Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
HOMENOTES
English Language
Grades V, VI & VII
NOUNS
PRONOUNS WRITING SKILLS
TENSES
VOCABULARY
LISTENING AND
SPEAKING SKILLS
PUNCTUATIONS
NOTE TO PARENTS
Dear Parents,
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 1
INDEX
1. Comprehension 3
3. Nouns 27
4. Pronouns 50
5. Articles 56
6. Verbs 67
7. Adjectives 88
8. Adverbs 114
9. Vocabulary 132
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 2
1. COMPREHENSION
To comprehend means ‘to understand’.
* * * * *
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 3
2. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALISATION
Writing is not only a necessity; it’s an art, and no writing is complete without the
proper use of capitalisation and punctuation marks.
CAPITALISATION
Capitalisation is using the upper case (i.e. capital letters) to write letters or words.
Examples:
It was raining and Sally got drenched.
My friends and I went to Agra in December to see the Taj Mahal.
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation marks help you to express yourself clearly and correctly and also add
style to your writing. Punctuation marks are of extreme importance as a change in a
punctuation mark may entirely change the meaning of the sentence.
1. Use capital letters to begin the first word of a sentence and to begin the first word
after a full stop / question mark / exclamation mark.
Examples:
The dog chased the cat.
Have you brought the art sheets? We need them for the project.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 4
2. Use capital letters to write Proper nouns like names of people, animals, places,
mountains, rivers, monuments and so on.
Examples:
Names of people: Swaminathan, Mahatma Gandhi.
Names of pets: Rover, Tommy.
Names of places (continents, countries, cities etc.): Asia, India.
Names of mountain ranges and peaks: Mount Everest, Himalayas.
Names of oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, waterfalls: Pacific Ocean, Ganges.
Names of monuments and buildings: Taj Mahal, Eiffel Tower.
3. The pronoun ‘I’ should always be written in capital letters, irrespective of whether
it is in the beginning of a sentence or anywhere else.
Examples:
I have not completed my homework; so I can’t play now.
Jenny and I often go to the park to walk our dogs.
Examples:
I go to the gym every Tuesday and Wednesday.
We have summer vacation in the months of May and June.
5. Names of languages, adjectives and other words that are derived from proper
nouns are generally capitalised.
Examples:
English from England, Tamil from Tamil Nadu.
We must never forget the importance of Gandhian values. (from Gandhi).
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 5
6. Capitalise the first word and each significant word of the title of
books, newspapers, stories and poems.
Examples:
I read ‘The Times of India’ every morning.
‘The Wind in the Willows’ is a delightful book having animal characters.
7. Titles of courtesy / honour and professional titles attached to the names of people
start with capital letters.
Examples:
Queen Elizabeth, Princess Diana.
Mrs Singh, Dr Deokar.
8. Use capital letters to name days of historical, national and religious importance.
Examples:
India celebrates its Republic Day on the 26th of January.
Diwali is a festival of lights in remembrance of Rama’s homecoming.
Examples:
-
“Why are you late?” asked the teacher.
The teacher said, “The earth goes round the sun.”
10. Capitalise the first word of a salutation and the first word of a complimentary
close in letter writing.
Examples:
Dear Vicky
Yours sincerely
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 6
11. Most abbreviations are written in capital letters. [An abbreviation is a shortened
form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group
of letters taken from the word or phrase while the other letters are removed.]
Examples:
BBC for British Broadcasting Corporation
PETA for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
PUNCTUATION MARKS
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 7
The Full Stop
The full stop is a punctuation mark used to show a strong pause. It stands for the
longest pause. It is sometimes called the period. It is denoted by (.) and indicates the
end of a sentence.
Stop!
Examples:
The boy ate all the sweets.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 8
The Comma
Examples:
The bag contained a book, pencils, erasers, a sharpener and a key ring.
1. Use a comma to separate three or more words in a series or list. The last word is
often separated by ‘and’ or ‘or’.
Examples:
Susanna is a tall, thin, fair and clever girl.
2. Use a comma when a sentence begins with words like ‘Yes’, ‘No’, ‘Well’, ‘Now’,
‘However’ etc.
Examples:
Yes, my pet has been vaccinated.
3. Use a comma to mark off a word repeated for the sake of stress.
Examples:
Try, try, try and try again.
The poor child cried, cried, cried and cried till there were
no tears left in her eyes.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 9
4. Use a comma to mark off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
“The weather has been unseasonably cold this year,” said the farmer.
5. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.
Examples:
India became free on 15th August, 1947.
The question mark is a mark of punctuation put after a word or a sentence to indicate
a direct question. It is denoted by (?). It is also used to express doubt or uncertainty.
The question mark is also known as interrogation point / question point / query.
Examples:
Have you completed your worksheet?
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 10
o not use the question mark at the end of an indirect
Rhetorical questions (questions whose answers are not expected) end with a
question mark.
Don’t you want to get good grades?
How many times do I have to tell you to stop walking into the house
with mud on your shoes?
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 11
The Exclamation Mark
The exclamation mark is a punctuation mark used to indicate a strong emotion like
astonishment, irritation, excitement, surprise, anger, alarm or shock. It is denoted by
(!). It is also used to emphasise a comment or short, sharp phrase. It lends colour
and sound effect to your expression. It is placed after an interjection (a short
utterance that is added to the sentence to convey emotion).
Examples:
What a fine day it is!
Look at the pictures carefully. Can you say what the characters are feeling; i.e.
Happy? Sad? Surprised? Angry? Excited? Scared? Frustrated? Shocked? Any other
emotion?
Remember: The same picture may depict more than one feeling / emotion.
Alas! We
have lost
Give me the the match.
money or else! What a beautiful
day it is today!
Ah! Is that
a ghost?
Oh no! I
forgot my
name again
. What a
pleasant
surprise!
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 12
The Quotation Mark
The quotation marks are also known as inverted commas and consist of the open
inverted commas (“) and the closed inverted commas (”).
Examples:
Simon said, “I really enjoyed my trip to the water park.”
“Do you have a pen that you can lend me?” said the girl.
1. Use quotation marks when you need to use the exact words of the speaker or
writer.
Examples:
“I can teach you to knit, if you like,” said Grandmother.
2. Use quotation marks around the titles of books, poems, songs, short stories,
magazine or newspaper articles and other titles.
Examples:
R.K. Narayan’s “Malgudi Schooldays” is one of my favourite books.
3. Use quotation marks to set off words or phrases referred to within a sentence or
to emphasise certain important words or phrases.
Examples:
The phrase “hit the ceiling” means to become very angry.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 13
Do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations.
In direct quotations, the comma / full stop /
question mark / exclamation mark are placed
BEFORE the closed inverted commas. E.g. My friend
said, “Please help me lift this heavy box.”
If the sentence ends with the name of book / poem / movie etc,
the full stop or question mark come after the quotation marks.
E.g. Have you seen the film “A Bridge to Terabithia”?
The Apostrophe
Examples:
The naughty boy pulled the dog’s tail. (shows possession)
I can’t go to the party with her. (contracts or shortens a word: here, ‘cannot’)
Examples:
Jason’s toy train is lost.
My father’s spectacles are on the table.
Examples:
I have to arrange my boss’ / boss’s files.
James’ / James’s trip in the giant peach was eventful.
Examples:
The children’s toys are lost.
The women’s queue was longer than that of the men’s.
Examples:
The boys’ school is beside the open ground.
Ladies’ handbags are available here.
5. Compound noun (singular and plural): Add the apostrophe + s (‘s) to the end of
the compound word.
Examples:
Singular: Editor-in-chief’s article.
Plural: Sisters-in-law’s cars.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 15
6. Expressions relating to time, distance and value: Add the apostrophe + s (‘s).
Examples:
It’s just five kilometre’s distance from the school to the station.
I went crazy at the fair and bought thousand rupee’s worth of candy!
7. To form the plural of numbers, letters and symbols: Add the apostrophe + s (‘s).
Examples:
Always cross your t’s and dot your i’s.
Information technology was introduced in India in the 90’s.
8. To show joint possession (possession of the same object by more than one
noun): Add the apostrophe + s (‘s) to the last word in the series.
Examples:
Father, Mother and Uncle’s hometown is in Kerala.
Josh and Jane’s car is a new Ford model.
Examples:
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 16
He can’t (can not) do the work all by himself.
Rohan didn’t (did not) take part in the dance competition.
2. Is is shortened to ’s.
Examples:
What’s (what is) the day today?
He’s (he is) going to be 12 years old this year.
Examples:
Simon’s (Simon has) gone to school.
It’s (it has) been three years since we last met.
Examples:
We’ve (we have) a new teacher this term.
I’ve (I have) never been to the circus.
Examples:
We’d (we had) done this exercise before.
They’d (They would) go for morning walks every day.
Examples:
I’ll (I will) never repeat this mistake.
She’ll (she will) go to the library to do some reference work.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 17
Examples:
I think they’re (they are) happy with the arrangements.
We’re (we are) going home now.
Examples:
26th Jan 2011 = 26th Jan ’11.
Paulo Bradson was a distinctive member of the generation of ’98.
correct answer.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 18
The Semicolon
The semicolon is a punctuation mark used to indicate a longer pause than a comma.
It is a combination of a full stop and a comma; and so does the work of BOTH a full
stop and a comma. It is denoted by the sign (;). A semicolon puts two sentences or
ideas together in a very simple way.
Examples:
Look at these pairs of sentences:
Eagles hunt in the morning. Owls hunt at night.
Nikit loves hot coffee. Polly loves iced tea.
Each of these pairs of sentences can be combined into one sentence by using a
semicolon.
Eagles hunt in the morning; owls hunt at night.
1. Use a semicolon to join two complete but related sentences without using a
conjunction.
Examples:
My mother loves cooking. She is a good chef. (Two complete sentences)
My mother loves cooking; she is a good chef. (Joining the 2 sentences using
a semicolon instead of the conjunction and)
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 19
Sometimes a connecting word is already given in the
I live in the city. However, my brother lives in a small town. (The
2. Use a semicolon in a list / series when the items in the series already have
commas and can be grouped for better understanding.
Examples:
The Cricket Board will conduct the matches simultaneously in many places -
Pune, Maharashtra, Kolkata, West Bengal, Patna, Bihar and Amritsar, Punjab.
The Cricket Board will conduct the matches simultaneously in many places;
Pune, Maharashtra; Kolkata, West Bengal; Patna, Bihar and Amritsar, Punjab.
The members of the committee were Dr. Jhaveri, the principal, Mrs. Parikh,
the vice principal, Mr. Kumar, the counsellor and Ms. Shweta, the librarian.
The members of the committee were Dr. Jhaveri, the principal; Mrs. Parikh,
the vice principal; Mr. Kumar, the counsellor and Ms. Shweta, the librarian.
[The first sentence in both the above examples is confusing because commas
have been used to mark a city from the state and a name from a designation
respectively. That makes us unsure of the items that are being listed. So we use
semicolons to separate the items that are being listed. In the first example, ‘Pune,
Maharashtra’ is one item, ‘Kolkata, West Bengal’ is another item. In the second
example, ‘Dr. Jhaveri, the principal’ is one item and so on.]
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 20
Capitalise a person’s title when it precedes the name. Do
The Colon
The colon is a punctuation mark used to introduce a strong pause within a sentence.
In fact, it is possibly the strongest break within a sentence, and is denoted by the
sign (:).
Examples:
I bought everything required to make the special salad: vegetables, pepper
corns, olive oil and salad dressing.
The student used her time productively: studying, writing, revising and taking
mock tests.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 21
NEVER use a colon directly after a verb or a preposition.
With these blocks you can make (verb): a bridge,
a crane, a tractor and a tank. – Incorrect
With these blocks you can make the following things: a bridge,
a crane, a tractor and a tank. – Correct
Examples:
The teacher advised us to read Charles Dickens: A Biography to understand
life during the 19th century.
Our text book is A Magic Place: Readers for the Schoolroom.
Examples:
The ratio of 5 to 3 is written as 5:3.
4. Use a colon to separate the hour and the minutes when writing the time.
Examples:
I have an appointment with the doctor at 9:30 tomorrow morning.
Examples:
Examples:
Inn keeper: You must have had an enjoyable time seeing the world.
Traveller: Oh yes, I have travelled far and wide and seen wonderful places!
The Hyphen
A hyphen is a dash placed between words or between the letters of a word. It is used
to connect words or syllables or divide words into parts. It is denoted by the sign (-).
Examples:
brother-in-law
two-thirds
Examples:
mother-in-law, back-to-back, merry-go-round.
Shakespeare was born in the small town of Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 23
2. Use a hyphen after a prefix.
Examples:
sub-title, vice-president, anti-hero.
The Olympic Champion is an ex-student of our school.
3. Use a hyphen with compound numbers (from 21 to 99) and compound fractions.
Examples:
sixty-six, twenty-ninth.
three-fourths, one-sixth.
Examples:
North-West.
South-East.
5. Use a hyphen to show the difference between terms which are spelled the same,
but which have different meanings.
Examples:
reformation: change for the better re-
formation: to form again
resign: leave a job re-
sign: to sign again
6. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a
noun.
Examples:
chocolate-covered peanuts.
well-known author.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 24
When two or more words serving as a single adjective
come after a noun, they are not hyphenated.
The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.
The Parenthesis
Parenthesis is used to set off words, phrases, clauses, or sentences which are used
by way of explanation, translation, or comment but which are independent
constructions.
Examples:
Esha (my sister’s roommate at college) is coming to visit us.
Owing to his perspicacity (power of discernment with great clarity), he is a
popular counsellor.
When he was young (I remember well), he looked very sweet.
Show me (that is if you don’t mind) your work.
He will come (I believe in him) to see the show.
We need a place where (1) we can hide, (2) we will be safe, and (3) where no
one finds us.
He looked at her (I was looking at his expression) as if they were friends before.
This season will (I hope) produce good crop.
Jay (I know him as Nikhil Mathur) is no doubt a great actor.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 25
How punctuation changes meaning!
Did you know that a sentence can have more than one meaning
depending on the manner in which it is punctuated?
* * * * *
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 26
3. NOUNS
A Noun is a word used as a name. It is the name of a person, place, animal, thing,
emotion or action. Whatever exists in the universe can be named, and that name is a
noun.
The Proper Noun is the name given to a specific person, place or thing. It always
begins with a capital letter.
Examples:
The world admires the courage of Nelson Mandela.
The Statue of Liberty attracts many tourists.
Examples:
I would love to go into space in a rocket and look at the earth from there.
