Saint Joseph College

Maasin City, Southern Leyte, Philippines

MODULE FOR CE 29 – SANITARY ENGINEERING

For

ONLINE/OFFLINE DISTANCE LEARNING

Prepared by:

Engr. Luzanne A. Bakunawa

2nd Semester, SY: 2019-2020

VII. RODENT CONTROL
HOW TO IDENTIFY RODENTS?
Before performing measures to get rid of rodents, it is important to identify them first.

 COMMENSAL RODENTS
(Also called as Domestic Rodents) lives close to humans. Commensal is defined as “sharing one’s
table.” Commensal Rodents live off humans and animals without returning anything of worth.
Simply they are dependent upon human or animal habitat for the essential elements of food,
water, shelter and space.

You can easily identify them as those rodents are active during night and shelters themselves
indoors for warmth during the cold season, then goes out again when the summer starts. There are
some cases, however, that these rodents will stay indoors if the food source is sufficient. Generally,
rodents of this kind have poor eyesight, but in turn, do have strong sense of smell, taste, and
touch. What you have to watch out for them, though, is that they are good jumpers, swimmers,
climbers, and burrowers.

Apparently, commensal rodents have three species that you could identify them from:

HOUSE MOUSE ( MUS MUSCULUS)

Is the most common mouse you’d get to see inside the house – it has a slender and
small body, with a tail longer than its head and body combined. However, it is notably shorter in
size than the other species as it body can only range from 2 ½ to 3 4/5 inches long. Hence, it can
easily fit through small openings with least ¼ inches in diameter. Additionally, house mice are active
climbers and normally it can travel an area with 10 – 30 ft. in diameters.
Droppings: pointed ends, size: ¼ inch, average 50-70 droppings per day

ROOF RATS (RATTUS RATTUS)

Are common in residential areas, particularly attics, wood piles, and garages, or anything
above the ground. Typically, this specie would look slender, with tail that is particularly longer than
the head and feet combined, totaling to length of 12 to 17 ¾ inches, and would weigh about ¾
pound. Most often, they feed on nuts, fruits, ivy, and pet food, and also hoard them to stash
supplies of food.
Droppings: pointed ends, size: ½ inch, dark color and average 40 – 50 droppings per day.

NORWAY RATS (RATTUS NORVEGICUS)

Compared to roof rat, Norway rat is bigger and more aggressive. It is notably much
longer, about 18 inches, and heavier than the said specie as Norway rats can weigh up to 1 pound.
Though, unlike roof rats, Norway rats have shorter tails, and smaller ears and eyes. Generally,
Norway rats can be found in agricultural areas, sewer, and creeks as they most particularly nest in
underground holes. Most likely, it feeds on grains, meat scraps, fruits, vegetables, per food, and
garbage.
 Droppings: Blunt ends, ¾ inch in size, average 40 – 50 droppings per day.

SIGN OF INFESTATION:
These are the few indications:

 Sightings of dead or alive rodents.

 Damaged or partially eaten foods such as walnuts, avocados, and oranges.
 Rodent droppings, which may be found near their shelters, runways, and feeding locations such as
swimming pool heat covers and water heater closets.
 Particular sound such as gnawing from the attic, wall spaces, and subfloor areas.
 Holes in the ground and those next to sewer lines indicates the travel area that the rodents have
previously occupied (these grease marks are from the oil that have stuck into the rodents’ fur and
have made contact with the surfaces.)
 Gnawed upon rubber and wood materials.
COMMON RODENT ENTRY POINTS
Before implementing rodent prevention and control, it is best to determine their entry points so as to
know where to place traps and other rodent prevention and control measures. Below are some common
rodent entry points:

 Overlapping roofs
 Spaces between vent pipe and roof jack
 Tile roofs
 Toilet rooms
 Under garage doors
 Brick chimneys
 Broken vent screens or attic vent screens

HOW TO PREVENT RODENT INFESTATION

Rodent prevention or control isn’t too difficult as long as you know what you are doing. Here some tips we
gathered to keep our home pest free as possible.

SANITATION

 Proper removal of trash and garbage piles

 Removal of grass, weeds and undesirable vegetation

 Elimination of possible rodent hair borages

 Proper storage particles to allow cleaning inspection

Exclusion (Rodent) Proofing

 Seal all openings greater than ¼” for mice and ½” for rats

 Use coarse steel wool, sheet, metal, hardware, cloth, mortar, etc. for sealing openings

 Use 12” of 24 gauge sheet metal at the bottom of doors

Store your food correctly

 Keep any possible food sources out of reach. Never leave anything edible on your countertop or on
your kitchen table. If you are forced to though, then make sure to elevate your food from the surface
and surround it with water to keep anything from crawling its way to it.
 Food items that could cause crumbs such as breads, rice, chips, and the like should be stored in tight
containers. On the other hand, consumption of these food should also be restricted to one area of the
house for easy cleaning.
 Pet food should also be given an ample attention. Never allow it to sit around for long periods of time
unattended.

