requirement (kWh) 30,244,114
71 Commercial - 94.50 4.93 - Initial System C-Peak Demand (KW) 10,273
72 Agricultural - 94.50 4.93 - (estimated - before reducing for customer phase-in)
73 Small Industrial (<50KVA) - 94.50 3.94 649.600 First Year Customers Average Months of Service
74 Large Industrial (>50KVA) - 163.05 3.94 317.680 12
75 Street Lights - 94.50 3.51 (applied to first year residential revenue for customer phase-in)
Enter the estimated annual increase in average In cells B86-87, the analyst should enter the
monthly electricity usage for each customer annualized fi xed operations and maintenance
class. costs (Fixed O&M), fi xed administrative and
general costs (Fixed A&G), and the fixed cost
Load Factor and Coincidence Factor of professional services, such as legal and
accounting services (Fixed Professional Services).
This section asks for information related to load
The spreadsheet program inflates each of these
factor and coincidence factor. Note that this data
categories by the amount entered in cell B89
is not likely to be available for a new project.
(Fixed Cost Real Inflator) to produce annual
The Therefore, unless the analyst can obtain reasonable
figures for each year in the planning period. The
spreadsheet estimates for the specific project under review,
fixed cost real inflator is the estimated average
uses these we recommend that the values in the spreadsheet
rate of inflation for the period in question.
be used without further changes. These figures
values to
are based on experience and are within normal Insurance as % of Plant Value
calculate limits of rural utilities. To discourage changes to
the project’s these values, these cells have been shaded. The figure entered in cell E83 represents the cost
estimated of insurance as a percentage of the value of the
These variables allow the model to produce
annual assets insured. The program applies this figure
estimates of billing demand and coincident
to the value of the initial insurable electric plant
revenue from system peak demand. Helpful indicators (e.g.,
to calculate annual insurance expense.
four customer peak load) on this input block provide real-time
classes – feedback as to the characteristics of the system Non-Pass-Through Sales Tax
being modeled.
Residential,
The figure entered in cell G83, expressed as a
Commercial, Finally, the analyst can include the name of the percentage, denotes sales tax levied against the
Agricultural, local currency and its exchange rate with respect to cooperative’s total revenue. Do not fill this in
and Small the U.S. dollar. This allows the user to view tariffs if the utility will simply charge customers for
in local currency as well as in U.S. dollars, and to
Industrial. sales tax and pass on the tax received to the
produce an output page in local currency. government authority.
A-5 Input Block: OPERATION COSTS
Applicable Income Tax
The final input block, shown in Table 5, allows
The figure entered in cell I83, expressed as a
the user to define the utility’s operating costs.
percentage, is the rate that will be applied to
Purchased Power any positive net income to calculate corporate
income tax expense.
Enter the cost of purchased power in dollars
(incorporating any wheeling charges) in cells B82 Collections Efficiency
and C82, for energy and, if applicable, monthly
peak demand, respectively. The figures entered (as a percentage) in cells D87
through M87 represent the amount of revenue
Customer & Variable O&M collected as a proportion of the total amount
billed to customers. The spreadsheet uses these
Enter customer expense and variable operations values to calculate the project’s estimated annual
and maintenance expense (calculated in dollars revenue from four customer classes – Residential,
per customer, per year) in cell B85. Commercial, Agricultural, and Small Industrial.
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Technical and Non-Technical Energy Losses B-5 POPULATION SERVED
The figures entered in cells D89-M89 reflect The number of residential customers is multiplied
total estimated energy losses, calculated (and by the average household size to calculate the
entered into the spreadsheet) as a percentage of population served. This figure is used on the
total energy purchases. Results page as a cap on estimates of customer
growth.
Calculations Sheet
B-6 KM LINE
Most of the major calculations are performed on
this page, although some are also carried out on This block calculates the ratio of initial kilometers of
the Results page. The formulas for the calculations line constructed to the initial number of customers.
are not error-protected. However, changes to the The resulting indicator appears on the Results sheet.
formulas are not recommended. If changes are This indicator is subsequently used to determine
required, take extreme care to ensure that the the additional kilometers of line required to serve
implications of the change throughout the entire additional customers once the full capacity of the
model have been thoroughly considered. original system has been reached.
This calculation block tallies customer growth This block calculates the value (in dollars) of plant
per year and by customer class. New customers expansion required by the increase in customers
are italicized so that their connection charge beyond the initial system capacity. This value
can be applied later in the revenue calculations forms the basis for calculating depreciation of the
section. The customer numbers in this block do plant, or the project’s fixed assets. Note that plant
not show the application of the population cap, value, for the purpose of calculating depreciation,
which appears elsewhere. is that portion of the plant acquired through equity
and debt financing, not any contribution to plant
B-2 ANNUAL kWh SALES acquisition financed through grants or subsidies.
This block calculates annual energy sales before B-8 PAYMENTS ON EXPANSION PLANT
any reductions for first-year customer phase-in. DEBT
(The reductions, based on the first-year customers’
average months of service, occur on the Results This block uses the values calculated in Block
page.) B-7 to calculate additional interest and principal
repayments resulting from debt-financed
B-3 MONTHLY N-C BILLING DEMAND expansion of the electric plant.
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Table 6. Results: Income Statement (Cooperativa Electrica Fronteriza)
SCENARIO — Fronteriza - Indexed Tariffs — US$
INCOME STATEMENT
Revenue Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10
Residential 1,958,688.0 2,763,154.0 3,289,197.0 3,696,106.0 4,107,507.0 4,564,477.0 4,882,432.0 5,222,288.0 5,527,957.0 5,851,870.0
Commercial 235,284.0 335,469.0 403,601.0 458,373.0 514,827.0 578,200.0 631,130.0 688,866.0 744,090.0 803,780.0
Agricultural 62,373.0 84,827.0 97,339.0 105,473.0 113,016.0 121,085.0 123,147.0 126,147.0 127,409.0 128,683.0
Small Industrial 28,591.0 39,657.0 46,411.0 49,354.0 51,900.0 54,571.0 56,816.0 59,147.0 60,933.0 62,772.0
Large Industrial 96,949.0 100,720.0 104,779.0 109,002.0 113,395.0 117,964.0 121,525.0 125,195.0 128,976.0 132,871.0
Street Lights 12,584.0 12,961.0 13,348.0 14,280.0 15,277.0 16,344.0 16,833.0 17,336.0 17,855.0 18,390.0
Total Revenue 2,394,470.0 3,336,790.0 3,954,678.0 4,432,592.0 4,915,927.0 5,452,647.0 5,831,890.0 6,238,987.0 6,607,229.0 6,998,376.0
Expenses
Purchased Power 3,264,624.0 2,958,446.0 3,051,679.0 3,357,145.0 3,693,720.0 4,064,601.0 4,312,783.0 4,576,634.0 4,857,166.0 5,155,452.0
Operations & Maintenance 83,000.0 85,490.0 88,055.0 90,096.0 93,417.0 96,220.0 99,106.0 102,080.0 105,142.0 108,296.0
Customer & Variable O&M 112,545.0 115,917.0 119,389.0 127,740.0 136,674.0 146,234.0 150,662.0 155,224.0 159,926.0 164,771.0
Administration & General 24,000.0 24,720.0 25,462.0 26,225.0 27,012.0 27,823.0 28,657.0 29,517.0 30,402.0 31,315.0
Professional Services 20,000.0 20,600.0 21,218.0 21,855.0 22,510.0 23,185.0 23,881.0 24,597.0 25,335.0 26,095.0
Insurance 66,786.0 66,786.0 66,786.0 66,786.0 66,786.0 66,786.0 66,786.0 66,786.0 66,786.0 66,786.0
Sales Tax 71,834.0 100,104.0 118,640.0 132,978.0 147,478.0 163,579.0 174,970.0 187,170.0 198,217.0 209,951.0
Total Expenses 3,642,789.0 3,372,063.0 3,491,229.0 3,822,825.0 4,187,597.0 4,588,428.0 4,856,845.0 5,142,008.0 5,442,974.0 5,762,666.0
EBITDA (1,248,319) (35,273) 463,449.0 609,767.0 728,330.0 864,219.0 975,495.0 1,096,980.0 1,164,255.0 1,235,710.0
Depreciation & Amortization 87,468.0 97,081.0 97,081.0 97,081.0 97,081.0 97,081.0 137,854.0 94,691.0 100,717.0 106,924.0
EBIT (1,335,787) (132,354) 366,368.0 512,686.0 631,249.0 767,138.0 837,641.0 10,002,289.0 1,063,537.0 1,128,786.0
Interest on Initial System 88,474.0 84,673.0 80,643.0 76,373.0 71,845.0 67,047.0 61,960.0 56,568.0 50,853.0 44,794.0
EARNINGS BEFORE TAXES (1,424,260) (217,026) 285,726.0 435,713.0 559,402.0 700,091.0 715,134.0 879,087.0 940,232.0 1,006,025.0
Income Taxes - - - - - - - - - -
NET INCOME (1,424,260) (217,026) 285,726.0 435,713.0 559,402.0 700,091.0 715,134.0 879,087.0 940,232.0 1,006,025.0
Capital Expense Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10
Cash Adjustments
Net Income (1,424,260) (217,026) 285,726.0 435,713.0 559,402.0 700,091.0 715,134.0 879,087.0 940,232.0 1,006,025.0
Initial System 63,351.0 67,152.0 71,181.0 75,452.0 79,979.0 84,778.0 89,865.0 95,257.0 100,972.0 107,031.0
Plus Depreciation 87,468.0 97,081.0 97,081.0 97,081.0 97,081.0 97,081.0 137,854.0 94,691.0 100,717.0 106,924.0
Net Cash from Operations (1,400,143) (187,097) 311,625.0 457,341.0 576,504.0 712,393.0 719,768.0 826,343.0 878,261.0 933,900.0
ANNUAL CASH FLOW (1,470,360) (187,097) 311,625.0 457,341.0 576,504.0 712,393.0 709,575.0 824,881.0 876,754.0 932,348.0
Project Financing Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10
Grant 5,476,940.0 - - - - - - - - -
Member Equity Payments 12,934.0 86,477.0 90,331.0 99,799.0 110,041.0 37,966.0 29,580.0 39,799.0 35,790.0 31,172.0
Cash from Operations (1,400,143) (187,097) 311,625.0 457,341.0 576,504.0 712,393.0 719,768.0 826,343.0 878,261.0 933,900.0
TOTAL SOURCES 5,634,509 (100,620) 401,956 557,140 686,545 750,359.0 1,768,667.0 1,012,408.0 1,064,705.0 1,120,245.0
NET CASH (1,387,209) (100,620) 401,956.0 557,140.0 686,545.0 750,359.0 749,348.0 866,142.0 914,051.0 965,072.0
ACCUMULATED CASH (1,387,209) (1,487,829) (1,085,873) (528,733) 157,812.0 908,171.0 1,657,519.0 2,523,661.0 3,437,712.0 4,402,784.0
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10
Cash Return on Equity -1975.6% -143.3% 572.4% 793.5% 977.7% 1068.6% 1052.7% 1231.4% 1299.6% 1372.2%
Debt Service Coverage Ratio (8.2) (0.2) 3.1 4.0 4.8 5.7 3.8 4.1 4.1 4.1
Energy Requirements (MWH) 30,244.0 26,397.0 27,025.0 29,718.0 32,684.0 35,951.0 38,139.0 40,466.0 42,939.0 45,569.0
Coincident Peak (MW) 8.4 8.2 8.6 9.5 10.4 11.5 12.2 13.0 13.7 14.6
Primary Line (km) 215.0 215.0 215.0 215.0 215.0 215.0 216.0 222.0 229.0 236.0