Many people sit on the beach and watch the huge waves roll onto the sand.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 27
THE COLLECTIVE NOUN
The Collective Noun is a word given to a group of persons or things taken together.
Examples:
A large crowd was waiting to meet and congratulate the NSG commandos.
A herd of cattle was being chased by a lion.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 28
a battery of guns a grove of trees
a block of flats a heap of stones
a bouquet of flowers a library of books
a bunch of bananas/ grapes/ keys a line of cars
a bundle of rags/ firewood/ sticks/ hay a list of names
a chain of mountains an orchard of fruit trees
a constellation/ galaxy of stars a pack of cards/ lies
a fleet of motor-cars/ taxis/ ships a quiver of arrows
a flight of steps a range of hills/ mountains
a forest of trees a sheaf of grain/ corn/ papers
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 29
2. The SAME group may have more than one collective noun to describe it.
Example:
soldier
tree cats
Examples:
A person who is blessed with understanding, sympathy and tolerance is a gift
to the society in which he lives.
Always tell the truth; then you don't have to remember anything!
kindness success
honesty skill
freedom brilliance
integrity thought
arrival failure
love laughter
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 30
THE MATERIAL NOUN
The Material Noun is the name of a material out of which other things are made.
Examples:
Cinderella’s slippers were made of glass.
The Iron Pillar of Mehrauli does not rust although it is made of iron.
A noun that tells you about one person or thing is said to be a Singular Noun.
E.g. chair, leaf, man
A noun that tells you about two or more persons or things is said to be a Plural
Noun.
E.g. chairs, leaves, men
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 31
2. Most of the nouns ending in ‘e’ form the plural by adding ‘s’.
Example:
3. Nouns ending in ‘s’, ‘ss’, ‘sh’, ‘ch’, ‘x’, or ‘z’ form the plural by adding ‘es’.
Example:
Ending in ‘ch’
bench – benches
church – churches
couch – couches
hutch – hutches
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 32
4. Nouns ending in ‘o’ form their plurals in the normal way by adding ‘s’ to the
singular noun.
Example:
Many nouns ending in ‘o’ form their plurals by adding ‘es’ to the
singular form.
Example
uffalo – buffaloes
tomato – tomatoes
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 33
5a. Nouns ending in ‘y’ preceded by a consonant change the ‘y’ to ‘i’ and
add ‘es’.
Example:
5b. Nouns ending in ‘y’ preceded by a vowel follow the general rule of
adding ‘s’ to the singular.
Example:
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 34
6. Nouns ending in ‘f’ or ‘fe’ generally form their plurals by changing the ‘f’ or ‘fe’
to ‘v’ and adding ‘es’.
Example:
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 35
2. Certain nouns are used only in the plural.
Example:
billiards scissors trousers mathematics
innings socks tongs mechanics
pants shorts breeches mumps
drawers scales politics measles
forceps spectacles physics news
4. Some nouns have the same form for both the singular and the plural.
Example:
fish fish
deer deer
sheep sheep
salmon salmon
For the noun ‘fruit’, the plural form ‘fruits’ will be used only
if more than one kind of fruit is discussed.
The same holds too in the case of ‘fish’ and ‘fishes’.
For example:
If there are 10 apples in a basket, we say - The fruit is in the
basket (here we do not consider the number of apples but the
kinds of fruit in the basket i.e. only one – apple)
If, however, there are apples, mangoes, grapes and oranges in the
basket, we say – The fruits are in the basket (plural ’fruits’ is used
as there are more than one kind of fruit in it.)
Similarly for the noun ‘fish’ , the plural form ‘fishes’ will be used
only if there are more than one species of fish are discussed.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 36
4. There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms.
Example:
ox – oxen
child – children
person – persons / people
5. Certain collective nouns, though singular in form are used in the plural form.
Example:
The plural of compound nouns are generally formed by adding ‘s’ to the
‘principle (main) word’ in the compound noun. This significant word may be at the
beginning or end of the term.
Example: Adding ‘s’ to the first word
daughter-in-law – daughters-in-law
father-in-law – fathers-in-law
Example: Adding ‘s’ to the last
fountain pen – fountain pens
close-up – close-ups
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 37
NOUNS: COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE
1. Countable Nouns: They represent nouns that can be counted. These could be
people or objects.
Examples:
We bought ten books from two different shops.
The moon and two stars formed a smiley in the sky.
2. Uncountable Nouns: They represent nouns that cannot be counted. These could
be substances, values, feelings, etc.
Try counting
me!
Examples:
We ate plenty of rice since we had nothing else to eat.
The leaves on the tree had the fresh glow of spring.
Examples:
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 38
An uncountable noun always takes a singular verb.
Examples:
The sand (uncountable noun) is (singular verb) pearly white.
There was (singular verb) some water (uncountable noun) in the pitcher.
However, a countable noun takes a singular verb in its singular form and a
plural verb in its plural form.
Examples:
The table (singular countable noun) is (singular verb) made of wood.
The children (plural countable noun) were (plural verb) ready to come to the
party.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 39
Remember to keep the following rules in mind when using uncountable nouns:
1. The indefinite article ‘a’ / ‘an’ is NOT usually used with uncountable nouns. Terms
such as "an information" or "a music" are incorrect. Instead, phrases like ‘a piece of’,
‘a grain of’, etc. can be used as shown under:
Examples:
I want to share a piece of information with you.
Not a drop of rain has fallen this season.
2. Adjectives such as ‘some’, ‘many’, ‘a little’ and ‘much’ can be used with
uncountable nouns.
Examples:
Have you got any rice?
I've got a little money.
3. Food items are generally uncountable. Hence, they are measured in terms of the
containers in which they are served. These measurements or containers are
countable.
Examples:
I drink 14 glasses of water every day.
I bought a bottle of ketchup from the store.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 40
Usage of ‘some’ and ‘any’:
‘Some’ and ‘any’ can be used for countable as well as
uncountable nouns.
Examples:
Are there any biscuits (countable noun) in the tin?
Do not put any sugar (uncountable noun) in my tea.
‘A lot of’ and ‘no’ can be used with plural countable nouns as well
as with uncountable nouns.
Examples:
No computers (plural countable noun) were bought last week.
There was no oil (uncountable noun) in the curry.
NOUNS: GENDER
Gender means the class into which nouns and pronouns are placed in some
languages. The word Gender comes from the Latin word ‘genus’ which means ‘a sort
or kind’.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 41
So, Nouns can be classified into four gender types:
Examples:
The poor farmer wanted his son to compete at the Olympics.
The prince wanted the lion as his prize possession.
Examples:
The farmer accompanied his daughter to school.
The princess was afraid of the lioness.
3. The Common Gender: It is used for representing a noun that can be either male
or female.
Examples:
Voters turned out in large numbers on Election Day.
The doctor visited the clinic every Thursday.
Examples:
The clock is a part of my antique collection.
Why have you taken my book? We too like
to be
grouped!
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 42
Ways of forming the feminine of nouns
We may change the form of a masculine noun to a feminine noun by using any of the
following methods where appropriate:
Examples:
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Noun Noun Noun Noun
Author Authoress Priest Priestess
Baron Baroness Prophet Prophetess
Count Countess Shepherd Shepherdess
Heir Heiress Steward Stewardess
2. By dropping the vowel of the masculine noun and then adding, ‘ess’:
Examples:
Masculine Feminine
Noun Noun
Director Directress Masculine Feminine
Enchanter Enchantress Noun Noun
Hunter Huntress Prince Princess
Instructor Instructress Seamster Seamstress
Tiger Tigress
Waiter Waitress
Examples:
Masculine Noun Feminine Noun
Hero Heroine
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 43
4. By replacing a word before or after.
Examples:
Examples:
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 44
6. Sometimes the word "male" or "female" is added to denote gender.
NOUNS: CASE
Case shows the relation of a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence.
Example:
This is Ellie’s book.
The sentence clearly states that the book belongs to Ellie.
Ellie’s book = the book belonging to Ellie.
Note that the form of the noun Ellie is changed to Ellie’s to show possession or
ownership. The noun Ellie’s is therefore said to be in the Possessive Case.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 45
The Possessive Case does not always denote possession.
Sometimes it is used to denote authorship, origin, kind etc.
Example:
Lord Byron’s poems – the poems written by Lord Byron.
A week’s holiday – a holiday which lasts a week
Ellen’s school – the school that Ellen goes to (studies)
A mother’s love – the love felt by a mother for her child
1. When the noun is singular and does not end in ‘s’, the Possessive case is formed
by adding an apostrophe + ‘s’.
Examples:
Cécile’s book was lost.
Never pull a dog’s tail.
2. When the noun is singular and ends in ‘s’, the Possessive case is formed by
adding just an apostrophe (without ‘s’) OR by adding an apostrophe + ‘s’.
Examples:
Mrs. Thomas’ / Thomas’s brownies were cloyingly sweet.
The boss’ / boss’s cabin is being renovated.
3. When the noun is plural and does not end in ‘s,’ the Possessive case is formed by
adding an apostrophe + ‘s’.
Examples:
The women’s team won in the inter college basketball match.
The children’s job was to write the script of the play.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 46
4. When the noun is plural and ends in ‘s,’ the Possessive case is formed by adding
just an apostrophe (without ‘s’) after the noun.
Examples:
We adopted our dog from the dogs’ home.
We live opposite a girls’ school.
Examples:
My brother-in-law’s son is a fine guitar player.
The policeman’s duty is from 8am to 5pm.
Examples:
The Prince of Timbaktu’s visit was a memorable one.
The President of India’s speech was eloquent yet succinct.
7. When two nouns are in apposition (placed side by side), the Possessive case is
formed by adding an apostrophe +‘s’ to the last word.
Examples:
The red brick house is my cousin, Pritasha’s home.
The great artist Picasso’s paintings are worth millions of dollars.
8. When two nouns are closely connected, the Possessive case is formed by adding
an apostrophe +‘s’ to the last word.
Examples:
Anna and Miranda’s coordinated teamwork was praiseworthy.
Miss Mary and her daughter’s house is just round the corner.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 47
9. When two nouns are closely connected, but indicate separate possession, the
Possessive case is formed by adding an apostrophe +‘s’ to each of the nouns.
Examples:
Both Ruskin Bond’s and R. K. Narayan’s novels are interesting and a pleasure to
read.
The school’s and the corporation’s offices have different headquarters.
1. The Possessive case is chiefly used with the names of living things and
personified objects:
Examples:
the bird’s (a living thing) eggs
Renuka’s (a living thing) doll
Nature’s (a personified object) laws
Fortune’s (a personified object) favours
boys’ (living thing) school
2. The Possessive case is also used with nouns of space, time and weight:
Examples:
a month’s (noun of time) salary
a pound’s (noun of weight) weight
a stone’s (noun of space) throw
an hour’s (noun of time) time
a foot’s (noun of space)length
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 48
1. The Possessive case is NOT USED when showing
Examples:
Examples:
college)
Mr. White had his blood sugar tested at Duncan’s (i.e Duncan
hospital)
* * * * *
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 49
4. PRONOUNS
A Pronoun is a word which is used instead of a noun. It prevents unnecessary
repetition of the noun.
1.PERSONAL PRONOUNS
A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun used in the place of a noun that is a person or a
thing.
The Personal Pronouns are I, we, me, us, you, he, she, it and they.
Examples:
Please give me a glass of water.
She does her homework regularly.
I will meet you at the bus stop.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 50
2.POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
A pronoun that indicates possession or ownership is called a Possessive Pronoun.
These pronouns show that the objects belong to a person or a thing.
The Possessive Pronouns are mine, his, hers, ours, yours and theirs.
Examples:
This book is mine.
That brother of hers is really a handful.
3.DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
A Pronoun which points out or directs us to the objects which they are referring to is
called a Demonstrative Pronoun.
Examples:
This is my school.
These are the shirts I have chosen for myself.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 51
This and These
Both refer to things that are near in time or place to the speaker.
‘This’ is used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases.
‘These’ is used to refer to plural nouns or noun phrases.
4.INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
An Interrogative Pronoun is a word that does the work of a noun and can be used for
asking questions.
The Interrogative Pronouns are who, whom, whose, which and what.
Examples:
Who sang this song?
What do you want?
5.REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
Reflexive pronouns reflect the action towards the subject. A Reflexive Pronoun
usually comes after the verb. When –self is added to my, your, him, her, it and –
selves to our, your, them, we get Reflexive Pronouns.
The Reflexive Pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself in the
singular form and ourselves, yourselves, themselves in the plural form.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 52
Examples:
The prince looked at himself in the mirror.
The children trained themselves for the singing contest.
6.EMPHATIC PRONOUNS
A pronoun which is used for emphasis is called an Emphatic Pronoun. The words
are the same as Reflexive Pronouns, but these pronouns are used only to stress
facts expressed in a sentence.
The Emphatic Pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself in the
singular form and ourselves, yourselves, themselves in the plural form.
Examples:
I myself will drop you home after the show.
She herself asked us to do this task.
1. Sally wrote the essay all by herself. 2. Sally herself wrote the essay.
1. Sally wrote the essay all by. 2. Sally wrote the essay.
(Incorrect or incomplete without the word (The meaning of the sentence remains
‘herself’) the same even without the word ‘herself’)
Therefore the pronoun in this sentence is Therefore the pronoun in this sentence is
a Reflexive Pronoun. an Emphatic Pronoun.
7. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
The Relative Pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, that, and what.
Examples:
Is this the boy who always disturbs the class?
(‘Who’ relates to the noun that is a person)
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 54
I found the book that I was looking for.
(‘That’ relates to the noun that is a thing)
Relative Pronouns are used to join sentences. As they join sentences, they are
pronouns as well as conjunctions.
Since a Relative Pronoun directly refers to a noun or pronoun, it should be placed
as near as possible to the noun or pronoun it refers to. To do that, some words
may have to be dropped or rearranged in the two sentences.
Examples:
We met Harry Potter. He is a wizard.
We met Harry Potter who is a wizard.
[The Relative Pronoun ‘who’ refers to the noun ‘Harry Potter’ and so is placed near it]
Kunal chased the robber. He saw the robber running away with the booty.
Kunal chased the robber whom he saw running away with the booty.
The precious vase has been found. It was stolen last month.
The precious vase that was stolen last month has been found.
* * * * *
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 55
5. ARTICLES
The words ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’ are called Articles. They modify nouns and pronouns.
Examples:
I saw a jackal in the field.
Here is an umbrella.