Check outside your home

 Keep your outdoor grills and cooking areas clean at all times.
 Leaf piles and deep mulch can also be a breeding ground of rodents, so as much as possible, remove
them along with other potential nesting sites.
 Avoid planting ivy or any kind of thick vine near walls as they can act as ladders for rodents to access
your homes with.
 Refrain from a having bird feeder because it can also act as a food source for rodents.
 If you have a compost pile outside your home, make sure to properly seal it to keep everything else
out.

POPULATION REDUCTION
1. TRAPPING PROGRAM
 CAGE TRAPS
 SNAP TRAPS
 WOODEN TRAPS
 BAMBOO TRAPS
 WIRE TRAPS
2. BAITING PROGRAM
a) Poison baiting and Fumigants
b) Rodenticides

This group compromises acute poison which kill the rats:

 SINGLE DOSE POISON

-by single exposure to poison baits. (example: zinc phoside)
 MULTIPLE DOSE POISON
-These chemicals are effective only after multiple feeding poison baits by rats, because of
their cummulative effects lead the death of animal. Examples (warfarin, ratanfin, rodafin,
vacor (RH_782), silmurin and bromadioline etc.)
 Why rodents control is needed?
 Sightings of rodents could be alarming especially in food processing and manufacturing
industries, beverage sectors.
 It may cause Damages - of goods and equipment such as computers, electrical
appliances, wires and pipes in offices and business premises.
 Business Losses – once an establishment infested with rodents it will gain a bad
reputation, worst is ground for closure.
 MICE AND RATS-are known for their ability to transmit disease. The black death of the
1300’s is a clear example of that. They are also to blame for a host of other malaises,
most of which can turn fatal if left untreated. Some are the short listed diseases caused
by rats.:

SALMONELLOSIS- which is also a bacterial disease, is transmitted through eating and

drinking food or water that is contaminated with rodent feces.
MURINE TYPHUS- is a disease transmitted by fleas. It is caused by the bacterium.
Rickettsia typhi, and possibly Rickettsia feils, found in infected fleas and their feces.
LYMPHOCYTIC CHORIOMENINGITIS (LCM)- is a rodent-borne viral infectious disease that
are able to transmit virus for the duration of their lives without showing any sign of
illness.
LEPTOSPIROSIS- is a bacterial disease that is most commonly acquired during the wet
season. Generally, one can he/she comes in contact with infected water, most likely by
swimming or drinking water contaminated with urine of infected rodents.

VIII. MOSQUITO CONTROL

BIOLOGICAL DATA OF MOSQUITO:
• Common name: Mosquitoes
• Scientific name: Culicidae
• Type: Invertebrates
• Diet: Carnivore
• Group name: Swarm
• Average life span: 2 weeks to 6 months
• Size: 0.125 to 0.75 inches
• Weight: 0.000088 ounces

 Not all mosquitoes transmit diseases, but they can all be a nuisance. There are many different species
of mosquitoes with different preferences for climate and breeding territory. Typically, mosquitoes lay
 their eggs in standing water. Mosquito larvae hatch from the eggs and remain in the water, feeding on
tiny organisms. Once they mature, adult mosquitoes leave the water to breed.

FUN FACTS ABOUT MOSQUITOS:

1. Only female mosquitoes bite.
Both male and female feed mainly on fruit and plant nectar, but the female also needs the protein in
blood to help her eggs develop. Once she's had her fill of blood, she'll rest for a couple of days before
laying her eggs.
2. Mosquito is Spanish for “little fly.”
3. A mosquito can drink up to three times its weight in blood.
4. Sweat helps mosquitoes choose their victims.
5. Body heat marks the target.
6. Malaria is caused by a parasite that lives in mosquitoes.
7. Mosquitoes are considered the deadliest “animal” in the world.
NOT-SO-FUN FACT ABOUT MOSQUITOS
One Million Deaths Every Year
The most deadly animal in the world is the mosquito. It might seem impossible that something so
miniscule can kill so many people, but it's true. According to the World Health
Organization, mosquito bites result in the deaths of more than 1 million people every year.