Households Served 12,000.0 12,360.0 12,731.0 13,622.0 14,575.0 15,596.0 16,064.0 16,546.0 17,042.0 17,553.0
Population Coverage 49% 51% 52% 56% 60% 64% 66% 68% 70% 72%
Additional Working Captial Requirement 1,487,830 <<Caution! This cash requirement is not funded. Iteratively adjust Initial Working Capital on Input sheet
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Productive Uses of Electricity
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JUSTIFICATION FOR A will not have the capacity to pay the distribution
company’s tariffs without increased access to
PRODUCTIVE USES PROGRAM appropriate means to augment their income. Thus,
Many rural distribution systems or cooperatives a market-oriented productive uses of electricity
require a conscious effort to promote productive program, which uses local resources and local
uses of electricity for the distribution entity to labor, will promote business competitiveness
justify their costs, and/or sustainably generate and accelerate the learning process related to
profits. Many electric grid expansion projects employing electricity as an economic stimulus
or electric generation investments in rural for the target area.
areas cannot be justified economically, unless a
productive uses of electricity approach is used Generating
as a tool to spur development and generate new COMPONENTS OF A
sources of income. Modern energy services are
improved
PRODUCTIVE USES PROGRAM business
also an essential component of increased access
to social and economic benefits for rural areas. The basic components of a PUE program include competitiveness
access to modern energy service, favorable through
Historically, rural electrification projects have market conditions, availability of electric
productive uses
often been conceived solely as social investments. equipment, financial resources, human resources,
Projects of that nature are deemed complete once and coordination and promotion. What follows of electricity
inaugurated, since their purpose is to primarily is a fuller discussion of these components one will translate
bring light to un-electrified residential homes. by one. into better
The concept of electricity as a development income, better
initiative has typically not been a driving force Access to Modern Energy Service community
in decision making or prioritization of rural
electrification projects. Productive uses activities require energy to services, and in
produce goods or provide services. In addition, general, a better
A change of paradigm occurs, however, when the energy needs to be reliable. A classic example opportunity
decision makers establish the concept that rural to illustrate the importance of reliable electric
for integrated
electrification is not an end but a means. That service is an ice cream shop. No power, no more
implies that generating improved business ice cream. Modern energy service reliability, both
development.
competitiveness through productive uses of in continuity of supply and power quality, is key
electricity will translate into better income, to assuring users that they will get a return on
better community services, and in general, a their investment and that their commercial and
better opportunity for integrated development. residential electric equipment will work safely
The addition of complementary development and efficiently. Moreover, consumers must have
efforts, such as support infrastructure, education, confidence that excessive voltage fluctuations
training, technical assistance, and access to credit will not occur, which could damage their electric
form part of this new development initiative. equipment or force users to disconnect the
Together with the electric distribution system, equipment to avoid damage or malfunction.
the development efforts serve as a foundation
for growth. Distribution cooperatives or utilities have an
obligation to meet minimum standards of service.
Productive uses of electricity programs have They should of course strive to go beyond those
grown out of the notion gained though experience minimums to meet customer expectations of
that access to electricity alone does not generate quality and service. Put another way, distribution
employment or increase income in rural areas. entities should be customer-oriented, with a
However, an economically depressed population focus on satisfying the needs and concerns of
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institutions, non-governmental organizations may require financial support to cover both the cost
(NGOs), and other educational and developmental of connecting to the electric distribution system
institutions. and the acquisition of electrical equipment.
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economic, social, and environmental benefits adjust the program scope to obtain the greatest
obtainable through the implementation of a benefit from the resources available to execute
productive uses of electricity program. the PUE program.
Seek input from all local players in developing Program planners should bear in mind that the
the program design and action strategies sustainability of the program may hinge on how
related to promotion, technical assistance, effectively they involve existing organizations
and financing. from the start. The program scope should, by
design, involve commitments in both finances and
Be sensitive to the productive, socio-economic, personnel on the part of the stakeholders (electric
ethno-cultural, and environmental conditions utility, credit institutions, equipment vendors,
To define the
of the target region. educational institutions, and beneficiaries) to the
greatest extent possible.
scope of a
PUE program,
Scope of a Productive Uses Program
Active participation by the electric service implementers
To define the scope of a PUE program, provider, educational centers, NGOs, and should conduct
implementers should conduct an initial study government entities is important for the success
an initial study
of the target communities and inventory of the program. Strategic involvement of these
the existence and capabilities of potential players will help to institutionalize the program of the target
stakeholders. The study should evaluate each within the respective entities, inducing positive communities
of the six basic program components described changes and the momentum necessary for a and inventory
in this module. Using the Human Resources sustainable program. the existence
component as an example, the initial study would
and capabilities
determine how well prepared the owners of Identification of the Players and their
potential beneficiary microenterprises are to of potential
Roles in the Program
manage, operate, and expand their businesses; stakeholders.
how many, if any, vocational schools, technical A productive uses program involves a number
institutes, universities, and NGOs exist; how of stakeholders or players that are essential to
many of these institutions could effectively train its success. Table 1 shows a typical list of PUE
the personnel of the beneficiary productive use project players within a community.
activities; and how many, and to what extent,
these organizations could help coordinate the Success in development programs comes
program in general. Based on the results of the from combining the efforts of various players.
study, the implementers would decide what type Consequently, establishing parallel and related
of training the beneficiaries need most and who development initiatives (such as the improvement
would provide it, thus defining the scope of the of the public water system) along with the PUE
human resources component of the program. program can be useful. Implementers must
remember to coordinate these efforts with the
Applying the same process to each of the various players.
components and putting the whole picture
together would define the overall scope of the Program Strategies
PUE program. Assigning costs and benefits
to various potential program activities and A PUE program can embody, or complement, a
analyzing the various options allows planners larger strategic plan for the economic development
to prioritize activities according to the greatest of a community or a region. The strategic plan
fi nancial, economic, and social benefit. With should comprise methods of providing training,
that information, the program implementers can technical assistance, and financing.
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To efficiently use limited financial and technical 6. Conduct the community meeting and training
resources, any training strategy should focus following a previously prepared agenda. Take
initially on the main community centers, and then the names of participants who are interested
extend progressively outside the major population in equipment or financing. End the meeting
centers, until the entire target region has been with an announcement stating the dates
reached. and times for upcoming special meetings
for those individuals interested in acquiring
Community trainings involve all program equipment and for those interested in receiving
players, i.e. community leaders, neighbors, the financing.
implementing entity, the local electric distributor,
the financing entity, equipment suppliers, and 7. Hold special sessions on electric equipment
The second
other local entities. and financing opportunities to introduce
equipment and financing options, including
phase of the
The following set of steps illustrates how the associated costs. PUE program’s
community training activities can be coordinated training strategy
and promoted. 8. Finally, set up and carry out personal is designed
appointments with individuals interested in
specifically
1. Select the project region and communities in a discussing details of equipment or financing,
coordinated manner, involving all players, so with assurances that the plans and/or financial for individuals
as to meet the objectives of the program. situation of each individual will be kept interested in
confidential. creating new
2. Promote community PUE training through businesses or in
contact with local leaders. The community Commercial Management Training
strengthening
training objective is to inform the population
regarding the PUE program. Therefore, the The second phase of the PUE program’s training existing
support of local leaders is needed to identify strategy is designed specifically for individuals businesses.
the most appropriate training location and to interested in creating new businesses or in
select and convene the participants. strengthening existing businesses. The objective
is to teach best management practices and share
3. Choose the date and hour of the community methods that improve administrative efficiency
meeting with the aim of ensuring the greatest and business productivity.
level of local population participation.