INDEFINITE ARTICLES
‘A’ and ‘An’ are called Indefinite Articles.
They are called so because they DO NOT speak of any particular person,
place, animal or thing.
Examples:
Susan wrote with a pencil as her pen ran out of ink. (any pencil, not
any specific or particular one)
He had an egg for breakfast. (any egg, not any specific or particular
egg)
DEFINITE ARTICLES
‘The’ is called the Definite Article.
Examples:
The girl talked loudly in class. (a particular girl, not any girl)
Did you return the book to the library? (a particular book, not any book;
a specific library, not any library)
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 56
Use of the Indefinite Article
We use ‘a’ even before certain words that begin with a vowel.
Some of these words are ‘university’, ‘unicorn’, ‘European’,
‘useful’, ‘one’ etc.
This is because the words ‘university’, ‘unicorn’, ‘European’,
‘useful’ begin with the consonant sound of ‘yu’ and the word ‘one’
begins with the consonant sound of ‘w’. So the article ‘a’ is used
before them; for e.g.- a university, a unicorn, a European, a useful
thing, a one-rupee note.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 57
THE CONTEXTUAL USE OF “A” AND “AN”
1) To point out a singular countable noun when the noun is NOT specific or when the
reader does not know which one is referred to:
Examples:
Please give me a book.
Do you plan to take a holiday next month?
Can you name a hero?
Examples:
I have a coin.
The beggar pleaded for a blanket on that cold winter day.
Examples:
A dog loves to play ‘Fetch’. (any dog)
An hour of practice every day would be enough. (any hour)
Examples:
He is a Shakespeare (a renowned writer) in the making.
He was an Einstein (a renowned scientist) in his knowledge of science.
Examples:
This weekend we had a lot of fun.
You seem to know a great many people around here.
I have a couple of errands to do after school.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 58
6) When expressing a defined number:
Examples:
He won a hundred million dollars in the lottery!
I could give you a million reasons on why not to worry.
There is a five rupee note in my wallet.
Examples:
The whole sale price of almonds is Rs. 100 a kilo.
We reached Pune in three hours driving at 40 miles an hour.
I eat five times a day!
Examples:
What a handsome man!
What a cute puppy!
What a beautiful day!
Such an intelligent child!
Examples:
I met the lady whose purse was lost.
I spoke to the teacher who taught you English.
The poem you quoted was anonymous.
The bottle you bought is broken.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 59
2. When a singular noun represents a whole category. The singular noun could be
an animal or thing:
Examples:
The lion is the king of the jungle.
The laptop is a kind of computer.
Every part of the coconut is very useful.
The tiger is an endangered species.
Examples:
The most exquisite necklace I have ever seen was displayed in the showcase.
This is the finest dark chocolate.
You have the best taste in clothing.
He was wearing the dirtiest pair of shoes I have ever seen!
Examples:
The old man is an authority on the Bhagavad-Gita.
The animated series of the Mahabharata is telecasted every Sunday.
The Iliad was written by Homer.
The Times of India is famous for its comic strip.
5. While referring to names of bays, canals, rivers, seas, gulfs, oceans, straits,
group of islands, ships, glaciers, mountain ranges, geographical imaginary lines
etc:
Examples:
The Bay of Bengal forms India’s eastern coast.
The explorers crossed the Nile with great difficulty.
It is said that no one can drown in the Dead Sea because of its high salt content.
Oil was discovered in the Persian Gulf in 1908.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 60
The Himalayas lie to the north of India.
The Equator runs through Indonesia, Ecuador, northern Brazil, the Democratic
Republic of Congo and Kenya.
On 21st June, the sun shines vertically on the Tropic of Cancer.
6. Before the names of directions when preceded by prepositions to, in, on, at etc:
Examples:
This year we found more birds migrating to the North.
We lived in the South for many years.
On the west coast of the city, the population is largely indigenous.
7. Before common nouns which are names of things unique of their kind: (when
there is only one in existence):
Examples:
The sun is shining brightly today.
Tides are caused by the movement of the moon.
The earth moves round the sun.
8. Before ordinals:
Examples:
The second chapter of the novel is very interesting.
I tried the skirt for the third time.
He attempted to jump over the wall for the fifth time.
Examples:
The Mutiny of 1857 was instrumental in the departure of the British from India.
General unrest amongst the people of France led to the French
Revolution in 1789.
The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Afghans and
the Marathas.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 61
OMISSION OF ARTICLES
Articles are omitted in the following cases:
Examples:
Delhi is the capital of India.
Lake Eerie is spread across Canada and America.
Junko Tabei was the first woman to climb Mount Everest.
Fe
Examples: FE
Gold is the king of all metals.
Mud, sand, granite and rock are all building materials.
Examples:
Speech is silver and Silence is golden.
God has given everyone both virtue and vice.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 62
If an uncountable noun is specified or defined,
it stops having a general meaning and so takes the
definite article.
Examples:
Our team has the spirit to compete again.
The courage that he displayed was appreciated by all.
Examples:
Parrots like fruits.
Reading poems can be very refreshing.
Computers are useful machines.
Examples:
We speak Tamil at home.
Rohit studied French for five years.
I learnt to write Bengali in school.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 63
6. Before names of meals when used in a general sense.
Examples:
What do you plan to eat for supper?
Where are you going to eat dinner?
Mother cooked lunch at home.
Examples:
Robert’s favourite subject is English.
Mathematics is compulsory in most schools.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 64
REPETITION OF ARTICLES
Repeating an article may entirely change the meaning of a sentence. Read the
following sentences to see the difference:
Examples:
Sarah has a red and white dress. (only 1 article)
Sarah has a red and a white dress. (the same article ‘a’ has been repeated)
Keep the following rules in mind to avoid making mistakes in the usage of articles:
1. When two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the article is used only
before the first adjective; but when they qualify different nouns, the article is used
before each adjective.
Examples:
The rock star drives a red, yellow and blue car. (only 1 article)
This means that the rock star drives one car in three colours – red,
yellow and blue.
The rock star drives a red, a yellow and a blue car. (The same article ‘a’ has been
repeated.)
This means that the rock star drives three cars – one red, one yellow and the other
blue.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 65
2. When two or more connected nouns refer to the same person or thing, the article
is normally used ONLY before the first noun; but when two or more connected nouns
refer to different persons or things, the article is used before each noun.
Examples:
The captain and monitor is absent today.
(There is only one person who is a captain as well as a monitor.)
A
An
The
* * * * *
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 66
6. VERBS
Verbs are action words which show action or state of being, - they indicate the state
of a person/ object and various actions and activities being performed. A verb is the
most important part of a sentence.
Examples:
The school children are very happy today.
My wrist watch has two hands.
Examples:
Manish is driving the car. (Here, the type of action performed
by Manish is indicated)
I remember that police officer very well. (Here, an act performed in the mind
is indicated)
Examples:
Marie was given a dose of medicine by her mother. (Marie is affected by an
action ‘was given’ that was performed by her mother)
The bottle was broken. (The bottle is affected by an action ‘was broken’)
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 67
AUXILIARY VERBS
Verbs that help other verbs to exist in a sentence are called ‘Auxiliary verbs’ or
‘Helping verbs’. Auxiliary verbs assist the main verbs to form various tenses, voices
and moods. Auxiliaries are placed before the main verbs or even before subjects.
They are very different from other regular verbs.
Make questions
E.g. Make negatives
How can I help you? E.g.
Has any of this made sense to you? I haven’t seen him today.
I can’t write with my left hand.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 68
Primary Auxiliaries
The forms of ‘be’: am, is, are, was, were, being, been.
The forms of ‘do’: do, does, did.
The forms of ‘have’: has, have, had.
Examples:
He is doing his homework.
They are doing their homework.
Examples:
The mango is the king of fruits.
Rohan does his work sincerely.
Modal Auxiliaries
The word “modal” comes from the root word “mood”. Thus, a modal auxiliary is
generally used before ordinary verbs to express moods of the intended statement.
They are used to indicate the intention and attitude of the speaker.
They include the verbs can (could), may (might), shall (should), will (would),
must, ought, used (to), need and dare.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 69
Examples:
I can swim across the river.
He might be at home early in the evening.
May I look at the questions now?
They need to be cordial to them despite everything.
I dare not answer back.
Examples:
He may go to Singapore next week.
They may go to Singapore next week.
Examples:
They can.
He might.
Can I go to the park? Yes, you can.
Must she finish the work before leaving? Yes, she must.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 70
AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE SUBJECT
Examples:
The player (singular subject) on our side is (singular verb) strong.
The players (plural subject) on our side are (plural verb) strong.
1. If two or more singular nouns or pronouns are joined by ‘and’, they require a
plural verb.
Examples:
Gold and silver are precious metals.
He and I were playing.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 71
If the nouns talk of one idea, or refer to the same
person or thing, use a singular verb.
Examples:
Bread and butter is wholesome.
The novelist and poet is dead.
Time and tide waits for none.
My friend and benefactor has come.
2. Words joined to a singular subject by ‘with’, ‘as well as’ etc., require a singular
verb.
Examples:
The ship, with its crew, was lost.
The price of silver, as well as cotton, has fallen.
Examples:
No nook or corner was left unexplored.
Either a cat or a dog has been here.
Neither praise nor criticism seems to affect him.
Examples:
Neither Rahul nor his friends were prepared to take the test.
Either he or his sisters were present for the ceremony.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 72
If the subjects are joined by either…or or neither…nor
and are talking of different people, the verb must
agree with the subject nearer to it.
Examples:
Either he or I am mistaken.
Neither you nor he is to blame.
Examples:
He asked me if either of the applications was suitable.
Everyone loves to ride bikes.
Many a man has done so.
5. Some nouns which are plural in form, but singular in meaning, take a singular
verb.
Examples:
The news is not true.
Politics is not meant for the faint-hearted.
Mathematics is a compulsory subject in most schools.
Examples:
Your trousers are always well ironed.
My tweezers were finally found in the last drawer.
The scissors are lying under the table.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 73
7. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the collection is thought of as a
whole.
Examples:
The army has left for the front.
The mob has dispersed because of the arrival of
the police.
The herd was moving towards the water.
8. If two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’, the verb
is singular.
Examples:
Each day and each night is a gift of God.
Every boy and every girl was given a gift.
Examples:
Everybody was surprised at the results.
Anyone is allowed to enter the museum till 6 p.m.
Somebody is going to speak up sooner or later.
No one was prepared to take up the challenge.
Examples:
Several children were late due to the strike.
Few students were standing to the left.
Both the children were sleeping.
Many boys are studying for the entrance test.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 74
Some tricks to avoid mistakes
1. Most of the times, the subject-verb pair has only one ‘s’.
Usually, plural nouns end with an s. However, in the case of verbs, it is the exact
opposite. Singular verbs end with an s, while singular nouns don’t.
Examples:
The cars run, but the car runs.
The girl sings, but the girls sing.
2. Sometimes a Prepositional phrase separates the subject from the verb. In these
cases, it is not easy to identify the subject. Read the following sentence:
The dishes in the kitchen are dirty.
Cancel the phrase as it has been done in the sentence given below:
The dishes in the kitchen are dirty.
This will help you get the basic sentence. Now read it without the phrase.
The dishes are dirty.
Does the sentence sound correct? Yes, it does; since the dishes is the plural
subject of the verb are, and it, therefore, needs a plural verb.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 75
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
VERBS
TRANSITIVE INTRANSITIVE
FINITE NON-FINITE
A B
Alec threw the ball. Alec sings.
The little kitten licked her paws. The little kitten mews.
In the sentences under column A, each of the verbs ‘threw’, ‘heard’ and ‘licked’ has
an object.
o The action denoted by the verb ‘threw’ passes over to the object ‘ball’.
o The action denoted by the verb ‘heard’ passes over to the object ‘noise’.
o The action denoted by the verb ‘licked’ passes over to the object ‘paws’.
The verbs in these examples are called TRANSITIVE VERBS as they transit or
pass over the action from the subject to the object of the sentence.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 76
In the sentences under column B, the verbs ‘sings’, ‘sleeps’ and ‘mews’ DO NOT
have objects. Therefore, the actions denoted by the verbs ‘sings’, ‘sleeps’ and
‘mews’ stop with their respective subjects, and DO NOT pass over to any object (as
these verbs have no objects).
The verbs in these examples are called INTRANSITIVE VERBS as they do not
transit or pass over the action from the subject to the object of the sentence.
TRANSITIVE VERBS
When the action of the subject of a verb affects some other person or thing, that
person or thing is called the object of the verb. The action starts from the subject
and ends with the object.
action (verb)
subject object
Examples:
Andy will write an essay.
Andy’s act of writing passes from Andy himself and produces an essay, a thing
separate and different from Andy. So, essay is the object of the verb will write.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 77
Examples of transitive verbs:
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 78
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Often the verb simply tells us something about the subject itself: what it is or what it
is like. The action described by the verb does not affect some other person or thing—
it stops with the subject.
action (verb)
subject subject
Examples:
Dave laughed.
The verb laughed tells us something about Dave, the subject itself.
It does not tell us how it affects some other person or thing. The verb laughed
therefore has no object.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 79
How do we differentiate between
a Transitive and an Intransitive Verb?
To find if a verb has an object or not, we ask the question what or whom after the verb.
Examples:
Andy will write an essay. ‘will write’ what? Answer: Essay
The eagle built a nest. ‘built’ what? Answer: Nest
Ashley loves his father. loves’ whom? Answer: His father
So, ‘essay’, ‘nest’ and ‘birds’ are the objects of the verbs will write, built and loves.
Examples:
The shelf holds. [Incomplete]
The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers. [Complete]
Examples:
This plant has thrived on the south windowsill.
[The verb ‘has thrived’ is intransitive and takes no direct object in this sentence.
The prepositional phrase ‘on the south windowsill’ acts as an adverb describing
where the plant thrives.]
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 80
The sound of the choir carried through the cathedral.
[The verb ‘carried’ is used intransitively in this sentence and takes no direct
object. The prepositional phrase ‘through the cathedral’ acts as an adverb
describing where the sound carried.]
Examples:
Andy is a doctor.
If we ask the question what after the verb, in each case we seem
that each of them tells us something about the subject itself and
the subject.
So, they are NOT really objects. These verbs - looks, is – are,
therefore, intransitive.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 81
How to find whether a verb has an object or not?
FINITE VERBS
A Finite Verb is a word that denotes some action. It specifies the time of the action
through the Tense and agrees with the subject of the sentence.