SPECIES OF MOSQUITO
• According to the American Mosquito Control Association, there are over 3,000 species of
mosquitoes in the world, and at least 176 of them can be found in the United States. The most
common, and most dangerous, are the various species in the Culex, Anopheles, and Aedes.
• A total of 279 species, subspecies, and varieties of mosquitoes are known to be present in the
Philippines including members which are considered vectors of viral and parasitic infections of public
health importance
• Only about 200 bite humans.
Culex:
Anopheles:

Aedes:

DISEASES THAT MOSQUITO CARRIES

Malaria
• Malaria is an ancient disease. In all likelihood originating in Africa, it has been described by the Chinese
as far back as 2700BC and the Sumerians from 1700 BC.
• The malaria parasite (plasmodium) is transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes.
• More than one million deaths and 300 - 500 million cases are still reported annually in the world. It is
reported that malaria kills one child every 40 seconds.
Chikungunya
• Chikungunya virus is a pathogen transmitted by mosquitoes, and has established itself in the Caribbean
(approximately 350,000 suspected cases in the Western Hemisphere since December 2013).
• The mosquito species that transmit this disease are the Asian Tiger Mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and
the Yellow Fever Mosquito (Aedes aegypti).

Dog Heartworm (Dirofilaria Immitis)

• Dog heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) can be a life-threatening disease for canines. The disease is caused
by a roundworm. Dogs and sometimes other animals such as cats, foxes and raccoons are infected with
the worm through the bite of a mosquito carrying the larvae of the worm.
• It is dependent on both the mammal and the mosquito to fulfill its life cycle. The young worms (called
microfilaria) circulate in the blood stream of the dog.

Dengue
• Dengue is a serious arboviral disease of the Americas, Asia and Africa. Although it has a low mortality,
dengue has very uncomfortable symptoms and has become more serious, both in frequency and
mortality, in recent years.
• Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are the vectors of dengue.
• These mosquitoes prefer to lay their eggs in containers close to human habitations and are not well-
controlled by standard spraying techniques.
• It is one of the most common mosquito-borne diseases in the Philippines, infecting thousands of
people on a yearly basis.

Yellow Fever
• Yellow fever, which has a 400-year history, at present occurs only in tropical areas of Africa and the
Americas.
• It has both an urban and jungle cycle. It is a rare illness of travelers anymore because most countries
have regulations and requirements for yellow fever vaccination that must be met prior to entering the
country.
• Every year about 200,000 cases occur with 30,000 deaths in 33 countries. It does not occur in Asia. 

Zika Virus
• Zika virus has emerged from its origins in central Africa
and has rapidly spread to the South Pacific and western hemisphere.
 • Although in rare cases Zika can be spread through
sexual contact with an infected person, it is usually transmitted through the bit of an infected Aedes
agypti or Aedes albopictus mosquito.
• Often patients are not sick enough to seek medical
treatment so a great many cases are not reported.

PREVENTION/CONTROL
Monitoring mosquito populations
• Adult mosquito populations may be monitored by landing rate counts, mechanical traps or by, lidar
technology. For landing rate counts, an inspector visits a set number of sites every day, counting the
number of adult female mosquitoes that land on a part of the body, such as an arm or both legs, within
a given time interval. Mechanical traps use a fan to blow adult mosquitoes into a collection bag that is
taken back to the laboratory for analysis of catch. The mechanical traps use visual cues (light,
black/white contrasts) or chemical attractants that are normally given off by mosquito hosts (e.g.,
carbon dioxide, ammonia, lactic acid, octenol) to attract adult female mosquitoes.

Source Reduction
• Mosquito breeding grounds can be eliminated at home by removing unused plastic pools, old tires, or
buckets; by clearing clogged gutters and repairing leaks around faucets; by regularly (at most every 4
days) changing water in bird baths; and by filling or draining puddles, swampy areas, and tree stumps.

Biocontrol
• Biological control or "biocontrol" is the use of natural enemies to manage mosquito populations. There
are several types of biological control including the direct introduction of parasites, pathogens and
predators to target mosquitoes.
• Effective biocontrol agents include predatory fish that feed on mosquito larvae such as mosquitofish
(Gambusia affinis) and some cyprinids (carps and minnows) and killifish. Tilapia also consume mosquito
larvae.

Under Biocontrol:
Experimental Biocontrol Methods
• Introducing large numbers of sterile males is another approach to reducing mosquito
numbers. This is called Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). Radiation is used to disrupt DNA in the
mosquitoes and randomly create mutations. Males with mutations that disrupt their fertility
are selected and released in mass into the wild population. These sterile males mate with
wild type females and no offspring is produced, reducing the population size.
 Trap Larva
• This is a process of achieving sustainable mosquito control in an eco friendly manner by
providing artificial breeding grounds with an ovitrap or an ovillanta utilizing common
household utensils and destroying larvae by non-hazardous natural means such as throwing
them in dry places or feeding them to larvae eating fishes like Gambusia affinis, or
suffocating them by spreading a thin plastic sheet over the entire water surface to block
atmospheric air.