This educational effort promotes the active
4. Place promotional banners and posters in participation of the players involved. Its successful
strategic locations within the community. implementation improves business sustainability
Make house-to-house calls, and depending for those involved. The following suggestions
on the local customs, arrange for a vehicle make the management training more effective.
with a loudspeaker to travel throughout the
community announcing the activity in the Training Prior To Financing And Business
local language, emphasizing the date and Startup
hour of the meeting.
Before loans are made or equipment is purchased
5. Before carrying out the community training, for new businesses, this training provides an
prepare a detailed report to identify existing and opportunity for financing entities and equipment
potential PUE activities. Share this information suppliers to become more familiar with potential
with the electric equipment vendors and with customers and to identify those who have a
participating financing agencies. defined project compatible with the philosophy
Planning business requirements, based on Elective courses: Offered after completion of the
production, administration, and existing and required courses. Topics are generated to meet
potential markets the individual customer’s specific needs, and can
be defined when such needs are identified.
Content of the second session:
Typical elective topics include:
Introduction
Strategic planning
Managing credit effectively
Organization
Preparing and complying with a work plan
Efficiency and safety
Forming a support committee to help the
business succeed First aid
The sessions should be scheduled to have the All parties interested in acquiring financing or
greatest possible benefit. For example, the obtaining a special discount from equipment
second session could take place after customer vendors must participate in the required training,
credit approval, but before disbursement of and a selection of elective courses, selected in
the loan. In order to avoid business failures, consultation with the PUE trainers.
implementers should consider postponing credit
disbursement or equipment delivery until the All training must be sensitive to the participants’
entrepreneur or customer participates in the educational levels and cultural backgrounds. It
second session. should emphasize creating a business that will
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be competitive in a market-driven economy Nevertheless, these organizations frequently lack
(whether local, national, or international). The the basic knowledge of how to properly assess and
training provides beneficiaries with information reduce the risks inherent in loans even in those
and methods that can help contribute to ongoing populated areas. They are even more likely to lack
business success. the knowledge of how to effectively extend their
services to rural areas. Therefore, the training
Training Associated with Financial program should address the fundamentals of
Service Entities sound credit assessments as well as best practices
for offering loans to rural clients.
Small and medium-sized enterprises often lack
access to traditional financing mechanisms. Technical Assistance Strategy
By combining
The fi nancial services infrastructure is often
The technical assistance strategy for the PUE credit with
concentrated within urban centers and has
minimal outreach to rural areas. Also, frequently program’s business participants provides credit access to
rural business proprietors and those interested seekers with the necessary technical support for electricity,
in started a business have little documentation the selection, purchase, use and maintenance of
these two
regarding their identity and assets (equipment, electric equipment. It also helps with the design,
execution, and maintenance of their electric inputs can
land, productive infrastructure). Therefore, they
do not have acceptable collateral or proof of installations and provides the marketing support become major
credit worthiness. needed to promote their goods and services. drivers of
rural economic
The availability and scope of technical assistance
To address this issue, a portion of the productive development.
varies, depending on the scope and magnitude
uses training program should focus on working
of the PUE program. The electric cooperative,
with financial entities to expand their programs
electric equipment vendors, financial institutions,
to reach entrepreneurs who are eager to begin or
or an institution specialized in providing training
expand productive use activities but lack access
could each be the provider of such assistance. The
to credit.
technical assistance may include the following
components.
Financial services trainings are usually oriented
towards lending agencies, although they could
Pre-Financing Technical Assistance
also include others such as equipment vendors
involved with the program. Pre-financing technical assistance support goes
to individuals who are interested in the PUE
The recommended approach is to conduct a workshop program but have not received credit or have not
for formal and informal financial institutions, such acquired equipment. Technical assistance during
as small local microcredit programs. This training this phase relates to three areas:
aims at sensitizing financial entities to include
rural enterprises in their financing programs. Selecting the Best Equipment for the Job
The training ultimately helps to introduce rural
inhabitants to, or expand their knowledge of, the PUE program promoters who are familiar with the
credit sector and its potential as a catalyst for rural equipment needs of participants should explain
development. By combining credit with access the reasons for and at least three price quotes for
to electricity, these two inputs can become major the desired equipment and assist with obtaining
drivers of rural economic development. them.
Often financing organizations already work with The assistance must emphasize the importance
productive uses in urban or peri-urban areas. of obtaining quotes from recognized companies
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Use quality materials and accessories rather than in a residence or other location
(according to safety standards). where unauthorized access to the equipment
is possible.
Create and properly execute an installation
plan to ensure that the equipment is Maintenance of the Equipment/Machinery
correctly insulated and installed according
to standards. The PUE promoter must verify that the entrepreneur
is carrying out the correct maintenance indicated
Make sure all electric circuits where equipment in the manuals and recommended by the vendor.
will be connected meet the appropriate The business supervisor must oversee that the
protection and safety standards. following steps are taken:
Install
Keep the medium voltage circuits out of reach Clean equipment at the end of each workday. equipment in a
of people and machinery. secure and safe
Lubricate and grease parts as required, environment,
Install dedicated circuits and independent according to the manual.
stored in a place
protection for special equipment.
Periodically inspect circuits, conductors, of business,
Ensure that all installations are physically connections, protection, and switches. rather than in
grounded. a residence
Examine and maintain such things as belts,
or other
Install equipment so technicians can easily tensioners, shock absorbers, augers, blades,
access equipment for maintenance. bearings, and support and positioning location where
mechanisms, in accordance with the unauthorized
Equipment Protection manufacturer’s recommendations. access to the
equipment is
Protecting equipment is of vital importance, Monitor ventilation conditions, illumination,
because it is typically the business’s most valuable space layout, waste, odors, airborne particulate
possible.
asset. Train the PUE recipient to follow these matter, etc.
practices:
Handling and Use of Equipment
The work area should be orderly and clean,
particularly where electric installations are As a complement to the information in the
located. pre-equipping phase, address the following
aspects:
Make all connections with equipment designed
for the specific corresponding purpose. After the equipment supplier’s demonstration,
the PUE promoter must visit the business
All equipment must be disconnected and to verify that the business activities and
switches turned off when the equipment is equipment are proceeding according to the
not in use. vendor’s instructions.
Cover all equipment when it is not in use. If If possible, the vendor should be encouraged
the equipment is mobile, it must be kept clean to examine the equipment installation and
and in a locked location. verify proper operating conditions.
Install equipment in a secure and safe Make an unannounced visit to verify that
environment, stored in a place of business, proper operating conditions exist. Equipment
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PRODUCTIVE USES PROGRAM Evaluate whether the financial institution has
the necessary liquidity, or whether additional
IMPLEMENTATION funding sources are required.
This section describes the main activities involved
in launching a productive uses program. Evaluate whether the financial institution
should designate certain personnel to oversee
Coordination with Program Participants the program and work directly with participants
and whether it is necessary to open new offices
Program participants typically include the in the program area.
PUE program implementing entity, the electric
distribution utility (which may be, or eventually The implementing entity must also coordinate Field work
become, the implementing entity), the financial certain aspects with equipment vendors, such as:
institution(s), the electric equipment vendors,
involves
and the program beneficiaries (customers). Determine availability of equipment that program accurately
Other potential players are non-governmental beneficiaries will need and purchase. identifying
organizations (NGOs), national and local existing
governments, and other development entities Confirm supplier financing arrangements (if productive
working in the region. any) and conditions.
uses in the
If the electric distribution utility does not assume Explore possibilities of opening an office in program area
leadership of the PUE program, then the program the project area, if necessary. as well as
implementing entity (the project’s main sponsor, the potential
in many cases) must take the lead in coordinating Provide technical assistance and training to
participants in
all other players. They must coordinate directly program beneficiaries so they can operate and
with the electric distribution utility regarding maintain the purchased equipment. the new PUE
the following key areas: program.
Last, the implementing entity should educate
Confirm that the electric distribution utility future program beneficiaries concerning the
is willing and able to offer reliable and benefits provided by the PUE program as it relates
safe electric service to the future program to the electric utility, financing institution, and
beneficiaries. the equipment providers.
Next, the program implementer must coordinate Factors such as the following should be considered
with the financing institution in these areas: in planning field work:
In some cases, very complete and reliable data The identification of productive uses activities
exist, but in other cases, the available data in relation to the electric system is not a simple
are minimal and potentially useless. In any sorting of electricity users into residential,
instance, always proceed with the field work commercial and industrial categories, as is
to validate any existing information. If no done with most electrification and utility data.
reliable information exists, the fi rst field work Each of those categories might contain a number
priority is to obtain reliable data. Visiting the of different productive uses. Therefore, more
area provides information about the topography, detailed information is needed. As an example,
infrastructure, and physical barriers that could in the Lower Valley of Cochabamba (Bolivia),
inf luence program implementation. It also over 50% of the total productive uses activities
permits verification of the quantity and type were already connected to the electric system and
of existing productive uses activities in the fell within the residential consumer category. To
area, transportation options and their quality, have a realistic idea of the volume and diversity
physical access to the area, the condition of the of productive uses activities in the target area,
existing electric system, the distances, and the they must be identified and quantified through
economic development of the area in general. field work.