It is the most essential feature of a sentence. A sentence cannot exist without it.
Finite verbs help us form various tenses that assist in making language specific, and
streamlined.
Examples:
A person learns something new every day.
Here, the word learns is the action word of the sentence, and tells us what a
person is doing. It also tells us about the time of the action, that it is in the Simple
Present Tense. This form of the verb (learns) agrees with the subject (any
person) of the sentence which is in the Third Person Singular. This is what we
call a Finite Verb.]
Non-Finite Verbs are words that possess certain features of the verb, but cannot
stand on their own to form sentences. They do not possess tense or subject. Non-
Finite verbs assist a verb in completing the meaning of a sentence.
They can act as nouns, adjectives and phrases.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 82
Kinds of Non-finites
1. The Infinitive
2. The Participle
3. The Gerund
1. THE INFINITIVE
In sentence 1, the action word reads has a tense (Simple Present) and agrees with
the subject, ‘The child’. Thus it forms a meaningful sentence and, in fact, supports
the entire sentence. Undoubtedly, it is a Finite Verb.
Now look at sentence 2. Here the finite verb is loves. It is in the Simple Present
Tense and agrees with its subject, ‘The child’. In this sentence, the action word, to
read, refers to an action but has neither a definite tense nor subject with which to
relate. While it does assist in extending the meaning of the verb loves, it cannot
stand on its own. It is also preceded by the preposition to.
Thus, to read is an Infinitive.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 83
The word ‘to’ is frequently used with the Infinitive,
After certain verbs like bid, let, make, etc. we use the infinitive
without ‘to’.
Example:
2. The Participle
Examples:
The noise at the station did not disturb the sleeping passenger.
The crying child was pacified by a stranger.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 84
1. The Present Participle:
A Present Participle consists of one word ending in -ing which refers to an action
or an incomplete action. It is formed using the verb in its –ing form.
Examples:
The singing bird amused all.
Everybody went to see the roaring lion.
[In the above sentences, the participles in bold italics end in - ing. Each of them
consists of a single word and represents an action or state of being that is going
on or incomplete.]
Examples:
Angered by the noise, the man used a microphone to disturb the neighbour’s
party.
Words spoken cannot be taken back.
[In the given sentences, the words in bold italics refer to a completed action or
state of being.]
Examples:
Having spoken, the leader sat down.
Having slept, the children were ready to hike again.
[In the above sentences, these words function as adjectives cum verbs and refer
to actions that have been completed sometime in the past.]
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 85
3. The Gerund
In sentence 1, the word drawing acts as the subject of the verb is, since it answers
the question What is his hobby? (Answer = Drawing). This makes it a noun.
However, it also acts as a verb since its origin lies in the verb draw.
In sentence 2, the word writing acts as the object of the verb like, since it answers
the question Like what? (Answer = Writing lyrics.) However, it also acts as a verb
since its origin lies in the verb write. In this case, it also governs the object lyrics.
Examples:
Hunting is no longer a recommended sport.
My family is fond of reading after supper.
Example 1:
Teach me weaving. (Gerund)
Teach me to weave. (Infinitive)
Example 2:
Students like performing on stage. (Gerund)
Students like to perform on stage. (Infinitive)
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 86
Helpful tips to make the correct choice
Examples:
I hope to see you again. (Correct)
I hope seeing you again. (Incorrect)
Examples:
I enjoy solving problems after school. (Correct)
I enjoy to solve problems after school. (Incorrect)
Examples:
The passengers started to leave the train. (Correct)
The passengers started leaving the train. (Correct)
Examples:
The neighbor heard the man knocking at our door. (object + gerund) (Correct)
The neighbor heard the man knock at our door.(Object + simple verb) (Correct)
* * * * *
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 87
7. ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are describing words - they tell us more about nouns or pronouns.
Literally, adjectives mean, ‘added to’.
They add to the meaning of nouns or pronouns.
Examples:
The tall girl is playing basketball.
[In this sentence, ‘girl’ is the noun and ‘tall’ is the word that is describing the girl.
So ‘tall’ is an adjective.]
She is kind and often helps the poor.
[Here, ‘kind’ is used as an adjective to describe the pronoun ‘She’.]
IDENTIFYING AN ADJECTIVE
Examples:
A greedy fox His dog Many books A bright idea
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 88
2. An adjective often comes before the noun or the pronoun it modifies.
Examples:
Examples:
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 89
1. When there is more than one noun in the
next to it.
The naughty boy pulled the puppy’s tail. (There are 3 nouns –
The boy pulled the naughty puppy’s tail. (There are 3 nouns –
describe it.
adjectives may have more than one word. These are called
Compound Adjectives.
good-looking woman
long-lasting furniture
sure-footed climber
well-dressed executive
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 90
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES
1. Adjectives of Quality
Adjectives which show the kind or quality or characteristics of a noun or pronoun are
called Adjectives of Quality.
Adjectives of Quality answer the question ‘of what kind’.
They describe the kind, type, size, shape, colour etc. of a noun or pronoun.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 91
2. Adjectives of Quantity
Adjectives that show or indicate the amount of a thing involved are called Adjectives
of Quantity.
Adjectives of Quantity answer the question ‘how much’.
Examples:
I had eaten half the cake by the time Tina came home. (How much? half)
Little knowledge is a dangerous thing. (How much? little)
terms.
3. Adjectives of Number
Adjectives that show how many persons or things are involved or in what order a
person or a thing stands are called Adjectives of Number or Numerical Adjectives.
Adjectives of Number answer the question ‘how many’ and ‘in what order’.
Examples:
There are four pencils in the pencil box. (How many? four)
February is the second month of the year. (In what order? second)
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 92
a) Definite Numerical Adjectives:
Definite Numerical Adjectives denote an exact number.
They are of two kinds: Cardinals and Ordinals.
Examples:
Cardinals: one, two, three, four etc.
Ordinals: first, second, third, fourth etc.
Examples:
All the children were outdoors.
Few of my friends came to the wedding.
Examples:
Each book costs Rs 100. (Each denotes two or more things taken separately.)
Every person in the room was surprised on hearing the news. (Every means
each of a whole collection separately stated or considered.)
You can buy either of the shirts; both will look good on you. (Either is any one
of two things. It means any one of the two will do.)
Neither of these mangoes is ripe. (Neither excludes each of two things. It
means neither the one nor the other.)
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 93
Adjectives of Quantity and Adjectives of Number
Words like some, any, all, no, enough, sufficient
etc. can be used both as Adjectives of Quantity and
Adjectives of Number.
If they describe uncountable nouns like milk, light etc, they are
Adjectives of Quantity.
If they describe countable nouns like boys, books etc, they are
Adjectives of Number.
I drank some water. (Adjective of Quantity)
Here are some berries for you to eat. (Adjective of Number)
4. Interrogative Adjectives
Adjectives which are used with nouns to ask questions are called Interrogative
Adjectives. They are what, whose and which.
Examples:
Which colour do you like?
What day was yesterday?
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 94
5. Demonstrative Adjectives
Adjectives that point out which person or thing is involved are called Demonstrative
Adjectives.
They are placed before a noun and they answer the question ‘which one’.
Examples:
These colour pencils are mine, while those colour pencils are yours.
I do not like such habits.
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 95
6. Possessive Adjectives
Examples:
This is their dog. (Whose dog? their)
Her sister came to visit us in Canada. (Whose sister? her)
7. Exclamatory Adjectives
Examples:
What a genius you are!
What a great idea!
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 96
FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 97
With the suffix “ive” With the suffix “ish”
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 99
ADJECTIVES: DEGREES OF COMPARISON
The form of an adjective is often changed to show the extent or
degree to which a certain quality is present. There are three degrees
of comparison: Positive, Comparative and Superlative.
Examples:
The dessert is sweet.
The bed is small.
Examples:
The dessert is sweeter than the drink.
The bed is smaller than the cupboard.
Examples:
This is the sweetest dessert ever.
This is the smallest bed.
RULE 1:
Examples:
RULE 2:
Examples:
When the adjective is of only one syllable and ends in a single consonant
preceded by a vowel:
- Form the comparative degree by doubling the end consonant of the adjective in
the positive degree and adding ‘er’ to it.
- Form the superlative degree by doubling the end consonant of the adjective in the
positive degree and adding ‘est’ to it.
Examples:
RULE 4:
Examples:
Examples:
RULE 6:
Examples:
Examples:
Generally, adjectives are placed before a noun. These are called Attributive Adjectives.
These adjectives qualify the nouns before which they are placed.
Examples:
I wore a large hat to the farewell party.
Which book did you buy?
Examples:
We saw the clown and thought him funny.
The message was sent to all those concerned.
ii) When some word or phrase is linked to an Adjective to explain or clarify its
meaning, this Adjective and the entire group is placed after the noun it describes.
Examples:
The artist was a man enthusiastic about everything in life.
A soldier, courageous to the very end, was honoured by the nation.
iv) Adjectives are placed after the noun when they are used with adjectives in the
superlative degree.
Examples:
It was the worst story imaginable.
The policeman came up with the smartest plan possible.
v) Adjectives are placed after the noun when there is need for emphasis in a
statement.
Examples:
Today we take a pledge, strong and resolute, to protect our city.
Our planet earth, magical, beautiful and amazing, is the only home we have.
Examples:
These apples seem rotten.
The number of flags at the parade was seven.
qualify).
Words like afloat, afraid, aglow, alone, asleep, alive etc. can be
The adjectives blue, new, European and beautiful describe the car that Amy wants to
buy. If the above 4 sentences are to be combined into a single sentence, the
adjectives need to be put together.
When a sentence has more than one adjective, they are placed in a certain order.
placed adjacently:
1. The word shorter in length will come before the longer word.
The pale blue dress was auctioned. (The word pale reveals the
exact shade from a wide variety of blues.)
EACH EVERY
The word each is used when referring The word every refers to the total
to two or more persons or things. group.
It draws attention to the individual that is It is more emphatic or stronger than
part of a group. It is used when the each. It is used when the number is
number in the group is limited. indefinite.
Examples: Examples:
Each day of the week begins with a Every day the sun rises in the east.
capital letter. The security unit screened every
A certificate was given to each visitor at the function.
winner.
SOME ANY
The word some expresses quantity or The word any is used in negative or
degree in affirmative sentences. interrogative sentences.
It is also used in questions which are Examples:
actually requests or commands. I shall not give you any of my
Examples: answers in the exam hall.
I have some work to complete today. Do you have any change to pay for
Could you fetch some glasses? the tickets?
Please complete Using the scientific Laundry was one The last thing Tom
the work later. calculator is one of of the latter things does every night
(Refers to time) Jane’s latest on Jane’s to-do before going to
accomplishments. list. (Refers to bed is to drink a
(Refers to time) position) glass of milk.
(Refers to
position)
Elder and eldest are used only for persons who are in relation.
Older and oldest are used for persons, animals and things.
Jeremy is John’s Jeremy is the John has an older My pet dog Rover
elder brother. eldest in the brother. Jeremy is is older than
(Refers to person family. (Refers to the oldest of the Lucy’s cat,
who is related) persons) three brothers. Tinkerbell. (Refers
(Refer to to animals)
persons)
FARTHER FURTHER
Let us leave for the picnic without
Our new school is farther away from my
further delay. (Refers to something in
house than the old school. (Refers to
addition)
more distance)
NEAREST NEXT
* * * * *
KINDS OF ADVERBS
1. ADVERBS OF MANNER
Adverbs of Manner show ‘the manner in which the action was performed’.
Adverbs of Manner answer the question ‘how’ or ‘in what manner’.
Examples:
bravely, agreeably, clearly, easily, hard, quietly, quickly, sadly, silently, soundly,
slowly, well etc.
Examples in sentences:
The peasants work hard.
Tom was agreeably pleased by the report.
The old lady worked quietly and diligently.
2. ADVERBS OF TIME
Adverbs of Time tell us about ‘the time of the action’.
Adverbs of Time answer the question ‘when’.
Examples:
already, after, before, early, formerly, late, last week, later, lately, now, since, soon,
then, today, tomorrow, yesterday etc.
Examples in sentences:
Please meet me afterwards.
We were early for the movie.
My parents left for Pune last week.
the sentence:
3. ADVERBS OF PLACE
Examples:
here, there, anywhere, somewhere, everywhere, away, above, below, backward,
forward, up, down, far, near, in, inside, out, outside, under, within etc.
Examples in sentences:
The stray dog follows me anywhere I go.
During our athletic training sessions the coach made us run backwards too.
Don’t look down; you’ll feel giddy.
to the sentence:
Adverbs of Degree or Quantity tell us about ‘the intensity’ or ‘degree’ or ‘the extent’
of the action.
Adverbs of Degree or Quantity answer the question ‘how much’ or ‘in what degree’
or ‘to what extent’.
Examples:
almost, altogether, any, barely, enough, fully, little, most, much,
nearly, no better, partly, quite, rather, so, too, very etc.
Examples in sentences:
I almost gave up hope of getting the prize.
The file was too big to fit into my school bag.
Sally knows as much as you do.
to the sentence:
chocolate bitter?
5. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Adverbs of Frequency tell us about ‘the regularity of the occurrence’ of the action.
Adverbs of Frequency answer the question ‘how often’.
Examples:
usually, often, once, always, hardly, never, sometimes, thrice, frequently, forever,
rarely, seldom, now and then etc.
Examples in sentences:
He always tries to help everyone in the class.
We frequently study in a group.
They were friends for ever.
6. INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS
When an adverb is used to ask questions it is called an ‘Interrogative Adverb’.
Examples:
When? Where? How? Why?
Examples in sentences:
When did they begin on their journey?
How did he fall asleep in class?
Where have you kept my new dress?
Why is your pet dog tied up?
Some words are used both as Adverbs as well as Adjectives. The difference lies in
their use in the sentence.
Example 1:
Alice did not have enough time to complete the test paper.
The word ‘enough’ is modifying the word ‘time’ which is a noun (Abstract Noun). So
in this sentence ‘enough’ is an Adjective.
The empty parking lot was good enough for the gypsies to put up their tents.
The word ‘enough’ is modifying the word ‘good’ which is an Adjective. So in this
sentence ‘enough’ is an Adverb.
I expect to score full marks as the test was most easy.
The word ‘most’ is modifying the word ‘easy’ which is an Adjective. So in this
sentence ‘most’ is an Adverb.
it is an Adverb.
POSITION OF ADVERBS
Examples:
Here, it is customary for people to visit the beach in the evening.
Today, smart people like to spend time in some useful activity.
2. In the middle of the sentence (between the subject and the verb)
Examples:
I often dance with the monkeys at the zoo.
Mohan frequently performs on stage.
Examples:
I purchased a new car yesterday.
The children marched smartly.
Many Adverbs have unique rules regarding where they are placed.
Examples:
The pilgrims walked solemnly.
The postmen worked tirelessly around Christmas.
The critic observed the painting minutely.
The participants hoisted the flag proudly.
If there is a preposition before the object, like “at” or “to”, Adverbs of Manner
can be placed either before the preposition or after the object.
Examples:
Mary spoke sternly to the boy. OR Mary spoke to the boy sternly.
b) Sometimes Adverbs of Manner are placed between the subject and the verb
or at the beginning of the sentence to get the attention of the reader (for the
purpose of emphasis).
Examples:
Examples:
The police caught the thief who could not run fast.
a) At the end of a sentence (after the verb): Adverbs of Place and Time are
generally placed at the end of a sentence.
Examples:
My pictures are everywhere.(Adverb of Place)
The cobbler will mend my shoes tomorrow. (Adverb of Time)
We posted the cards yesterday.(Adverb of Time)
We caught sight of the comet in the east. (Adverb phrase of Place)
Examples:
Here we are, standing in an orderly file. (Adverb of Place)
Now is the time, to raise our voices. (Adverb of Time)
At the office, we saw people talking to the manager. (Adverb phrase of Place)
Recently, we attended a party hosted in honour of the new neighbour. (Adverb of
Time)
Example 1:
Note: The Adverb, here, is more specific than the entire city of
Example 2:
Note: The adverb phrase early is more specific than the adverb this
In examples such as the ones given above, note how only the more
a) Adverbs of Frequency which answer the question “how often” are generally
placed between the subject and the verb.
Examples:
I often travel by train.
People rarely visit the theatre today.
b) If the verb happens to be either “am”, “is”, “are”, “was”, or “were”, Adverbs
of Frequency are placed after the verb.
Examples:
We are always at home before sunset.
The students are never here after three o’clock.
c) If the verb consists of two words: a main verb and an auxiliary verb, these
Adverbs are placed between the two parts of the verb.
Examples:
I have sometimes seen the shadow of mountain over the plain.
I have never seen you talking in class
Examples:
We visit the shelter once every fortnight.
At regular intervals, we could hear the sound of bells.
Adverbs of Degree are placed immediately before the adjective or adverb they
modify.
Examples:
People are rather careless when dealing with environmental issues.
The snacks were quite tasty.
It was pretty hot this afternoon.
I spoke quite well at the inauguration ceremony.
Examples:
The boats on the Titanic were big enough to seat a large number of people.
(modifies big)
The boy was confident enough to speak on stage.(modifies confident)
b) The Adverb “Only”: The adverb “only” is generally placed before the word it
modifies.
Examples:
I ate only two small bits of candy. (modifies two)
The winner said that he needed to play only one hour a day. (modifies one)
c) The Position of “Merely”, “Not” and “Never”: The rule of placing the adverb
before the word it modifies—also applies to ‘merely’, ‘not’ and ‘never’. Yes,
they are all placed before the words they modify.
Examples:
They merely questioned the lost boy. (Merely modifies questioned)
Many Indians are not rich. (Not modifies rich)
We must never betray our country. (Never modifies betray.)
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 127
ORDER OF ADVERBS
When there are two or more adverbs coming after the verb, here is the general
order to be followed:
It’s all very well to know about the order of Adverbs, but what is equally important is
to knowing the rules of etiquette while using Adverbs. Indeed, it would be considered
highly offensive to have more than three adverbs strung together one after the other
in a sentence. So, these highly innovative words have formulated a smart solution to
stay within the boundaries of social norms. They move some of their kind to the
start of the sentence. Generally, the larger group of words is moved to the
front position.
The pilot guided the plane steadily above the clouds on that memorable day
in May to escape radar detection.
To escape radar detection, the pilot guided the plane steadily above the
clouds on that memorable day in May. (Here, emphasis in on ‘To escape radar
detection’)
On that memorable day in May, the pilot guided the plane steadily above the
clouds to escape radar detection. (Here, emphasis in on ‘that memorable day
in May’)
I saw my brother rush desperately outside early one Saturday morning on
that day in June.
Early one Saturday morning, in the month of June, I saw my brother rush
desperately outside.
My father would sing devotional songs loudly at eight every evening before
dinner.
At eight, every evening, before dinner, my father would sing devotional songs
loudly.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
Rule 1, when an adverb that has only one syllable (unit of pronunciation):
To form the comparative degree we add, ‘er’ to the positive form.
To form the superlative degree we add, ‘est’ to the positive form.
Examples:
Examples:
The following adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative degrees and
would need to be memorized.
* * * * *
Homophones are words that have the same sound but different spellings and
meanings.
Examples:
deer – dear
plain – plane
Hair
tale – tail
sale – sail.
Hare
Examples of Homophones
Homonyms, on the other hand, are words that have the same sound, same
spelling, but different meanings.
Examples:
ring : The princess wore a diamond ring.
ring : Hurry up and finish your work as the bell will ring soon.
Examples of Homonyms
advocate
Andrew is an advocate who has won many cases.(term for
a lawyer)
I advocate the use of organic vegetables.(to recommend or
support)
bass
He caught a bass and we roasted it for dinner.(a kind of fish)
I sang bass in the church choir. (low musical note)
block
The block of ice in the shop was melting due to the heat.(a solid piece of something)
I blocked the attacker and escaped the blow.(to obstruct)
He approached the block of flats that were still under construction. (row of
buildings)
bow
The child wore a fancy bow to the function. (a fancy knot with
two circles and two ends)
The ancient Indian mythological figures used the bow and arrow. (wooden
weapon for showing arrows)
You should go up on stage and give a bow at the end of the show. (bend
coach
The coach was drawn by four black horses.(enclosed passenger carriage)
The swimming coach trained the students well.(sports trainer)
dear
The pet dog was very dear to its owners. (much loved)
The poor man could not buy the necklace as it was very dear. (expensive)
jam
I love to have jam and bread for breakfast. (a preserve made from fruits
boiled in sugar)
record
I have a record of the new music album by Hanna Montana.(a disc carrying
recorded sound that may be played on a recorder)
There is no record of the case in any file. (account of something that is kept
for information)
The athlete completed the race in less than 3 minutes and broke the previous
record. (the best performance that has been officially recognised)
refuse
After the party was over, James threw the refuse in the trash
can. (garbage)
I never refuse to help the needy. (say or show that one is
unwilling to do something)
will
I will never enter that haunted house again! (expressing the
future tense)
In his will, he left his entire estate to his daughter. (a legal document having
instructions how one’s property and money will be distributed after his / her
death)
The proverb, ‘Where there is a will there is a way’ is really a golden truth.
(determination or mental powers)
What do runners do when they forget something? They jog their memory.
Why did the boy take the pencil to bed? – Because he wanted to draw the
curtains.
Why did the king draw straight lines? – Because he was the ruler.
b. What is a suffix?
e.g.
1. divide + sion (suffix)= division (formed by removing ‘e’ from the root
word and then adding a suffix to it)
2. happy + ly (suffix) = happily (formed by removing ‘y’ from the root word,
adding an ‘i’ and a suffix to it)
Compound Words may be written with a space between the two words.
Compound Words may be written with a hyphen between the two words.
called antonyms.
appear – disappear
important – unimportant
2. By using a totally different word
rise – fall
accept – decline
optimism x pessimism
fact x fiction
conceal x reveal
ancient x modern
advance x retreat
AND
Studying the historic and linguistic roots of English words is important as well as
enjoyable because an understanding of the common root words will help us make
educated guesses about the meaning of new words and substantially strengthen our
vocabulary.
The English language has its roots in languages like Greek and Latin.
Given below is a list of commonly used root words, their meaning and some
examples of words formed using these root words.
English has borrowed words from a variety of sources and other languages.
Here are a few examples to show this:
CHOCOLATE
When the Spanish arrived in Mexico they came across the Aztecs. The Aztecs had a
drink which they made from a bean they called CHOCO (bitter). They would put this
bean into water (ATL) to produce CHOCO-ATL (bitter water).
The TL sound is common in the Aztec language but not in Spanish. The Spaniards
mispronounced the drink CHOCOLATO.
This drink was brought to Europe (with sugar added) where the pronunciation and
spelling in English became CHOCOLATE.
ALGEBRA
This is a mathematical term. It comes from Arabic.
The term al-jabr from this title gave the English word, ALGEBRA.
CHECKMATE
This is a term in chess. It is from the Farsi language spoken in Iran and Afghanistan.
The original phrase is SHAH-K-MATE (every syllable pronounced) which means
"The King is Dead".
The word SHAH means a "king" as in the last monarch (or SHAH) of Iran. MATE has
the same root as the English "murder" and the Spanish "matador" (killer).
The word came via French (where the SH became a CH) and into English where the
MA-TE (two syllables) became MATE (one syllable) to give CHECKMATE.
Coleslaw Supposedly eaten in ancient Rome, it comes from the Dutch kool-
salade (''cabbage salad").
Enthusiasm From the Greek “entheos”, which means ''to be within energy",
suggesting being spiritually ''possessed".
Hotchpotch Used in Norman legal jargon to denote property collected and then
divided.
Juggernaut Sanskrit for a giant carriage used to transport an image of the god
Krishna.
Lilac Comes from the Persian ‘nilak’, meaning ''of a bluish shade".
Onslaught From the Dutch ‘aanslag’ - related to a word in Old High German for a
shower.
Zero Its immediate source is French or Italian, but its origins are in Arabic -
and before that in the Sanskrit word sunya, which meant both
''nothing" and ''desert".
Gymkhana A term which originally referred to a place where sporting events take
place or referred to any place where contests were held to test the
skill of the competitors.
Jodhpurs Full-length trousers, worn for horseback riding, that are close-fitting
below the knee and have reinforced patches on the inside of the leg.
Named after Jodhpur where similar garments are worn by Indian men
as part of everyday dress.
Khaki from khākī "of dust colour, dusty, grey", cf. Hindi -
Shampoo from chāmpo, the imperative of chāmpnā "to smear, knead the
muscles, massage" (the scalp massage with some kind of oily or
treacly mixture just before a bath).
Verandah Courtyard
The word pretty began as crafty then changed via clever, skilfully made,
fine to beautiful.
The word nice meant stupid and foolish in the late 13th Century. It went
through a number of changes including wanton, extravagant, elegant,
strange, modest, thin, and shy. By the middle of the 18th Century it had
gained its current meaning of pleasant and agreeable.
2. A person who learns a skill for pleasure rather than monetary profit – Amateur
16. A person who helps others especially the poor and helpless – Philanthropist
17. The collection and study of postage stamps and related items – Philately
The same word can be used as different parts of speech depending on its function in
a sentence.
Observe the following sentences:
The child received a present on his birthday.
People usually present the chief guest with a little token of appreciation.
Look at the role of the words in the sentences in which they occur.
In the first sentence, the word present is the object of the verb receives because it
answers the question received what? That makes the word present in the first
example a noun, because it is the object of the verb received, doesn’t it?
In the second example, the word present denotes the action of handing the chief
guest a token. Hence the word present is used as a verb in the sentence.
In the first sentence, the word near indicates the place or position where the
listener should move in order to listen to the instructions. That makes it an adverb.
In the second sentence, the word near is placed before the noun watchman and is
a link between the two nouns, bell and watchman. Therefore, the word near is a
perfect example of a preposition.
Here are some useful examples on how the same word may be used as a
different part of speech.
Present
On my birthday, I just wait to open the presents I have received. (Noun)
The first speakers of any debate always present the theme of the
discussion.(Verb)
Place
The family found a nice place near the flower beds where they could relax.
(Noun)
When you are reading, always place your reading lamp at a location that is
above and behind you. (Verb)
What
Before
About
Above
The family discussed the party after the guests had left. (Conjunction)
We waited for the chief guest to arrive and left soon after. (Adverb)
Fast
Both
They teach French and Sanskrit in school, and I would like to learn both
languages.(Adjective)
Two children reached the finishing line first, and so both were given
prizes.(Pronoun)
Free
Help
Last
Any
Next
why
Yet
Round
There was a round of applause when the best speaker stepped onto the
stage. (Noun)
The round box was forgotten in the scramble to run out of the house.
(Adjective)
The moon revolves round the earth. (Preposition)
Knowing about these forms is not enough. Being able to manipulate these various
forms in sentences is what gives you an advantage in the use of language. Observe
how words can be replaced by a different part of speech in the same sentence:
Example 1:
The watch you bought me is very beautiful. (Adjective)
The watch you bought me possesses great beauty. (Noun)
Example 2:
In summer, people frequently visit the local beaches. (Adverb)
In summer, people frequent the local beaches. (Verb)
In summer, people make frequent visits to the beach. (Adjective)
1. Ornamentation:
Without figures of speech, our writing would be plodding and boring. Just
like show-pieces in our homes give beauty and variety in the same way
figures of speech too add beauty and variety to language.
2. Clarity:
It is a mistake to believe that figures of speech are used only by stylists to enrich
their writings. They are in fact, a part of everyday speech and often help to explain a
point better and with greater clarity. A complex subject can best be conveyed by an
analogy (a comparison between two things made for the purpose of explanation).
Examples:
The money lender was as cunning as a fox.
Here, a comparison is made between the cunning
nature of a moneylender with that of a fox.
My song will be like wings to your dream.
Lives fade like a passing shadow.
The experience was like a bad dream.
It was like being in a fairy tale.
The place was eerie and still as a graveyard.
The table top was smooth as silk.
The prisoner struggled like a wild beast tangled in a net.
The kittens hissed and roared like dragons.
The wind made the doors rattle like snare drums.
A gap under the corrugated roof wailed like a flute.
A simile is used in poems - as the examples provided above; and is also used in
everyday speech. When we use phrases like- “as clear as crystal”, “as cool as a
cucumber”, “as tough as leather”, “as good as gold”, etc, we are making use of
a simile.
METAPHOR
A metaphor is an implied simile. Unlike the simile, it does not say that one thing is
like another. On the contrary, it takes this similarity for granted and proceeds as
though the two things were one. It compares two subjects without using 'like' or
'as'. It is a comparison between two different things that have an important
characteristic in common.
Compared to simile, the metaphor takes us one step further than the simile. Instead
of asking us to picture one thing as being like another, the metaphor asks us to
picture one thing as being the other.