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The survey team must be knowledgeable about Information Analysis
the PUE program and trained to carry out their
work efficiently. They must all understand the Analyze field data carefully. Hasty interpretations
mission and objectives of the PUE program, and could lead to poor decisions causing severe
be able to explain them to others. The survey implications for the beneficiary population. If
team must be observant, since productive uses projects are not appropriately sensitive, or are
activities are not always advertised or identified driven solely by financial factors, certain local
by company signs, especially in rural areas. For resources, values, and customs may be altered.
example, the sound of a circular saw in a carpentry
shop, or the bright flash in an arc welding shop, The following are suggested basic elements to use
or the electronic music of a pub or disco, or the in formulating a productive uses project.
fragrant aroma from a bakery could all serve as
clues to seek out potential PUE beneficiaries. Market Analysis
Remember that in many developing countries
these businesses are often found inside residential Prior to implementing a PUE program, the
homes. The surveyor must pay attention to the planners should ask themselves some of the
entire spectrum of sounds, sights, colors, and same market analysis questions that prospective
smells that a business could emit. beneficiaries of such a program would have
to ask themselves. They should reflect on the
In addition, train the survey team to identify basic question of whether there is a market for
non-electric machinery productive activities in the PUE program itself. Beyond that, project
the electrified areas. The project promoters must promoters should review the questions below
establish whether it might be financially beneficial to understand how productive use owners will
for the business to connect to the electric grid have to analyze the market to decide whether
and use electric equipment. Examples of non- or not to launch a new business or expand an
electrified productive activities include pumps existing one.
or mills driven by internal combustion engines,
as well as many other activities that use diesel, An integral analysis begins with knowing the
gasoline, natural gas, firewood, waterpower, or market. This serves as the best starting point
simply human energy. for conceiving and implementing the project
and lays a solid foundation for its future success.
Finally, the program’s implementing entity must Carefully consider the following questions during
determine whether it is necessary to carry out market analysis.
a beneficiary analysis in the project area. This
analysis provides information regarding how the Product or Service Questions
local inhabitants view the current electric service
and the current electric distribution utility. This Is the product clearly defined?
information is valuable, especially for the electric
distribution utility, since challenges in this area Is it new, or does it already exist?
must be overcome before the productive uses of
electricity program can succeed. Some common Does it meet quality standards?
issues are poor quality of service, mistrust of
meter readings, billing problems, or poor customer What are its strengths, opportunities,
treatment by utility employees. The existence of weaknesses and threats?
these problems and the lack of will to resolve them
can undermine the performance and success of Are there opportunities to create ancillary
the PUE program. products?
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Permits required decisions. This analysis should incorporate all
previous considerations and assumptions to
Regulatory impediments portray the true costs and the benefits of the
project as accurately as possible.
Threatened resources (natural, cultural, or
social) Many projects in rural communities are solely
the result of the project promoter’s business
Work environment characteristics instincts. Often the rural entrepreneur has little
or no comprehension of costs, prices, or concepts
Mitigation measures and implementation
such as return on investment.
costs
Many projects in
Environmental financial implications over the Normally, existing business projects have a
minimal investment in productive assets, poor
rural communities
life of the project
documentation, and few or no financial records. are solely the
Environmental legal framework This resembles the situation often found in family result of the
businesses within the informal sector of the project promoter’s
Socio-cultural Analysis economy, such as a local convenience store.
business instincts.
Project planners also need to consider cultural and In businesses where no formal financial Often the rural
social factors during the design, implementation, documentation exists, management expertise entrepreneur
and operation of PUE projects. In most rural can be established through training on income has little or no
areas, traditions, customs, ancestral rituals, and patterns, seasonal market changes, as well as comprehension
deeply entrenched organizational structures through managing external financing. Normally,
of costs, prices,
exist. These must be respected and included as incorporating electricity into the business process
variables for the design of the productive uses within rural businesses creates incremental or concepts such
of electricity program. Sociocultural analysis increases in financial benefits, due to cost as return on
creates a vehicle through which the project can savings, quality improvements, and/or increases investment.
recognize the cultural heritage of indigenous and in productivity.
tribal populations, guaranteed through several
international treaties.1 Projecting the financial viability of an entire PUE
program or of an individual productive use is
Rural populations are usually deeply attached to essential to determine whether or not the project or
their ancestral roots. However, they also often business can attract financing and reach financial
suffer from extreme levels of poverty. Social issues sustainability. Determining financial viability is
emerging from either cultural or ancestral traditions, a matter of weighing future cash outlays against
such as equity in participation (ethnic, creed, and projected revenues, so as to define the project’s
gender), education level, access to services, etc., profit or loss.
demand special attention when designing strategies
and tactics for a sustainable PUE program. Promotion of Productive Uses
Financial Analysis Resource potential, entrepreneurial intuition,
and practical action options can provide insights
Financial analysis is crucial in determining into what is achievable within a region, if it were
project feasibility and in making implementation possible to rationally combine labor and capital.
The challenge for the project visionaries is to
1
C169 Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989, of the International
promote sound PUE project options that truly
Labor Organization. apply for the business community of the region.
Researchers should identify the following target Community needs that can be met with
population characteristics: electricity (water pumping, health services,
irrigation, etc.)
Existing services in the area (education
service, health service, access to water, Access to markets to sell finished products
communications, etc.) and buy raw materials
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Predominant socioeconomic characteristics understand scenes that an audience of diverse
ages and educational backgrounds can grasp.
Experience has shown that a variety of media
work best to approach a community, with human Try to carry out this activity in an appropriate
contact as the common denominator. People learn room or hall where the acoustics are conducive to
in different ways, and therefore different media of allowing all in attendance to hear. Consider using
communication must be utilized as well. The mix a sound amplification system where available. For
of different media and communication methods example, in Bolivia puppet theater performances
should be sensitive to local characteristics, were presented in schools with great success.
including language and the literacy rate. Among
the methods to consider are the following. Mobile Demonstration Unit
Mobile
Manuals Mobile demonstration units are a highly effective
demonstration
method for communicating productive use units are a
Manuals can be used in combination with training information since they tend to arouse the curiosity highly effective
instructors, usually including technicians from of the local population about the productive uses method for
local organizations, community leaders, financial program.
communicating
institution personnel and local authorities.
Design the material for simplicity, explaining This approach requires a vehicle that can carry productive use
the PUE program and its different components. a variety of electrical equipment and that is information
It is essential to use the appropriate language or suited for rural roads. Select equipment for a since they
languages, as well as their vocabulary and locally community demonstration depending on the tend to arouse
understandable examples, easily grasped by the type of productive use activities identified in the
the curiosity
target population. community during the survey phase.
of the local
Pamphlets Demonstrations encourage creative thinking population
and foster new ideas within the audience. For about the
Educational information of this nature should maximum impact and understanding, however,
productive uses
include how to start a business, safety, efficiency, it is helpful to follow a sequenced set of actions.
benefits of productive use initiatives, management The following are the most important components
program.
control, and other subjects. The material should of a mobile demonstration:
include a variety of visual images and easy-to-
read text. The local authorities must officially open the
meeting and introduce the participants (electric
Theater or Dramatization utility, financing entities, NGOs, suppliers,
and other special guests).
Theatrical or dramatic performances offer an
innovative and practical approach for explaining A n nou nce t he object ive of t he
how a productive uses of electricity program demonstration.
works, what benefits exist, and the steps to follow.
Create examples that are compatible with the Detail the benefits of electricity for homes
community’s way of life, using the local language, and businesses.
local jokes and nicknames, but without offending
or being disrespectful. Detail what a safe electric installation entails
(show components and functions).
This form of communication succeeds when
it proceeds with a simple script and easy-to- Describe how to read an electric meter.
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promotion efforts for the productive uses of to promote the PUE program. However, a
electricity program, beginning with the first lead organization must be established to avoid
community contact and extending to all promotion confusion or misunderstanding among the various
tasks thereafter. The entity might also play an players.
important role in integrating all the players’
efforts to promote the program.
MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Selection of the marketing company should
comply with the following profile: OF THE PRODUCTIVE USES
PROGRAM
Conscious of the importance of productive Monitoring
uses of electricity Monitoring and evaluation of productive uses
scheduled
programs begins upon project implementation.
Sensitive to conditions and characteristics of Monitoring and evaluation consists of verifying that activities and
the target population the PUE program’s planned activities are carried goals involves
out according to the approved project schedule verifying time
Knowledgeable about the region and sensitive and budget. Identifying variations from planned
frames for
to the cultural, linguistic, ethnic, and economic activities allows for quick adjustments, avoiding
situation of that region adverse effects on program performance. completion of
program tasks
Recognized as a leader on issues related to Monitoring scheduled activities and goals involves and comparing
the productive uses of electricity or in rural verifying time frames for completion of program the estimates
area communications tasks and comparing the estimates for material
for material
use and human resources with the actual program
Understand the entrepreneurial spirit experience. Often the time and resources required use and human
to accomplish program tasks differ from initial resources with
Have experience with community development estimates. Avoid tight scheduling of tasks, to the actual
projects, particularly dealing in marketing better accommodate unforeseen situations. program
efforts aimed at increasing social awareness
toward specific development objectives A program budget is an integral part of any
experience.
productive uses of electricity program. It identifies
Have good relations with the local authorities, the financial resources necessary to carry out
financial sector organizations, vendors, and program tasks in a specific time frame. Budget
other development entities in the area monitoring compares the estimated revenue
and expenditures figures with actual amounts.
In Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, a mixture Conduct monthly budget-to-actual comparisons
of NGOs that were responsible for fi nancing, and prepare a written report explaining variances.
training, and technical assistance, assumed a In addition, prepare quarterly and year-to-date
leadership position for handling the promotional financial reports to identify trends in spending and
efforts at the community and institutional level for resources use. This process creates a method to
various PUE programs. These NGOs coordinated recognize budgeted versus actual differences at an
efforts with the electric distribution utilities (many early stage and assists in evaluating the necessity
of which had limited resources) to promote and of program adjustments at key intervals.
implement the productive use programs.
Specialized software helps systematically monitor
NGOs may use their internal staff or subcontract program execution. Microsoft’s MS Project
services from other local private companies software is one project management resource.
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the outset of the program, repayment of the loan the Foundation for Economic Development
fund was not anticipated, but due to the success (FUNDAP) administered a productive uses of
of the program, all funds assigned to the loan electricity program, in conjunction with the
portfolio were repaid to NRECA. Subsequently, electric distribution company (National Institute
NRECA later reinvested the repaid funds into a for Electrification, known by its Spanish acronym
similar initiative with the Rural Electrification INDE). The program targeted the western
Cooperative of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (CRE). highlands region.