Examples:
All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
Life is a dream.
Here, life is said to be beautiful like a wonderful dream. Here the comparison is
implied and is made without using the words ‘as’ or ‘like’.
ONOMATOPOEIA
Onomatopoeia is one or more words that imitate or suggest the source of sound they
are describing. It is a figure of speech based on the device of sound. Common
examples are animal noises such as ‘moo’, ‘hiss’, ‘meow’ or ‘roar’.
Examples:
The children were scared to hear the rattle of hail upon the roof.
The cooing of doves, the chirping of the birds and the buzzing of bees greeted
us when we reached the farm.
Ron heard the hiss of a snake in the tunnel.
The hoot of his owl roused Harry Potter from a deep sleep.
Clatter: make a loud unpleasant noise, when hard objects are hit. The tray
Creak: make a long high noise, like what a wooden floor makes when
somebody walks on it. The stair creaked as she walked up. The door creaked
open.
Honk: make a loud noise using a horn. The drivers honked his horn but the
Tinkle: light metallic sounds, as those of a small bell. I heard the tinkle of
glass chimes.
Swish: make a soft sound by moving something quickly through the air. Her
Rustle: make a sound like the one that leaves or sheets of paper make when
Clink: make a short, high sound, like glass or metal objects hitting each other.
Bang: make a loud noise, when hitting something hard. I banged on the
Plop: make a sound like dropping into water. The frog plopped into the pond.
Sizzle: make a sound like bacon being fried in a pan. The sausages started to
the battlefield.
Squelch: make a sucking sound, like walking in mud. Her shoes squelched as
Rattle: make a series of short sounds, like small objects hitting each other.
Blare: make a loud, unpleasant noise. We could hear horns blaring outside.
Rumble: make a series of short, low sounds. We could hear thunder rumbling.
Pop: To burst open with a short, sharp, explosive sound. Mary popped all the
Bleep: make a high electronic sound, like a pager, a mobile phone or a timer.
The timer began to bleep indicating that the eggs were cooked.
Crackle: make short sounds, like something burning in a fire. The logs
Gurgle: make a low sound, like water flowing. He could hear the river gurgling
Examples:
A strong man struggling with the storms of fate.
How high his highness holds his haughty head.
She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
The pleasant Prince pleaded for peace.
Mmm, muffins!
I love munching muffins.
Make me muffins for my lunch,
Please, O please and thanks a bunch.
When the first sounds sound alike
As in Betsy bought a bike,
Or Steve's still standing at the station,
We call that alliteration.
Examples:
Let not Ambition mock their useful toil. (‘Ambition’ which is an abstract idea is
given the human quality of having the ability to ‘mock’).
Opportunity knocks at the door but once. (‘Opportunity’ which is an abstract
idea is attributed with the human quality of having the ability of ‘knocking).
The moon shone with delight. (The ‘moon’, an inanimate object is given the
human quality of being delightful.
Fear knocked on the door. Faith answered. There was no one there.
The wind stood up and gave a shout.
The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky.
The first rays of morning tiptoed through the meadow.
Time flew and before we knew it, it was time for me to go home.
The thunder grumbled like an old man.
The car raced by, screaming for attention.
Repetition is used
1. Repetition of the same words: to emphasize or
stress on a point.
The same word is repeated over and over.
Examples:
Examples:
At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay down.
A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!
To write good English, we must use the correct word in the correct place. However,
sometimes this is not enough. The words that we use to express ourselves not only
should be correct, but should also add to the beauty of the sentence.
Did you notice how the same passage has been re-written using certain words and
phrases that have added beauty to the sentences? Well, these words and phrases
are Idioms, Proverbs and Figures of Speech like the Simile and the Metaphor.
Let’s clarify:
too big for his boots – an Idiom that means to become very proud.
added plumage to his already proud feathers – a Metaphor implying a
comparison between Sammy and a bird.
strutting around like a peacock – a Simile showing a direct comparison
between Sammy’s style of walking and that of a peacock.
set off – an Idiom that means to make it look more attractive so that attention
is drawn towards it
For example, "to roll out the red carpet" is to extravagantly welcome a guest; no
red carpet is needed. The phrase is misunderstood when interpreted in a literal
fashion. In the same way, "the cat was let out of the bag" means "the secret was
revealed." A live cat was NOT let out of a bag!
So it is clear that idioms are sayings that have hidden meanings. The expressions
don't exactly mean what the words say. They most often refer to a phrase or
expression that cannot be understood by knowing what the individual words in the
phrase mean.
Examples:
I can’t believe that
To have something up one’s sleeve – to have a secret
Robin has allowed
A feather in one’s cap – something to be proud about me to use the
computer. I smell a
Tie the knot – to get married
rat!!
To hit the ceiling / Have a fit – to be very angry
lips are sealed - will not disclose anything
open somebody’s eyes – cause him to realize
hold one’s tongue – to be silent
smell a rat – have a feeling that something is wrong somewhere
a bed of roses – an easy life
to put one’s cards on the table – to be open and straightforward
The thief led the police on a wild goose chase (foolish adventure).
Tom and his sister were shaking in their shoes (very scared), when they left the
theatre after watching the horror film.
The exhausted student hit the sack (went to sleep), the moment he reached
home.
and sparingly, but the writing becomes very unnatural, if too many
Proverbs are short, wise sayings which are truths. They are based on common
sense and practical experience. Proverbs, like Idioms, enrich our language and
make it more picturesque and effective.
Examples:
Absence makes the heart grow fonder: We feel more affection for our relatives
and friends when we are parted from them.
All work and no play make Jack a dull boy. We should not always be working.
Unless we can enjoy some form of recreation, our work suffers in consequence.
A bird in hand is worth two in a bush: It is better to accept something small
than to reject it and hope to get more later on.
Better late than never: It is better to do a thing even after much postponement
than not do it at all.
Blood is thicker than water: Family ties are very strong despite differences.
A burnt child dreads fire: Any painful experience is not forgotten soon.
Another proverb similar in meaning to the above is ‘Once bitten twice shy’
Empty vessels make the most noise - Foolish or witless persons are the most
talkative or noisy.
All that glitters is not gold: Do not judge a thing by its attractive appearance.
WHERE DO THEY
JOB WHAT DO THEY DO?
WORK?
In a hotel or railway
Porter Carries other people's luggage
station.
In a veterinary surgery or
Vet Treats animals
vet’s clinic
* * * * *
Listening is one of the most important skills you can have. How well you listen has a
major impact on your effectiveness, and on the quality of your relationships with
others. A good listener will be able to better assimilate what is being said and thus
respond appropriately. She/he will also be able to add to their existing knowledge.
Listeners process sounds and meanings to be able to complete the given tasks.
Hearing: Hearing just means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying.
For example, say you were listening to a report on zebras, and the speaker
mentioned that no two are alike. If you can repeat the fact, then you have heard what
Understanding: The next part of listening happens when you take what you have
heard and understand it in your own way. Let's go back to that report on zebras.
When you hear that no two are alike, think about what that might mean. You might
think, "Maybe this means that the pattern of stripes is different for each zebra."
Judging: After you are sure you understand what the speaker has said, think about
whether it makes sense. Do you believe what you have heard? You might think,
"How could the stripes be different for every zebra? But then again, the fingerprints
Give your full attention to the person who is speaking. Don't look out of the
Make sure your mind is focused, too. It can be easy to let your mind wander if
you think you know what the person is going to say next, but you might be wrong!
If you feel your mind wandering, change the position of your body and try to
Let yourself finish listening before you begin to speak! You can't really listen if
you are busy thinking about what you want say next.
Listen for main ideas. The main ideas are the most important points that the
speaker wants to get across. They may be mentioned at the start or end of a talk,
and repeated a number of times. Pay special attention to statements that begin
with phrases such as "My point is..." or "The thing to remember is..."
Think fast: Remember: time is on your side! Thoughts move about four times as
fast as speech. With practice, while you are listening you will also be able to think
about what you are hearing, really understand it, and give feedback to the
speaker.
* * * * *
2. Introduce the
topic in the first few
sentences.
3. Develop the
1. Begin the speech speech further by
by addressing the elaborating on the
audience. topic.
4. Repeat words /
6. End the speech sentences for
with words of emphasis.
inspiration or a Use rhetorical
pledge to motivate questions.
the audience.
5. Use simple words
and simple sentence
constructions
Speak clearly, and adjust your voice so that everyone can hear you.
It is common to speak rapidly when nervous; but try to speak slowly and with
Make eye contact with your audience. This helps to build trust and a
If the language is strong, you must present a physical force to go along with
your deliveries.
You have to assume that not everyone will agree with you from the start, and
it is your job to make them see things your way. The goal of your speech is to
You’ve got to listen to yourself. You do not want to say something you’ll
* * * * *
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_T1_hn 182
12. ESSAY WRITING
The word essay comes from the French word ‘essai’ which means
to try or attempt. Michel di Montaigne who first used this word wrote
about his feelings on topics such as idleness and agony. He implied
that he was making an attempt to put his thoughts into words.
1. UNITY:
An essay must possess unity of a theme and a defined purpose. It should
deal with one single central idea.
Keeping the subject of the writing in mind keeps an essay focused, defined
and coherent (following a logical order).
Connected ideas and sentences form paragraphs and a good
essay must have all its paragraphs linked.
Nothing irrelevant should be written in the essay.
3. BREVITY:
An essay should be a brief exercise, concisely expressed.
It should contain only what is important.
Writing concisely makes a writer think more clearly, thereby giving clarity of
thought to an essay.
The word limit should be approximately 200 - 300 words or as stated in the
question.
4. STYLE:
The style of an essay must be dignified and literary.
The language should be clear, simple, direct and natural.
Colloquial terms, slangs, abbreviations and contractions should not be used in
an essay. Numerals should be spelled out.
Sentences should be well structured and adhere to the rules of punctuation.
Good vocabulary, adjectives, synonyms, idioms and analogies add more
meaning to an essay.
The repetitive use of thoughts, sentiments, expressions and
key words should be avoided.
5. PERSONAL TOUCH:
An essay is a written composition of an individual's perspective on a topic that
lends its own personal touch.
It should reveal the personal feelings and opinions of the writer. As otherwise,
the essay loses its scope of individual expression.
1. Reading:
Get into the habit of reading. Try to read books of various types and topics.
Reading enables one to collect facts and information.
Reading helps in having a good command over grammar.
It empowers one to express oneself correctly and
interestingly.
2. Observation:
Observe carefully all that goes around you. Use all your five
senses to observe life in all its shades.
Observation will give you material to write your essay. It will
help you to use description more effectively.
3. Conversation:
Conversation is the most unavoidable resource of information or learning.
Listening is a great way to learn new information.
People like to talk about what they do and what their experiences are or were.
You will learn a lot from their experiences.
4. Practice:
Make it a habit to write everyday. Write out your thoughts and feelings.
Practice writing short descriptions of anything you fancy in daily life.
Go over them and examine how effective your writing is. Check to see how
organised your thoughts are.
1. Read and understand the topic: Read the subject carefully: You
must first know what exactly you are supposed to write.
2. Think and reflect on what you will write: Think over the subject.
As you think over a topic, you will recollect information in the form of
ideas, facts and illustrations.
3. Collect and note the ideas: To ensure that you don’t lose these
ideas, jot them down immediately.
4. Select what you will write: Examine the content of your
notes.Select only those points that are helpful to develop the given
subject and those that you may elaborate on.
5. Organise and logically arrange the points: Organise these ideas
or points in a logical order, so that they combine together effortlessly
to create a meaningful whole. Without a logical arrangement, the
essay may be filled with irrelevant information.
6. Make the outline: Decide which points are to be put in the
introduction, which ones are to be used in the middle and
conclusion.
7. Fill in the outline: You have the outline of the essay which you have
to fill in with clear, correct and simple language in good handwriting.
8. Revise: Never forget to revise. Read your essay once again for
incorrect spellings or punctuation, faulty grammatical constructions
and logical flow. Correct them, if necessary.
It usually consists of It is the main part of It deals with the
a single paragraph the essay. summary of the
and states the main It consists of several features of the essay.
idea. paragraphs. It should be effective
It should be brief and Each paragraph and interesting.
interesting. should deal with It may consist of an
It should lead to the certain aspects of the intelligent and eye-
subject. topic. catching summing up
It may consist of a The paragraphs of the arguments of
suitable quotation, a should be well the essay.
proverb, an incident constructed and
or a general remark. connected to one
another.
DOs DON’Ts
Essays may be classified into various kinds. However, it should be noted that the
classification of essays does not mean that the essays are mutually exclusive. Thus,
the different types of essays do contain overlapping elements.
NARRATIVE ESSAYS
Example:
The girl jumped over the fence and stood in front of the lion.
b) By an unusual detail:
Example:
It was Friday, the thirteenth and the clock had just struck twelve.
Example:
It was an island in the middle of nowhere. The shipwrecked
sailor sat under the coconut tree, waiting to be rescued.
Example:
How would you like to make a trip to the moon and be back again to Earth
to resume your normal school life?
e) By a dialogue:
Example:
“I am planning to go to Timbuktu”, Sarah announced at the breakfast table,
“whether you like it or not.”
4. Consider the importance of the scene and the time of the incident: For
narratives that relate adventures or ghost stories, the scene of action is
important. In other narratives, the time of action is significant.
5. Do not end your essay with flat sentences: Do not end your essay with flat
sentences like ‘In conclusion …’, ‘So it was obvious that it was an enjoyable
experience …’, ‘So ended my experience in the …’ etc.
The conclusion should be definitive, effective and interesting. A surprise ending
may be used since it captivates the reader even at the end.
6. Choose your points of emphasis and draw your personal opinion: Do not
emulate others. Write from your own knowledge, experiences, imagination and
point of view. Express your own ideas and feelings and not those of others.
I was at my grand parents’ home where we traditionally celebrated this ‘huge’ festival
of lights. Diwali, or the festival of lights, marks the home coming of Lord Rama after
fourteen years in exile. It is celebrated with pomp and glory in India. This Diwali, we
had decided to mark the occasion by treating some homeless children to ice cream.
My friends, Zara, Natasha, Vishnu and I had planned to go out to the nearest ice
cream parlour for the same purpose.
After decorating the house with candles, we made our way to the parlour. We arrived
to see quite a few homeless children around the door, waiting for crumbs that are on
offer. Zara ordered sixteen scoops of butterscotch in cups. The four of us decided
not to have ice creams to ensure that each child got a share. Seeing their happy
faces as they licked their ice cream, I realised how much I had to be grateful for.