From 1987 to 1996, CARES promoted electric Although NRECA’s support ended in 1996,
use as a tool for business development in rural FUNDAP institutionalized the program, and it
Guatemalan communities. As part of Guatemala’s continues promoting business development in
Rural Electrification Program - Phase III, the rural areas.
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that took the lead in financing, allocating funds Financing and technical assistance are key
and personnel to coordinate closely with the components of any PUE program. The PUE
NRECA and DISCEL team. NRECA provided promoter must establish links and loan programs
technical assistance and training throughout the with local financial institutions or through the
duration of the program, especially in aspects electric distribution utility and equipment
related to safety and energy efficiency. suppliers. Through these, program participants
can gain access to credit for purchasing electric
machinery or funding a connection to the electric
grid. Establishing partnerships with fi nancial
CONCLUSION
institutions, both formal and informal, is a key
Productive uses of electricity programs are a key task of the PUE project promoter.
Gathering
element of any rural electrification initiative,
rural electric cooperative expansion program, Having a market for the various goods and knowledge
or rural development in general. PUE programs services produced in the target area is another about the
build solid links between an area’s electric service vital part of a PUE program. All the other community,
provider, fi nancial institutions, governmental components can be in place – reliable electricity, its cultural
authorities, and local business entrepreneurs. available electric equipment, access to credit,
and social
For many rural communities, electricity is well-educated and capable human resources,
used mainly for lighting and entertainment, cost-effective and efficient production – but norms, and
and therefore it is often underutilized as a there is not sufficient demand for a particular the different
source of income generation. Local government good or service, a productive use initiative project
authorities also tend to have a limited view of will fail. players and
electricity promoting its use for such specific
personalities,
purposes as street lighting yet failing to grasp Finally, keep in mind that the PUE program
its significance as a key input for business participant is the center of any PUE program. enhances the
production. The businesses or individuals that will benefit PUE program’s
from the PUE program will be, in the end, chance of
Therefore, the role of the PUE program the key determinant of project success. It is
success.
promoter is multifaceted. He or she must be important to conduct various levels of training for
able to coordinate the efforts and interests of PUE program participants, on both elementary
the various players mentioned above, while topics of electricity as well as advanced topics
keeping the big-picture goals of the program of business management. The PUE promoter
in mind. PUE programs must be tailored to the must also have a close working relationship
target community. Promoting ill-conceived PUE with the PUE participants, to provide proper
activities that fail to consider the reality of the guidance as well as proper program monitoring
community will only frustrate those involved and evaluation.
and waste limited resources.
The use of electricity as a driver of economic
Implementers should employ a multitude of growth cannot be overlooked in any community,
media to promote the PUE program. These can especially in rural areas. Gathering knowledge
include printed materials (flyers, pamphlets, about the community, its cultural and social
etc), theatrical presentations, fairs, mobile norms, and the different project players and
demonstration units, videos, puppets, and personalities, enhances the PUE program’s chance
others. Because all individuals learn and retain of success. Electricity is not a means to economic
information in different ways, it is important to growth in and of itself. Without it, however,
utilize more than one medium of communication lasting and sustainable economic growth is not
when promoting the PUE program. possible.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This module was developed for institutions (availability and cost), and the level of technical
and individuals involved in the promotion, capacity (required versus available) to support
design, and implementation of stand-alone after-installation service for these remote energy
solar photovoltaic (solar PV) rural electrification systems.
projects. Its concepts and guidelines allow the
reader to evaluate a project’s technical and Sustainability of remote renewable energy
fi nancial feasibility, project beneficiaries (i.e. systems requires the same, if not greater, level
energy demand), and factors affecting solar of discipline as conventional grid-based energy
PV system component performance (e.g. solar delivery systems. The following characteristics Renewable
irradiance, site geography, energy supply are essential for assuring project sustainability: energy
constraints, etc.). Readers will then be able to technologies
Engineering design that addresses specific
finalize system design and component selection for remote
energy needs, while minimizing cost and
for optimal system cost and performance. The
technological complexity power supply
solar PV design parameters and methodologies
presented here also allow project practitioners to are particularly
Robust institutional structure with dedicated
understand system operation and maintenance leadership and technical, managerial and appropriate
issues, an often overlooked necessity for the operational capacity for project operations for use in rural
proper management of these systems in rural and maintenance areas where
electrification applications.
Mobilization of community members to
grid-based
Renewable energy technologies for remote power promote a sense of ownership in the project, electric
supply are particularly appropriate for use in improve collections efficiency, and reduce service is not
rural areas where grid-based electric service maintenance costs for service providers financially
is not fi nancially feasible. In most cases, the
feasible.
implementation of small-scale renewable energy Efficient and effective commercial systems to
systems occurs in areas of low population ensure sufficient cost recovery for operations
density, and low energy demand, where there and maintenance costs
is nevertheless sufficient income potential to
assure the recovery of project costs (capital and/ In many countries, solar photovoltaic systems
or operating and maintenance costs). are the most promising renewable technology
option for delivering modern energy services
While many technology options can feasibly to rural consumers due to favorable climatic
provide remote energy service to isolated conditions, the energy needs of rural consumers,
communities, the most practical and lowest cost and their dispersed geographical distribution.
solutions are normally quite limited. Limiting Solar photovoltaic systems have been deployed
factors include resource availability, delivered for more than 20 years in a variety of rural,
cost of fuel (for conventional fossil-fuel energy remote applications, with notable success within
systems), and magnitude of demand for energy larger-scale programs. However, there have also
services. In addition, it is important to take into been notable failures. Experience demonstrates
account operation and maintenance requirements that these programs require careful planning,
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service. With advances made in lower-cost, more stand-alone solar systems) or as small or mini-
reliable renewable energy technologies, and grid distribution systems. To serve these more
particularly with solar PV panels, it has become remote areas, there exists a variety of energy
possible to offer an alternative to grid electric delivery systems, each characterized by fuel
service. Given the distances and low population type, capital cost, energy delivery capacity,
density of some rural areas, there are numerous level of expertise required for installation and
communities that are not, and may never be, maintenance, and operating cost. Selection of the
practical candidates for the extension of the most appropriate technology often depends on
electric grid. These communities are typically two primary factors: energy required and total
difficult to access, characterized by dispersed delivered cost of service.
housing clusters, often with low income potential
Properly
and low rates of energy use. Such communities are Most rural electrification projects are not
not likely to receive grid electric service in the near attractive financial investments. Even areas that designed rural
or medium term. Alternate models and modalities can be economically served with grid electric electrification
of providing electric service are needed to offer service often require capital subsidies. Rural programs take
an inclusive energy service strategy for these areas that can be served only with renewable, a technology-
communities. off-grid technologies also pose significant
neutral
challenges to long-term financial viability and
Considering the lower income levels that most generally require a combination of capital orientation.
often characterize remote communities, and subsidies and longer-term support for service
overlaying the need to assure that projects can provision.
achieve financial sustainability, it is necessary
to assure that adequate steps are taken to enable The design of financing programs to address the
target communities to obtain the resources divergence between capital cost and ability to pay
necessary to pay for the cost of service – even for service is one of the key barriers to overcome
if the beneficiaries are expected only to pay for to expand access to renewable energy systems
operation and maintenance expenses. This means for rural electrification. Developers can meet this
that an integral part of the project development challenge by channeling funds through a special
cycle must include an analysis of the ability and project financing facility, by establishing special
willingness to pay for service and concurrently financing windows in existing infrastructure
to estimate the levels of energy consumption development or rural development credit facilities,
and demand of the target population. The or by creating a special program within an existing
project preparation process should also evaluate rural electrification program management agency.
service provider options and how payments will In economically fragile communities, financing
be collected from the beneficiaries to satisfy issues must be carefully analyzed to find practical
operating and maintenance expenses. solutions that facilitate improved access to electric
service. The more accessible and practical the
Renewable Energy for financing mechanism, the less problematic program
Rural Electrification implementation is likely to be.
Use of solar PV systems is most appropriate in Maintenance: All energy systems require
those areas where housing density is low, and maintenance, and solar PV systems are no
where energy demand is limited to lighting, exception. However, maintenance requirements
communications, and entertainment (usually can most often be performed in whole or in part
Use of solar PV
just radio and television service). These energy by locally trained technicians. Solar PV systems
systems is most needs can be met by the use of what has been rarely require highly skilled technicians.
appropriate called a stand-alone “solar home system” (SHS),
in those areas a very basic energy supply system comprising Durability: Solar PV panels have a rated life
where housing a solar PV panel, a charge controller, and a expectancy of 20 years. Batteries, charge
battery to store energy generated by the PV controllers, and lamps have considerably
density is low,
panel. The installed cost of these systems varies shorter life expectancies. Properly used
and where according to panel and battery capacity, as well and maintained flooded batteries have life
energy demand as labor and transport costs. While the costs expectancies of 2-5 years, with longer life
is limited have decreased marginally in recent years, expectancy for deep-discharge batteries, and
to lighting, solar PV systems are still too expensive for all shorter for lead antimony batteries designed
but the most economically advantaged in rural for automotive applications.
communications,
areas. They have and continue to require capital
and subsidies to achieve notable market penetration. Cost: As mentioned above, solar PV systems
entertainment. vary in cost according to the size of the panel,
Several important characteristics govern battery, wiring/lighting system, and local labor
successful implementation of a solar photovoltaic cost. Maintenance and operating costs are
electrification project: normally minimal in comparison to capital
costs, assuming that with minimal training,
Simplicity: Design of solar PV systems local technicians can provide post-installation
must result in minimum maintenance service. Solar PV systems require battery
requirements. maintenance and may require periodic charge
controller repair or replacement. Costs can be
Modularity: Solar PV systems are modular in as low as US$300 for a small, 20 Wp solar PV
nature. Considering this, the project design lighting system, to as much as US$1,000 for a
should offer two or more system options to 75 Wp system that provides power for four or
facilitate higher levels of service for those more lamps, television, and radio (up to 600
families that may have the means to pay for watt-hours of energy per day).
the increased cost of service.