Eventually as we were getting ready to drive home, the manager came running out
and said, “I have some extra ice cream; won’t you like to help me finish it?” Vishnu
went in and got us some ice cream. It was great!
I think I received more than I gave. I had the most memorable Diwali celebration that
night.
Example:
If you were describing your favourite aunt, you would have to
provide definite details, such as the trouble she would take to wish
her nephews and nieces on their birthdays, that she would visit the
sick and volunteer to help the community whenever she could. Add
a few anecdotes to substantiate your opinion. You could briefly
describe how she had baked your favourite cake on your birthday.
c. Show instead of tell: Create a vivid picture in words with the help of the five
senses. Do not limit yourself to only what you see. Include what you hear, smell,
taste and feel too.
SIGHT SOUND
The trees rose high into the sky. A rabbit We could hear the sound of monkeys
scampered into its hole. The forest was chattering in the distance while birds
so dense, that it looked dark and scary twittered in the trees. The grass swished
in the distance. Birds displayed their under our feet. Suddenly we heard a
colourful crests and plumes. loud, threatening roar in the distance.
SMELL TASTE
The air smelt of fresh, wet earth. The I felt thirsty and we drank from the
fragrance of wild forest flowers was nearby stream where the water tasted
enchanting. The aroma of the grass was bland, pure and fresh. We then ate wild
so different from the unnatural smell of berries that were sweet and tangy at the
city exhaust fumes. same time.
TOUCH
The stones felt rough under my feet and soon
my feet felt sore after five minutes of walking
on the bare earth. Mosquitoes stung viciously
but the gentle breeze patted my face
affectionately and that helped me for a while.
Example:
Her blue eyes and copper coloured hair made her feel like a fish out of water.
e. Use comparisons: Feel free to compare objects, scenes and people to make the
details more vivid and easy to imagine.
Example:
Bent with the weight of the huge trunk, she was walking like an ant, climbing
the stairs slowly and with immense difficulty.
1. The name of the person and the writer’s relationship with him/her.
2. Physical features: The height, looks, body shape, stature.
3. Clothing, posture, speech, mannerisms.
4. Life history, family background.
5. His/her opinions, interests and actions.
6. What others say about him/her.
7. How he/she affects other people.
8. His/her impact on your life, why you like or dislike him/her.
Examples of topics:
The rag picker, The person I admire most, My favourite sportsperson, My
father etc.
1. The class to which the object belongs. For example, a racket is a sport object.
2. The general appearance of the object: its shape, size, colour, material etc.
3. Particular or peculiar features which identify the object.
4. Comparison to other things.
Examples of topics:
Swings, The magic of the aeroplane, Clouds, Mobile phones etc.
1. A general impression of the scene. For example, a busy market place, a clean
beach, a deserted railway platform etc.
2. Specific appearance: Sights, sounds, smells, colours, shapes
that make up the scene.
3. Include people if they are a part of the scene.
4. The impact the scene has on you.
5. Any association or prior memories that the scene has triggered in you.
Examples of topics:
A beautiful garden, A village, One winter morning, The city at night etc.
Did you ever have a friend, philosopher and guide all rolled into one? A person who
would show you the right path, but never held it against you when you faltered? I
had. Her name was Rebecca.
Rebecca was a few years older than me. She was tall for her age and always kept
her long, golden hair pulled back into a pony tail because she was a bit of a tomboy.
But when she let it down and it flew in waves in the gentle breeze, there was no
doubt she was a beautiful girl. Her face was soft and sweet! Her deep, green eyes
would sparkle bright and when she flashed her pearly white teeth, she would light up
an entire room. There would be laughter and happiness everywhere she went.
At one point of time when I began to neglect my studies, it was Rebecca who
explained to me that every moment is precious and we should not waste time in
unnecessary activities as that will affect us adversely, in the future. She was my
friend, philosopher and guide.
Years have passed and today I am in a higher grade while Rebecca is in college. But
even now, at the hint of any trouble, I fall back upon my best friend, Rebecca, and
she NEVER fails me. I am really lucky to have a friend, philosopher and guide like
her.
Matheran is nature’s defiant way of stating that it can thrive even when it is so
dangerously close to urban life. Indeed, this hill station offers you a version of back-
to-nature experience because it rejects development in the form of concrete roads or
paths. The only form of transport is horseback, carriages, man pulled rickshaws and,
of course, your two loyal feet.
Matheran is a trekker’s delight where you can walk aimlessly through a riot of
greens, the twitter of birds and the chatter of naughty monkeys. There are leaves, in
the colour of jade, emerald, bottle-green, light green, lemon green---you name it! And
guess what! They complement the red laterite soil beneath your feet and the dark
brown of the sturdy tree trunks. This is where the sky and the leaves compete for
space and the sky cannot be seen.
There are amazing spots, all interconnected by bridle paths. There’s the steep and
picturesque descent to Monkey Point; there’s Charlotte Lake where sunlight through
the trees lends a magical effect to everything; there’s the wondrous path to Louisa
Point where the tree trunks and glistening leaves sometimes seem like nature’s
shrines to God. It’s quite easy for anyone to whisper a short prayer in these places.
Even the market place where you buy the traditional chikki, chewda and Kolhapuri
chappals is quaint and beautiful as if taken out of a fairy tale. Charming little shops
and bungalows line the street.
Matheran is one of the last surviving natural spots which remind us that nature needs
to be a part of our everyday life. As you return to the inevitable life of the city, you are
thankful to God for this miracle called Nature.
A persuasive takes a position FOR or AGAINST an issue and convinces the reader
to believe or do something. It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point
of view or to take a particular action. The argument must always use sound
reasoning and evidence by stating facts, giving logical reasons, using examples, and
quoting experts’ opinions and sayings. The purpose of a persuasive essay is to
convince the reader to embrace your idea or point of view.
a) By an unusual detail:
Example:
Manitoba, because of its cold climate, is not thought of as a great place for
a reptile. Actually, it has the largest seasonal congregation of garter
snakes in the world.
b) By a strong statement:
Example:
Cigarettes are the number one cause of lighter sales in Canada.
c) By a quotation:
Example:
Mark Twain once said, “Action speaks louder than words but not nearly as
often.”
Example:
Have you considered how many books we’d read if it were not for
television?
f) By a short anecdote
2. Body: The body should consist of at least three paragraphs. Each should present
the points in support of your thesis or focus statement or main idea.
Be sure to provide evidences to support your argument.
You may support your idea or provide evidences in one of the following ways:
b) Statistics: These provide excellent support to your argument. But be sure your
statistics come from responsible sources. Always cite your sources to establish
authority.
c) Quotes: Direct quotes from experts or famous people are powerful evidence.
d) Examples: These enhance your meaning and make your ideas concrete.
As persuasive essays are written on debatable topics, both sides have their own
arguments and counter-arguments. A good persuasive essay generally tries to
disprove the opposing idea or viewpoint.
a) With a Prediction: You may suggest or predict what the results may or may
not be in the situation discussed.
b) With a Question: Concluding with a question, lets your readers make their
own predictions, draw their own conclusions.
b) Comparisons: In making comparisons, you can relate your point to what the
readers already accepts as true, so they can draw their own conclusions. The
most effective comparison writing techniques are the use of metaphors, similes,
and analogies.
d) Make use of clear, simple, and vivid language; logical construction, and
effective transitions. [Transitions are words and phrases that connect ideas and
show how they are related]
Time:
At once; At length; Immediately; Meanwhile; Presently; At the same time;
Shortly; Temporarily; Thereafter, etc.
Conclusion:
In short; In brief; On the whole; In summary; To sum up, etc.
5. Be consistent and stay focused on your point of view throughout the essay.
The meaning of this age-old proverb is quite literal. It effectively means that we must
attend to things well in time, so that we can save ourselves a lot of trouble later on, if
it becomes unmanageable. Just as it takes only a spark to start a fire, which if not
put out in time causes great devastation. Similarly, the minutest problem if not
attended immediately could lead to a major catastrophe.
As one immediately attends to a small hole in one’s pocket with a stitch, which if left
unattended could develop into a tear, leading to nine stitches at a later date; similarly
if we postpone attending to minor day to day problems, they do not disappear, but
come back to us in a much more gigantic form. A small breach in a canal, if not
attended in time not only breaches the entire embankment, but also inundates large
cities and villages. Kingdoms can be lost by neglecting to replace such a small thing
as a nail in a horse’s shoe. As most of us would have heard of the saying “For want
of a nail, the shoe was lost, for want of a shoe, the horse was lost, for want of a
horse, the rider was lost, for want of a rider the battle was lost, for want of the battle,
the kingdom was lost.” This is the most practical and sound advice, that is given by
our elders including parents and teachers. However, we in our haste, tend to
overlook the small details, which is the cause of major problems at a later date.
History is replete with examples validating the above saying. Had Germany got a
honourable settlement after World War I, the conflagration and destruction of the
World War II could have been avoided. Had the national leaders shown maturity and
understanding, the partition of the country could have been avoided. These are all
glaring examples of what can happen to great countries, if small problems and
differences are not resolved at once.
Therefore, we must attend to even minor problems immediately and not postpone
action for a later date, which may be a little too late. This is a sound piece of advice
that is relevant even today and would always stand us in good stead in our life. We
can ignore this to our own peril.
‘Nothing succeeds like success’; for one who has tasted success, this comes to him
naturally. Thus we find some people achieving great heights in whatever they do,
while on the other hand, there are quite a few unfortunate ones who have to bear the
ignominy of failure. There is, however, no mistaking the external facade of success,
for behind it are qualities that are imperative for achieving it.
Success is ninety-nine per cent perspiration and one percent inspiration, signifying
that there is no short cut to success. There are many instances where people have
risen from extreme poverty to achieve great success, by sheer dint of hard work. We
have such illustrious examples of Abraham Lincoln and Lal Bahadur Shastri who
rose from a very humble beginning to become the President and the Prime Minister
of their respective country.
Besides perseverance, there is need for a keen and sharp mind, with a clear vision
of what one wants to achieve in life. This ambition acts like a beacon of light, which
impels us to strive relentlessly in the pursuit of one’s goal. Thus, it is not sufficient to
have an ambition alone, we should also be ambitious. We should have the courage
of conviction, to move away from the beaten track in the pursuit of our goals.
Besides, we should also be patient to wait for the outcome of events, before rushing
in without a thought of the implications. We must also be a good listener, by hearing
the views of subordinates or superiors before coming to a decision. Having once
taken a decision, we must lead by setting an example for others to emulate. We
must have implicit faith in our colleagues and subordinates, to whom power and
responsibility must be delegated. It was said of Napoleon, that in the thickest of
battles, he slept on the horseback, for it was the general who was actually in
command. Such was his faith in his generals.
The last but not the least prerequisite for success is a positive mind-set, which is not
unduly pessimistic. This optimistic approach enables one to see an opportunity even
when the going is not good. Such a person is not easily disheartened and his
perseverance does pay in the long run for, ‘Life’s battle does not always go, to the
stronger and the fastest man, But sooner or later the man who wins, is the man who
thinks he can’, said H. W Longfellow.
Success, therefore, does not come by chance. We have to assiduously work for it
with dedication and perseverance, without waiting for reward or recognition, for this
is what Karma is. “Honour and shame from no condition arise. Act well your part thus
all the honour lies.”
* * * * *
Traditional letter writing still continues to be popular compared to the other means of
communication.
Letters serve as a record of communication which can be retrieved as and when
we want. A letter is permanent – it is always there to refer to.
Letters have a personal touch. A letter adds a personal touch to communication.
It may be typed or handwritten, and then delivered by electronic network or by
post. All the same, its value is undeniable.
Letter writing is also very useful in practical life, regardless of the profession one
chooses later on in life.
Moreover, while electronic mail is a preferred mode of communication nowadays,
the traditional letter writing skills are still applicable to e-mail.
TYPES OF LETTERS
Letters may be used to inform, enquire, complain, request, thank, congratulate,
console, direct, invite, explain, narrate, reply etc. Depending on their purpose and
objectives, letters can be divided into two main categories:
1. Formal or Business Letters: These are formal and business-like in tone and are
generally written to people not personally known. Formal letters are written for
various official purposes.
2. Informal or Social or Friendly Letters: These are friendly or personal in tone.
Informal letters are written to friends, relatives and acquaintances.
There is a third category, Semi-formal Letters. These are less friendly than informal
letters. We may write semi-formal letters to our friends’ parents, teachers, principals
or persons of repute to invite them to be a chief guest or to judge a competition.
1. The Heading
2. The Salutation or Greeting
3. The Body
4. The Subscription or Leave-taking
5. The Signature
6. The Superscription on the envelope
While writing a letter, the various parts must be properly arranged so that the letter is
clearly understood by the receiver. There are basically two kinds of layout:
1. The Block or Box Form: All the units are placed on the left side of the page
close to the left hand margin.
2. The Indented or Traditional Form: The heading, salutation, subscription and
signature are on the right side of the page, close to the right hand margin. New
paragraphs are indented.
Flat 5, Flat 5
Blue Haven, Blue Haven
Candy Lane, Candy Lane
Dadar (W), Dadar (W)
Mumbai 28. Mumbai 28
3. The Body:
The body of the letter is the most important part of the letter. It explains what the
letter is about.
The position of the body is one line below the salutation.
Divide the letter into paragraphs, unless the letter is very short. Organise your
thoughts and arrange them in the following paragraphs:
5. The Signature:
The signature consists of the name of the writer (the first name only and NOT
the surname).
Place the signature on the left-hand side of the letter, one line below the
subscription.
The signature does not consist of a title such as, ‘Mr’, ‘Ms’ or ‘Mrs’.
There is no full stop after the signature.
.
To
Ms Sakshi Mehra
B-7, Indraneel Nagar
A.B. Road
Indore - 452001
Madhya Pradesh
While writing a letter, the various parts must be properly arranged so that the letter is
clearly understood by the receiver. There are basically two kinds of layout:
1. The Block or Box Form
2. The Indented or Traditional Form
Blk 103
Sender’s
Lorong Ah Soo
Address
01-304
Singapore 559335
How have you been? I heard from Aunt that you will
finally be visiting Singapore. ………………………….……...
……………………………………………………..………….…….
………………………………………..………..……............…...…
…………………………………………………………..…….........
Body
………………………………..
………………………………………..………..……............…...…
………………………………………………………….…….......…
………………………………..