Resource availability: Unlike other renewable
Environmental aspects: A photovoltaic system energy technologies of broad use (wind,
does not produce carbon dioxide or other biomass, and hydroelectric), solar energy is
greenhouse gases, and does not otherwise relatively homogeneous. Most areas have, at
a minimum, four sun-hours of solar radiation
1
Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), Energy per day (where one sun hour is equivalent to
Development Report 2000: Energy Services for the World’s Poor
(Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2000). 1,000 watt-hours per meter).
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PROJECT DESIGN, of which is to assist in providing electric service
to a specific set of rural communities. The project
IMPLEMENTATION, AND implementing agency, whether it is an NGO, a
OPERATION GUIDELINES faith-based community organization, a donor
organization, or a government entity, must develop
Successful solar PV project implementation and evaluate a plan that includes prioritization of
means more than ensuring properly functioning communities in specific geographic areas.
systems during the initial year after installation
or during the limited life span of the batteries There are two principal goals associated with
and charge regulators. The ultimate goal for project identification for solar PV projects. First, it
any solar PV project should be sustainability of is important to take into consideration the means
The ultimate
energy services over the useful life of the solar by which projects will be implemented, both
PV panels themselves. during the project preparation and installation goal for
phase, as well as in the provision of service any solar
Several factors contribute to project sustainability. phase. Ideally, projects should be defined within PV project
First and foremost, it is important to specify and a geographic area that can be managed by a should be
procure high-quality system components and local entity or a group of organized community
sustainability
to assure that they are properly installed. This members, such as a cooperative, consumer
requires careful design and management of the association, or some other community-based of energy
project implementation process. This should organization. The radius of project influence services over
include a clear and transparent procurement should thus not exceed the maximum distance the useful life
process, verification or pre-qualification of the project implementation team can travel in of the solar
the vendors who sell and install the solar PV a single workday. Road conditions, modes of
systems to ensure that they have the requisite
PV panels
transportation, and transportation costs are
knowledge and skills. It also requires sufficient important factors to consider when evaluating themselves.
oversight of the installation contractor by the a project’s geographic scope.
project’s implementing agency or community
entity. Finally, and most importantly, there Another important factor to consider is “minimal
must be sufficient preparation to organize project size,” or the minimum number of solar PV
a long-term service provider, either within the systems necessary to reach an economy of scale
community or as an independent contractor, to that allows a service provider to cover the cost
maintain and repair the solar PV systems over of serving consumers. Service provider models
time. vary rather radically in legal form, organizational
format, and level of expertise. Many solar PV
This section addresses the various activities that programs involve locally trained technicians,
contribute to project sustainability, beginning with a supported by a local administrator. In such cases,
discussion of the project design and implementation routine maintenance expenses are often quite low.
process, including project management and While other models exist, NRECA’s experience in
institutional preparation activities. Technical this field has highlighted the critical importance
aspects of project implementation are mainly of training and maintaining local technicians at
discussed in later sections of the module. the project site. Whether the service provider’s
institutional model is cooperative or private/
Project Identification and Analysis for-profit, the costs of providing technical and
administrative support to projects of this scale are
Identifying where the solar PV project will be unrealistic without locally available technicians.
implemented is not complex in itself, but it implies Regardless of the service delivery model that
execution of a larger plan of action, the purpose is employed, the development agency, electric
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to establish a for mal community-based have sample policies and operating procedures
implementation, operations, and management ready for committee review. In this case, these
entity, which ultimately acts as the de-facto energy committees participate in training sessions that
service provider for the community. help them better understand the functions required
to effectively provide system maintenance and
1. Conduct a community assembly to explain the operating services.
organizational process of the formal entity and
to propose candidates for an interim board of Based upon the understanding of the functionalities
advisors. This board of advisors will lead the that will be provided by the newly formed
decision-making effort during formation of community energy service provider, the Board
the formal entity. As part of this process, the of Directors appoints a manager, technicians, and
The importance
community assembly participants should vote an administrator to oversee the functions of the
to determine the form of their representative new entity. All employees or consultants should
of collecting
community entity. be trained by the project implementation agency. demographic
The defining factor of a successfully operating data and data
2. The board of advisors works with the community energy service provider is whether the on willingness
project implementation agency to develop entity is able to provide the required maintenance
to pay cannot be
articles of association or incorporation, and operating services to assure that its members
an organizational plan, and policies and can continue to operate their solar PV systems overemphasized.
procedures regarding the entity’s formal over the useful life of the systems. This of course
and legal registration. requires the ability to collect sufficient revenues
to cover the cost of providing maintenance and
3. Submit articles of association and other legally repair services for the systems, and to attract
required documents to formally register technical assistance when necessary from the
the community entity. Convene a second program implementing agency, or from another
community assembly to nominate and elect source of technical, administrative, or perhaps
a Board of Directors. Use formal record- financial assistance.
keeping to document all key events, decisions,
and proceedings. Demographic/Willingness to
Pay Analysis
4. We strongly recommend that the Board of
Directors specifically exclude local political The importance of collecting demographic
leadership and clergy, if possible. data and data on willingness to pay cannot be
overemphasized. While many, if not all, solar
Once organized, the Board of Directors PV projects receive substantial capital subsides,
needs to form several working committees projects that have experienced long-term success
to begin to develop the policies, procedures, have evaluated the capacity of beneficiaries
and organizational tasks for the entity. These to pay operating costs and have assured that
committees may include, but will not be limited these fees are collected on a routine basis.2
to an administrative committee, a governance Efficient bill collection allows the community
committee, and a technical committee. The energy service provider to replace batteries
committees work with assistance from the and charge controllers when necessary, and to
project implementation agency to define the perform routine and necessary maintenance,
functions and scope of services of this newly including refilling battery cells with distilled
formed entity, which has now evolved into the
2
For more information on this process, see Module 6, Consumer
community energy service provider. In many Willingness to Pay and Economic Benefit Analysis of Rural Electrification
cases, the project implementation agency may Projects.
For most investments, measuring project feasibility Demonstrate that project beneficiaries have
is a straightforward process. A financial cash flow signed service agreements that describe
analysis uses estimations of capital and operating the project implementation agency’s
costs on the one hand, and projected revenues on responsibilities, identify a modest monthly
the other. These are then used to determine net service fee for system owners, and establish the
revenues over the expected project life. If the terms and conditions for project operation.
financial results exceed the investment group’s
required return on investment, the project is Show that administrators and technicians have
feasible. For infrastructure projects that yield received adequate training and understand
economic and social benefits, with only marginal the tasks required to maintain and operate
financial revenues, the process is somewhat the solar PV systems.
different in that the costs and benefits of the
project can be evaluated against the “target” Show that project beneficiaries have contributed
economic rate of return. In such instances, to an initial capital fund (however modest in
projects that show economic rates of return that value) to allow the community energy service
exceed the target economic rate of return are provider to pay initial operating costs, including
considered viable. administrator and technician salaries.
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Projects that can accomplish these tasks and that Description of a bid response format. These
demonstrate implementation costs less than or instructions describe how proposals should
equal to the estimated economic value of the be presented, including the required data and
project, will be considered viable and will attract product information, how to present prices,
greater financing options. how to present transportation and insurance
data, etc. To facilitate comparative evaluation
Procurement Process of bids, it is usually best to include tables
to be completed by each bidder to provide
Procurement of materials and equipment requires characteristics and prices of each item included
an understanding of the products to be purchased, in the bid.
an understanding of the market from which the
To assure that
material will be purchased, and a well-defined, System and component specifications. This
wisely designed procurement procedure. To section provides a detailed set of specifications
procurement
assure that procurement results in obtaining of each system component, including references results in
high-quality materials at market-competitive for equivalent products. obtaining
prices, the process must be clear and transparent. high-quality
Its policies must also encourage competition. Standard contract and payment terms. While
materials
a standard contract is not always included, it
Given that most of the components for solar PV may facilitate completion of the procurement at market-
systems are made in relatively few countries, process. Advise bidders here of the preferred competitive
including China, Malaysia, India, and others, mode of payment. prices, the
international bidding is likely necessary, process must
resulting in substantial cost savings. Allowing Project Execution be clear and
and encouraging local vendors to participate in
the bidding process is necessary and may enhance Once materials have been purchased and an transparent.
the project’s ability to enforce warranties and installation contractor has been hired (if the bid
guarantee a high quality provision of service. does not include installation services), the project
is ready for installation. Provide installation
While each organization is likely to use its own oversight by hiring and training inspection
procurement procedure, many development technicians to ensure that the solar PV systems
institutions follow quite similar practices. A are properly installed, that the users are trained
well-defi ned procurement process includes the to use and care for the solar PV systems, and
following information components to facilitate that all components are functioning properly.
qualified responses to a request for quote (RFQ) Ideally, the community technicians responsible
or request for proposal (RFP): for maintenance and repair of the PV systems
participate in or directly manage this process,
Characteristics of the project area. These may but in any case, be sure to train the technicians
include location, reference conditions (solar responsible for the inspection of newly installed
insolation levels, ambient conditions, rainfall systems.
data, etc.), community size, types of structures
on which panels and system components will During the installation phase, also provide
be mounted, etc. further detailed training to the administrator
and technicians charged with managing the post-
Evaluation criteria. This defines the basis for installation services for the project beneficiaries.
bids to be presented, and the qualities that Multiple training opportunities, even if they are
will be examined to select the most attractive repetitious in nature, help bring about project
proposal. success.
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simple process that can be accomplished in Energy Balance
several steps. Standardization within solar PV
systems is relatively common today, after over As mentioned above, the most critical factor
20 years of experience in remote applications. in determining system capacity and design
The decision-making process actually has less configuration is the evaluation of community
to do with engineering design than it has to do energy requirements, to determine whether
with matching system component capacities the calculated energy demand can be satisfied
with consumers’ ability and willingness to pay with solar photovoltaic energy or other
for the service. This means that dimensioning renewable resources. If a household’s energy
solar PV systems is first and foremost a function requirements are limited to lighting and other
of understanding energy requirements, and low-energy consumptive uses, such as television
and radio, solar PV systems can be an ideal
The first task
dimensioning the panel, the battery, and ancillary
components to meet the energy needs of the solution. Dimensioning the system becomes a in designing
consumer. If consumers desire lower-cost simple exercise of selecting a solar PV panel a stand-
energy service, the system capacity can be size, determining the desired number of days alone solar
correspondingly reduced. of autonomy (days without sunlight), and
PV system is
selecting components accordingly. Standard
design methodology requires that the system to evaluate
Therefore, surveying consumers’ needs,
preferences, and economic capacity is important. engineer base the panel and battery size on the energy
Data that is required to appropriately size a solar solar insolation level for the month of minimum consumption
PV system for a household include: radiation, together with expected consumption of the target
during this time of year. (Insolation is a measure
community.
Historic energy consumption patterns, by type of solar radiation energy received on a given
of service, use and energy supply (examples: surface area in a given time.)
lighting via candles or kerosene lamps, heating
via firewood, cooking via charcoal or propane Estimating the Energy Supply
stoves, etc)
Approximate values for solar insolation are
Ability and willingness to pay for energy readily available for most areas throughout the
service3 world. Solar radiation maps are widely available
from many institutions via internet databases.
Potential to use electricity to increase income More precise levels of radiation can be acquired
generation capacity through increased through national or international meteorological
production4 databases, such as the U.S. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National
Confirmation of solar energy radiation Climatic Data Center.
Capacity for local technicians to manage National atmospheric databases normally contain
installation and maintenance requirements decades of weather data, with data most often
presented for discrete years, and in the form of
Availability of locally procured system statistical averages. In the Dominican Republic
replacement parts the agency that collects, processes, and distributes
this data is the National Meteorology Institute
and the Institute for Hydraulic Resources. In
3
For more information on this process, see Module 6: Consumer Guatemala, the institute responsible for data
Willingness to Pay and Economic Benef it Analysis of Rural
Electrifi cation Projects.
collection and dissemination is the Institute for
4
For more information, see Module 9: Productive Uses of Electricity. Seismology, Volcanology, and Meteorology.
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either a car battery used for powering System Components
larger portable radios, or small gasoline or
diesel generators to power televisions or The principal components of a solar PV system
refrigerators. LPG used to fuel any other include the solar PV panel, the battery, the
appliance must also be listed. A key example charge controller, lamps, outlets, and connecting/
is an LPG-powered refrigerator. The analyst mounting hardware. The component capacities
must note the name-plate capacity (in watts) are dimensioned to satisfy the consumer demand
of each appliance, its respective generating that was determined from the household energy
unit (e.g. a battery or a generator), the survey.
estimated average use per day or week, and
any comments from the surveyed household
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS The principal
on possible changes in consumption. For
personal generators, note the type of fuel FOR STAND-ALONE SOLAR components
used, the daily/weekly/monthly consumption of a solar
PV SYSTEMS
of fuel and its associated cost, its name- PV system
plate capacity (in kVA and kW). Also list Presented below are the suggested minimum include the
the appliances powered by the generator. specifications for the principal components of solar
solar PV panel,
For larger batteries, note the capacity of the PV systems for rural electrification applications.
battery(ies) used, the daily/weekly/duration These specifications promote longevity of service the battery,
of their use (and for what appliance), as well and reliable operation of the solar PV system. the charge
as the cost and frequency of recharging. controller,
Photovoltaic Module lamps,
For households surveyed that have access to
The solar photovoltaic module consists of both
outlets, and
electric service, develop a table of the type and
number of electric appliances. These might the module and a connection box terminal. The connecting/
include a radio, television, refrigerator, fans, etc. photovoltaic cells can employ mono-crystalline, mounting
This table would include the name plate capacity polycrystalline, or non-crystalline/amorphous hardware.
(in watts) of each appliance, the estimated silicon. Mono-crystalline, or single crystalline,
average use per day or week, and any comments silicone modules are primarily used in space
from the surveyed household on possible related PV applications due to their high
changes in consumption. Ask for past electric efficiency; however this is matched by their high
service bills (typically three are sufficient), manufacturing costs. In general, polycrystalline
keeping in mind that energy consumption varies modules are most often preferred for rural
depending on the seasons. and urban PV systems. As compared with
non-crystal/amorphous crystalline modules,
From the survey forms, tabulate the data into polycrystalline modules have a higher stability
a database, then statistically analyze the data of the substrate, and therefore relatively stable
to provide energy consumption estimates for electric output over the useful life of the models.
the project area, as well as estimates for the Amorphous modules are cheap but inefficient,
average individual consumer. The analyzed while single crystalline silicone modules are
dataset will also yield willingness and ability more efficient but costly.
to pay estimates, which in turn becomes input
for evaluating service provider models for the The module frame, which protects the solar
project area.5 panel and connects it to the outside of the house
or a pole, should be aluminum and of sufficient
5
For more detailed information on willingness to pay, see Module 6, thickness to withstand expected wind stress for
Consumer Willingness to Pay and Economic Benefit Analysis of Rural
Electrification Projects. the project area. The peak nominal power value
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■ Polarity reversal in the module’s terminal bulbs integrate the bulb and ballast in a single,
enclosed bulb that can be fitted into a standard
Temperature compensation should adjust the light fixture, either overhead or mounted in a
charging current to the battery against varying table lamp. These bulbs are very convenient, and
ambient conditions. with mass production, they are becoming more
competitively priced with tube-type fluorescent
Charge algorithm should employ Pulse Width lamps. NRECA recommends the following lamp
Modulation (PWM). characteristics:
Set points for disconnection and reconnection Nominal voltage of operation should be 12
of the battery charging cycle (for lead antimony V DC.
Lamps used
batteries) should be as follows:
in conjunction
Recommended nominal capacity can vary
■ High voltage disconnection (HVD) at 14.2 from 7 to 20W, depending upon illumination with solar PV
V +/- 0.2V requirements. systems should
be fluorescent-
■ Low voltage disconnection (LVD) at 11.5V To avoid the temptation to use incandescent
type tubes
+/- 0.2V bulbs in conjunction with solar PV systems, we
recommend against use of the common screw or compact
■ Low voltage reconnection (LVR) at 12.5V or the bayonet-type inserts. We recommend fluorescent
+/- 0.2V lamps that require direct connection via a bulbs.
wiring fixture.
The regulator should have easy-to-read
indicators illustrating the battery’s state of Use lamps that are protected against polarity
charge, including a light that shows when the reversal.
battery is fully charged and a series of lights
to indicate the level of charge. The color index of the bulbs (CCT) should
exceed 3000K.
The regulator must have a frame resistant
to rust, with an encapsulated IP index of 5.4 The frame of the lamp should include a white
(resistant to dust and water spills). reflector to maximize illumination. Use of
diffusers is discouraged.
Lighting and Lamps
Protect the lamps against dust and insects by
Normally, stand-alone solar PV systems produce mounting them in sealed enclosures.
very little electric energy in comparison with
conventional fossil-fuel based portable power Purchase each lamp in conjunction with the
systems. For this reason, energy conversion appropriate ceiling or wall mounting fixture
devices, including lamps, must employ the most and hardware.
efficient technology available. Lamps used in
conjunction with solar PV systems should be
fluorescent-type tubes or compact fluorescent DIMENSIONING SOLAR PV
bulbs. SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A typical fluorescent lamp is composed of the Solar PV systems are dimensioned in distinct
tube or bulb, electronic ballast, a frame, and sizes, based upon the daily energy consumption
mounting accessories. Compact f luorescent determined through the household energy survey,
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appliances will also be designed and selected different wattage lamps are used, the designer
according to a DC system. must calculate separate power demands for
each.
Assuming the selection of a DC solar PV system,
the next step requires the designer to determine The next step is to multiply watts (W) times hours
the operating voltage of the system. Most DC of use and quantity, for each identical load to
systems run in increments of 12 volts (V) from arrive at daily consumption in watt-hours. Using
12 – 48 V DC. For DC systems, this selection is the lamps example, 3 (quantity) multiplied by 11
made based upon the requirements of the largest (watts capacity) multiplied by 3 (hours of daily
load. A 12 V DC system can be used in most solar use), equates to 99 watt-hours daily consumption.
PV systems smaller than 1 kilowatt.7 As an aid Using the same formula, we calculate 60 watt-
The designer
to this process, the designer may calculate the hours as the total daily consumption of the TV.
total system power demand, in watts or kilowatts.
must
Rural solar PV projects typically are 12 V DC The designer then multiplies the daily watt-hours determine the
systems. load for each appliance by an efficiency factor type, capacity,
(which can be estimated at 1.5 for most small- quantity, and
Next, the designer must determine the type, scale stand-alone solar PV systems) to obtain
usage of the
capacity, quantity, and usage of the power load daily adjusted watt-hours use. The efficiency
even though the load might not yet exist. Therefore, factor accounts for several factors, including power load
the designer must work with the community to wiring and interconnection losses, all system even though
determine what loads are appropriate, based upon efficiencies, and battery charge and discharge the load might
the project’s cost. An example of this information cycles.8 Adding the daily adjusted watt-hours not yet exist.
is presented below in Tables 1 and 2. In our usages for each appliance yields the total adjusted
example, the system load characteristics are the watt-hours use for the system. This figure is used
following: to dimension the solar PV array. Table 1 shows a
calculation for the above-mentioned process, in
Three 11-watt lamps, used for 3 hours per which a total of 238.5 adjusted watt-hours load
day was calculated for the system as a whole.