Signature Alexia
// …………………………………………….……….……...
……………………………………………………..………….…….
// …………………………………………..……….……....
………………………………………………………….…….......…
Body
………………………………..
// …………………………….…………….…..…….……...
………………………………………………………….…….......…
………………………………..
Signature Sarah
The Block Form is generally used when letters are typed out.
The Indented Form is used when letters are handwritten.
You may choose any form when writing letters.
However, the Block Format is more widely used nowadays.
Write a letter to your friend informing him of your inability to go to school for
two weeks after the summer holidays.
Dear Annie,
I expect, you will be surprised to receive a letter from me; especially now when
school is going to re-open in a few days. Actually, something very unexpected has
happened!
Do you remember my telling you that I was going to stay with my uncle during the
holidays? Well, I had done just that and had had a lot of fun too when my cousin
caught the measles! Though I have not caught it, I am in quarantine and won’t be
able to go to school for the next two weeks. The doctor says that the disease is
very infectious and I may pass it on to someone else, if I am allowed to attend
school.
So here I am, stuck in the house and feeling really sorry for myself. I suppose I
ought to be pleased that my holidays are getting extended, but I’ll be missing the
basketball match against St. Michael’s as well as the school picnic!
Would you do me a favour and return my library book next Thursday? It’s in my
locker and the keys are with Miss Roy.
I must end my letter now as I have to write to Mr Ronald, our Principal, explaining
everything. Bye and do write a letter if you get time. See you soon.
Points to remember:
Write a letter to your friend giving an account of a competition that you took
part in and won. Prepare an envelope.
My dear Divya,
I’m writing this letter to tell you about the super-duper victory we had yesterday. It
was a surprise debate on the topic ‘The internet is a bane to society’ in which we won
hands down and the applause at the end was thundering.
The day began as usual with the mad rush to school. I settled down on my seat only
to hear the teacher telling us to prepare ourselves for a debate. She divided the class
into two groups to speak ‘for’ and ‘against’ the topic. I belonged to the group that
would speak against the topic. We sat down with pen and paper and jotted down
points. My friends Aryan, Sammy and I were chosen to speak on the topic.
Soon, it was time for the debate to be conducted. Annie from the other group started
with her arguments and tried to prove that the internet is really harmful for us. I was
itching to get up and counter argue; which I soon did. I reminded her that she is
directly indebted to it for the straight A’s that she gets in her various projects.
I really wanted to share my happiness with you; so writing this letter to you. Hope you
are having fun in school too. Convey my regards to uncle and aunty. Do write soon.
Envelope
To
Divya Parekh
53, Law College Road
Pune 411 033
Maharashtra
DESCRIPTIVE LETTERS
Points to remember:
Write a letter to your cousin describing the exhibition that was held in your
city. Describe what you saw there. Prepare an envelope.
Dear Sandra,
It’s been a long time since I heard from you. Hope you are fine and going to school
regularly. We are having an interesting time in school and going for many field trips.
Last week, we were taken to the ‘Indian Fair’ where we saw the exquisite handicraft
work of different states of our great country. It was my first visit to such an exhibition.
The exhibition ground looked like a fairyland. The bright colours and teeming crowd
created a carnival like atmosphere. At the handicrafts pavilion, craftsmen from
various parts of the country were displaying their work. There were items made of
jute, silk, rayon, plastic, bamboo and even paper. We got a glimpse of the real India
as we went through those exquisite handmade objects showcasing the talent of
people from remote corners of India.
Children crowded around the amusement and toy section. There were also puppet
shows, street theatre, short film displays and live fashion shows. I thoroughly enjoyed
the exhibition and also learnt about the different states of India and the handicraft
specific to a state. We plan to make a powerpoint presentation on ‘Handicrafts of
India’ soon.
Bye for today! I look forward to hearing from you soon. Please give my regards to
uncle and aunty and lots of love to Tania.
Your friend,
Tejas
To
Sandra Henderson
33, Lansdowne Road
Kolkata - 700 029
West Bengal
A few topics that you may practise writing Narrative letters on:
Write a letter to your cousin telling her about the picnic that you were taken to
from the school.
Write a letter to your friend narrating an interesting happening that took place in
the market near your house.
Write a letter to your cousin telling him / her about the magic show that you
witnessed last week.
Write a letter to your uncle describing the place you visited during your holidays.
Write a letter to your friend describing how a quick action taken by a person
saved the life of a patient.
Write a letter to your cousin describing the interesting person you met while
travelling last week.
Be sure to thank the person for the specific gift and mention the gift by name.
Acknowledge the effort and energy the giver put into selecting, buying or making
that gift.
Let the giver know how you have used or will use the gift.
When thanking someone for a gift of money, do not mention the amount in your
letter of thanks. A reference to “your generous gift” will suffice.
Your aunt sent you a birthday present. Write a letter thanking her for the
present and sharing with her how useful the present was to you. Prepare an
envelope.
My Aunt Martha,
I just received the birthday gift that you sent me. Thank you so much. I could not
imagine receiving a more appropriate gift during this phase of my life.
I am planning to use the bicycle you sent to me, to ride to school every day. I already
have friends who do so. Going to school will not be such a boring, mundane ritual
anymore. I am pretty sure that I will learn more about the driving rules that govern
road traffic en route. I plan to stick with the group in order to be safe.
Mother knows about my intention to ride the bicycle to school and surprisingly, she is
okay with it. Father is delighted with the idea of me riding the bike to school since
that would mean that I don’t have to carry, ‘the perpetually heavy school bag’ for too
long.
I look forward to you visiting me again so that you can see me in action on the bike.
Thank you once again for such a lovely present.
Yours affectionately,
Samuel
Envelope
Postage
To Stamp
Mrs Martha Fernandez
12, Saibaba Colony
Coimbatore 641 038
Tamil Nadu
LETTER OF CONGRATULATIONS
Points to remember:
State in the beginning, the specific occasion that has motivated you to write a
congratulation letter.
Express praise and approval of the reader's accomplishment.
Keep the letter simple, concise and positive. Do not include any negative
comments or unhappy news.
Do not exaggerate the congratulatory words or your letter may seem sarcastic.
Do not suggest that the fortunate event should benefit the letter-writer (i.e. you) in
any way.
Dear Christina,
This morning, I read a proverb that reminded me of you. The proverb highlighted that
achievements are a result of both efficiency and proficiency. I recollect how you were
a relentless stickler for your study schedule. After all, we are what our time, energy
and money investments are. You really deserved such a success. It is the fruit of
your hard work, concentration and commitment. All in all, you have set a benchmark
for the rest of the family youngsters to follow.
My parents are also very pleased at your splendid achievement and convey their
best wishes and blessings. Now you will be joining a college. You will be entering a
wider world with larger responsibilities. I pray for you a bright and prosperous future.
Do write to me about the various options available to you and the subjects that you
are planning to take up.
Please convey my regards to your parents.
Letters of sympathy are written when someone close to you has had to experience
an unfortunate situation.
Failure in an exam.
Failure to qualify for a job or join a team.
Somebody is inflicted by an illness.
Becoming a victim of an accident.
The loss of some relative or friend.
Points to remember:
Your cousin Sumeet is a good cricketer and represents the state of Karnataka.
In the recent ‘Sanjet Trophy’ his team lost and he did not do well on the wicket.
He is extremely upset about his performance. Write a letter to Sumeet,
expressing your sympathy at the manner in which things turned out and make
an attempt to encourage him and boost his morale.
Dear Sumeet,
Ever since the finals of the cricket tournament of Sunday, I have been thinking about
you constantly I am so sorry that you and your team had such a disappointing
experience on the field. I want you to know that I share your disappointment and
wish to remind you that any good performer or team continues to shine irrespective
of final outcomes.
Yes, it was very upsetting to see a good team like yours lose at the finals, especially
after putting up such a brilliant performance in the knock out rounds. It was also sad
to see you get out even before you could open your account in the finals, after such
dazzling centuries in the previous matches. As captain of the team, you led all
through and such feats should never be dimmed by a failure. I think you know better
than I do that it’s the effort and spirit of the person that finally matters.
Success and failure are never totally in our hands. What is in our hands is our
attitude and our sincere endeavour. And what is most important is that we rise after a
disappointing fall. That is where true greatness lies. And this, I know, is what you
possess. Indeed, it is one of your greatest qualities. I’m sure you will not let one
defeat knock the ground from under your feet. I’m sure this experience will make you
more determined to do better. After all, isn’t that what disappointments do for us?
Cheer up cousin! You are a great player and, above all, a great human being. I have
great regard for you and love you a lot. Do convey my regards to aunt and uncle.
Letters of apology are written, when a person has made a mistake or offended
someone and he / she wishes to apologise for his / her behaviour.
Points to remember:
While visiting your aunt during the summer vacation, you carelessly broke her
favourite vase. Write a letter to your aunt apologising for your careless act.
I must let you to know how upset I am for breaking your precious Wedgewood vase,
during my visit to your house, last week. I feel miserable and have many regrets over
my thoughtless and careless action which has undoubtedly caused you much
sadness and pain.
Aunt Rose, I am truly sorry for breaking such a beautiful antique piece of art. I wish I
had listened to you and played with the ball in the garden. Mother explained to me
that the vase was very precious to you since it had been a gift from a very close
friend. I have now understood how even a moment of thoughtless and irresponsible
action can lead to situations that can cause pain to anyone and, consequently, many
feelings of regret. This experience has also taught me to be careful--especially about
things that belong to others. When we damage such things, we destroy a bit of the
precious family history we need to treasure.
Mother and I have decided that I use my pocket money to buy you another vase of
the same kind. I am only too willing to fill up that empty space in your beautiful
drawing room, even though I am fully aware that another piece of the same kind can
never be a substitute for the original one. I will be extremely grateful to you, if you
allow me to undo some of the harm I have caused.
I love you very much and I will take care never to upset you again.
communication.
not be neglected.
suggestions:
* * * * *
2. Byline: This tells who wrote the report. You can write the name of the writer
or ‘By a Staff Reporter’ or “By a correspondent’.
3. Place and Date: This is the name of the place where the incident occurred
and the month and date when the report was written.
4. Lead paragraph: The lead paragraph has ALL the who, what, when,
where, why and how in it. A writer must find the answers to these questions
and write them in the opening sentence(s) of the report. The first paragraph
should also contain a hook, something that grabs the reader's attention and
makes the reader want to read the rest of the article. Use verbs in the Active
voice (Dog kills rat); not in the Passive voice (Rat killed by dog). Be specific
and clear and use simple language.
When? Where?
Newspaper
Report
Why?
What?
Heading
By…(a name)
or
By a Staff Reporter
Example
Metro work leaves holes in water mains!
By a Staff Reporter
Or
By Cynthia Lewis
Kolkata, April 20: Residents of Lansdowne Road have scarcely received any
water for the last four days due to holes in the main water pipes; a result of the metro
work in the area ………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………….……………………………
………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Write a report for the local newspaper about how child actors on the
television are preparing themselves for their exams.
Mumbai, March 3: Don’t be disappointed if you see a little less of your favourite
child stars on TV for a few days. The reason is that like most children, they too are
busy with their exams. Producers are trying to prepare episode banks or introduce
slight changes in the track.
Be it Aanandi of Balika Vadhu or Ichcha of Uttaran, the kids have been taking
leave from the sets for studies. Even on the sets, they study between shoots.
Producer Sanjoy Wadhwa said, “We are trying to make a bank of as many episodes
as possible so that there is no hindrance to their exams.”
Avika Gaur will get 20 days off from the sets. “Her exams begin in the first week of
April. “My daughter does not miss school and only shoots after school,” father
Sameer Gaur said.
But Class VII student Sawri, the newest addition to the Saat Phere cast is practically
there in every scene and is hence finding difficult to study. Her father, Gagan Gupta,
said, “My kid studies while travelling to the studio or at her tuition classes. We are
trying our best to see her studies are not affected.”
All in all, it is a difficult time for the child actors in doing the balancing act. The
producers have promised to give them off on the exam days and also off days to
prepare for the examination.
* * * * *
Sec_gr5,6,7_eng lang_hn_T1 230
15. EXPOSITORY WRITING
The situations where one might use this style are easy to identify. Expository writing
is used to give instructions or describe a procedure in the following situations:
WHO? WHY?
WHAT? IF?
Do it WHEN? THEN?
Yourself WHERE? FROM?
kit
Recipes
How to
2. Objectivity: Be objective. Provide facts, not what you think. While reporting
scientific observations, report what you observe and not what you think may be
the result.
Examples:
Heat the oven to a moderate temperature. (VAGUE)
Heat the oven to 200o C. (PRECISE)
4. Relevant facts. A well-written exposition remains focused on its topic. Use only
those facts which are required for the procedure. Irrelevant facts are not only a
distraction but could upset the entire procedure
e) Give instructions through the use of commands and orders. Use imperative
sentences.
Examples:
One generally puts 200 gms of flour in a dish. (INAPPROPRIATE)
Put 200 gms flour in a dish. (APPROPRIATE)
Modal Auxiliaries such as should, would, may, will, must, etc, are also
sometimes used.
1. A paragraph
2. A bulleted / numbered list
(Paragraph form)
Flying a Kite
Ingredients:
Method:
1) The School President should carry out his/her duties with responsibility,
sincerity and capability.
2) He/she should be neutral in his/her demeanour and refrain from being
prejudiced or biased in his/her actions.
3) He/she should, at all times, have the student’s and the school’s best interests in
mind as he/she carries out this responsible task.
4) He/she should guide and support the Student Council in all its duties and
endeavour to get them to work in co-operation.
5) He/she should arrange meetings of the Student Council together with the
teachers-in-charge at regular intervals.
6) He/she should assist the Principal in conducting the daily assembly and
organising the activities on special occasions like Republic Day, Annual Day,
etc.
7) Finally, the School President should provide a regular report of the activities of
the Council to the Coordinator and Principal.
* * * * *
2. Capitalisation 1.Revision of
and Punctuation capitalisation, full stop, comma, exclamation mark,
question mark and quotation marks, apostrophe,
semi colon, colon, hyphen, parenthesis.
6. Verbs 1. Participle
2. Gerund
7 Adjective 3.
1. Infinitive
Position, Order ,
4. Usage
2. Agreement
andof the verb withofthe adjectives
Formation subject
Formation of
adjectives from nouns and verbs
Correct use of 'few', 'a few', 'the few'; 'little', 'a
little', 'the little'; etc
14 Newspaper ----
Report
* * * * *