One 20-watt television, used for 3 hours per The designer must note whether appliance use
day will vary greatly depending on the seasons or
months of the year. System load calculations may
Note that in the example cited above, all three be required for each different season (summer vs.
lamps are identical (in type and capacity). If winter, for example) depending on the size of the
8
Sandia National Laboratories. “Recommended Design Practices.”
7
Sandia National Laboratories. Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems a Photovoltaics Main Page. 8 Jan. 2009 <http://photovoltaics.sandia.
Handbook of Recommended Design Practices. NY: Ntis, 1995. gov/docs/Recommended%20Design%20Practices.htm>.
As part of calculating the hours of sunlight per Following this, the designer and project team must
day, designers need to determine the angle of tilt survey the market (local, national, and perhaps
of the solar PV array. For stand-alone solar PV international) for solar PV modules that would
systems, the angle of tilt usually ranges from -15° best fit their needs. This research can also be
to +15°. Larger systems do at times employ bi- conducted much earlier in the design phase. The
directional tilting and tracking, but these concepts selection of a PV module depends on a variety
Solar Module
Daily Adjusted Daily hours of Required Array
Wattage Quantity Desired
Watt-hour use sunlight Wattage (W)
Selected (W)
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of factors, of which critical importance should their rated capacity on a daily basis, while deep
be placed on quality, market availability, local discharge batteries can be drawn down to 80%
availability of replacement parts and technical of their capacity, with only 20% of the charge
support, valid warranties on modules and parts, as remaining. However, they last longer if they are
well as UL (Underwriter Laboratory) certification operated in so-called “float mode,” at the upper
and recent applicable panel quality tests. 20% of their total capacity.
In selecting a PV module, the team must look at both In evaluating battery options, it is important to
electrical capacities and cost. For example, in Table dimension battery size by five times the daily
2, a 53 watt array is needed. However, the designer expected energy requirement, if possible. This
will probably not find a specific solar PV module requires that the design engineer evaluate the
Batteries
rated for 53 watts. Always round up, not down. In daily energy demand and the number of days of
our example, the module selected was rated for 60 autonomy that are desired, then assume a low are the most
watts, resulting in only one module being required charge-discharge efficiency for the battery cycle. problematic
to fulfill the system’s load demands. If a 60-watt The round-trip (charge-discharge) efficiency is component
panel were not available, the design team would normally approximated at 50%. This means that of a solar PV
have to consider other options, including using two only 50% of the energy that goes into the battery
system, as
smaller wattage modules or using a single module is ultimately available for use to serve the load.
of larger watt capacity. well as the
First, the analyst must calculate a daily adjusted component
In most developing country solar PV markets, watt-hour load on the battery by assuming most likely
the variables of cost and quality play a key role. a total round-trip battery efficiency of 50%. to fail if
Often the lowest-quality modules are the cheapest, Therefore, the daily watt-hour load is multiplied
improperly
and therefore consumers are often drawn to them by 1.5. In the sample calculation in Table 3, this
as the better option. Poor-quality products are gives a daily adjusted watt-hour load of 238.5. sized to meet
much more expensive in the long-term, due to The adjusted daily load is then multiplied by the loading
the high and reoccurring cost of maintenance 5, so that the battery or batteries ensure a 20% conditions
or replacement. daily drawdown, giving a battery design load
imposed by its
of 1192.5 watt-hours. The daily discharge factor
prevents the batteries from being deep-cycled users.
Dimensioning the Batteries
daily (drawn down to the lower 20% of their
Batteries are the most problematic component capacity), leaving this duty for only occasional
of a solar PV system, as well as the component necessity. Then to calculate the required battery
most likely to fail if improperly sized to meet amp-hours, the designer divides the battery
the loading conditions imposed by its users. design load by the system’s nominal voltage (12
Lead acid batteries last much longer if they are Volts DC in this case), giving a required battery
minimally discharged to no more than 20% of amp-hours figure of 99.4 AH/day.
Daiy
Daily Battery Required Amp-
Daily Discharge Nominal Number
Battery Adjusted Design Battery hours of
Watt- Factor System of
Efficiency Watt- Load Amp- Battery
hour (for daily Voltage Batteries
Factor hour (watt- hours Selected
load discharge (V) Required
load hour) (AH) (AH)
of 20%)
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In all cases, we recommend applying the national For example, consider a solar home system
electric code when selecting wire size for reasons that has two circuits, one for a single 18 watt
of safety and system performance. If there is lamp, and the second connecting to a 20 watt
no published national electric code, NRECA television. In the fi rst circuit, the lamp is 25
recommends use of the National Electric Code meters from the voltage regulator, and in the
of the U.S. second circuit, the television is 15 meters from
the regulator. Using a wiring table, the designer
Conductors selected should meet the worst- can select the appropriate conductor for the
case scenario conditions of the system and solar home system, using a single conductor
its environment. Consider also whether the for both circuits by the following method. First,
conductor will be installed in direct sunlight, the designer must diagram the proposed wiring
Conductors
buried underground, or both. In addition, analyze scheme, noting the location of the loads with
the ambient and operating temperature of the respect to the source (or voltage regulator in this selected
conductor. It is often best to work with the solar case), distance, watt power of each load, and should meet
PV array vendor to select the most appropriate maximum current. A simple wiring diagram the worst-
conductor type for the system, keeping in mind for the above mentioned system can be seen case scenario
its design and layout. in Figure 1.
conditions of
Select conductor caliber/size to result in a voltage After the designer has drawn the wiring diagram, the system
drop of less than 3% for all wire connected to the he or she can proceed with calculating the voltage and its
voltage regulator. To calculate voltage drop, the drop for each load. To do this, first the analyst environment.
system designer must employ a wiring diagram that must select a conductor gauge, which in essence
clearly shows the location of loads, the maximum is its diameter. The selection of which conductor
current of each load, and the distance from the gauge to employ is a function of the voltage drop
loads to the voltage regulator. Using the known across the whole system as well as cost. The larger
resistance of the conductor (derived using the the diameter of the wire, the lower the voltage
American Wire Gauge scale – AWG, also known as drop will be, but the higher the cost. Therefore,
the Brown & Sharpe wire gauge scale), the voltage the designer must be careful to balance technical
drop can be calculated using Ohm’s law. design with cost.
25 m 15 m
Conductor
AWG VDtv VDlamp
Diameter R per km R per m R x 15 m R x 25 m VDtv VDlamp
gauge (%) (%)
(mm)
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CONCLUSION will locally manage and operate the solar
PV systems. While there are a wide range of
The design, implementation and sustainability energy service provider models for these project,
of rural electrification projects using stand-alone incorporating both community organizations
solar PV modules depends on both technical and and contracted private companies, NRECA
social variables. A well-designed solar PV project recommends the training and establishment of
must first take a macro look at the overarching a core of local technicians who can conduct both
factors influencing the project viability and routine and troubleshooting maintenance. This
sustainability. Project proponents must carefully reduces the cost of service for the local population
look at variables affecting project identification and eliminates service delays when equipment
(such as where donor investments are most likely or systems falter or fail.
A well-
to achieve pre-established development goals), the
potential for a community organization to carry The selection and design of a solar PV system’s designed solar
out the provision of service in the long-term, and components is a relatively straightforward PV project
the capacity and willingness of the community process, but it can be complicated for project must first
to pay for the cost of service delivered. Although proponents with limited technical ability. The take a macro
these non-technical variables are often overlooked principal components of a solar PV system
look at the
by the engineers designing solar PV systems, they include the solar PV panel, the battery, the
form the backbone of a sustainable project. charge controller, lamps, outlets, and connecting/ overarching
mounting hardware. Solar PV systems are factors
Once these variables have been defined and dimensioned based upon the daily energy influencing
analyzed, project proponents (whether they be consumption as determined through a household the project
a donor agency, non-governmental organization energy survey, the number of days of autonomy
or community group) can set about defining
viability and
required, and the panel capacity, measured in
the project. They then determine its scope, the peak watts (Wp). It is important to remember sustainability.
energy service provider model to be used, and that product quality has a direct impact on
the energy supply and demand constraints of the project sustainability, but the same is true for
community. When selecting a project’s scope, the maintaining costs within acceptable boundaries.
geographical distances and terrain of the project The household energy survey, culminating in
area are important factors. Implementing a project the willingness-to-pay and economic benefits
that incorporates a large number of houses with analyses, can provide project designers with
stand-alone solar PV systems may present costs useful information on the final design parameters
that funders are not willing to bear when better for the solar PV systems. Keep in mind that
alternatives exist. For example, mini-grid systems energy supply must match energy demand,
may be installed in areas where households are along with ability and willingness to pay for
remote but clustered. the service.
Regardless of the system design, some form of When selecting system components, remember
community organization must be established. that all the different components interact. The
This community organization fosters a sense of PV module, battery, charge controller, wiring
community ownership in the project, provides and lighting apparatuses do not operate in
key feedback to the project designers on energy isolation. Each must be designed with the others
demand (mainly through a household survey), in mind.
and allows for the selection and training of local
technicians. In addition, if the community so Stand-alone solar PV systems have been used in
decides, this entity may enable the establishment rural electrification programs to great success.
of a community energy service provider, which A typical rural community’s profile often
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