Trap Adult
• In several experiments, researchers utilized mosquito traps. This process allowed both the
opportunity to determine which mosquitoes were affected, and provided a group to be re-
released with genetic modifications resulting in the OX513A variant to reduce reproduction.
Adult mosquitoes are attracted inside the trap where they die of dehydration.

Oil Drip
• An oil drip can or oil drip barrel was a common and nontoxic anti-mosquito measure. The
thin layer of oil on top of the water prevents mosquito breeding in two ways: mosquito
larvae in the water cannot penetrate the oil film with their breathing tube, and so drown
and die; also adult mosquitoes do not lay eggs on the oiled water.

PREVENTION/CONTROL (Other Methods)

1. Remove sources of standing water.
2. Clean out the gutters.
3. Change out water sources weekly.
4. Drain water and fill up low areas.
5. Replace outdoor lighting.

IX. FLY CONTROL

FLY (DIPTERA)
A winged insect with a pair of large compound eyes, mouth parts designed for piercing and
sucking, or for lapping in other groups. Their wing arrangement gives them great maneuverability in
flight. Claws and pads on their feet enable them to cling to smooth surfaces. Though they may be seen
as a nuisance, disease carrying insect, or pests, flies are important pollinators playing a significant role
in the food chain. There are approximately 120,000 or maybe larger species of flies that have been
described by science.
COMMON TYPES OF FLY

1. HOUSE FLY (MUSCA DOMESTICA) - House flies are major carriers of disease and can infest all
types of premises. They are attracted to all types of food ,including human food , pet food , animal
feed , food waste and even feces. On average, the adult housefly will live for around 30 days. They go
through a complete four-stage cycle that consists of egg, larva, pupa and adult stage

2. BLUEBOTTLE FLY (CALLIPHORA VOMITORIA)- Also known as blow fly, can often be seen
hovering around dustbins. These scavengers are attracted to pet feces and dead animals and as such
are known carriers of disease. Their name originates from their iridescent colors that are similar to
colored bottles.

3. FRUIT FLY (DROSOPHILIA SPECIES) -. Fruit flies are commonly found infesting fruit or hovering
around fermenting residues found in pubs, fruit orchards & vegetables plots and breweries.
4. DRAIN FLY (PSYCHODIDAE) - Drain flies are often associated with sewage beds, where larvae
feed on sludge-like organic matter. They are also known by a variety of name; drain fly, sewage fly and
moth fly are few examples of it.
5. FLESH FLY (Family - Sarcophagidae) - They are attracted to decaying wastes, excrement and
human foods – making a threat to human health. The female deposits live larvae on a suitable feeding
medium (this can range from spoilt meat or fish, or animal excrement, or in decaying food in garbage
bins).
6. Horse fly (family tabanidae) - Horse flies are a particular pest to livestock. Relentless biting attacks by
females can result in reduced weight gain in some animals. Horse fly bites can be very painful for
humans. They use mouth parts that work like miniature knives, which they use to slash open skin with a
scissor like motion.
Why do we need to get rid of flies?

Flies have been a nuisance insect for thousands of years. Flies are classified as filthy insects because
they breed on rotten food, manure, and garbage. They pick up disease-causing organisms while crawling
and feeding. Most of the diseases can also be contracted more directly through contaminated food, air,
water, hands, and person-to-person contact. A fly can mature from egg to adult in as few as ten days,
thus causing a severe problem in a short period of time.

Diseases brought by flies

Cholera

-a serious disease that causes severe vomiting and diarrhea and that often results in death.

Conjunctivitis

-a disease which causes the eye to become pink and sore.

Dysentery

-a serious disease that cause severe diarrhea and a loss of blood.

Gastroenteritis
 -inflammation of the lining of the membrane of the stomach and the intestines characterized
especially by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and cramps.

Salmonellosis

-infection or disease caused by salmonellae (kind of bacteria that is sometimes in the food) .

Tuberculosis

-a highly variable communicable disease of humans that is caused by a tubercle bacillus which
affects the lungs.

Typhoid fever

-a communicable disease marked especially by fever, diarrhea, prostration, headache, and

intestinal inflammation and caused by a bacterium.

Getting rid of flies long term begins with proper sanitation and exclusion. Sanitation is critical in a
good fly management program. The goal in sanitation is to remove or prevent any medium where fly
larvae will develop. While exclusion means, eliminating the ways that flies can get into the home,
thereby “excluding” them from entry. Yet there are other ways to control fly, such as Chemical Control
and Mechanical Control. These modern methods can exterminate flies quickly and effectively.
Sanitation
 Keep garbage cans and dumpsters clean.
 Repair window screens and doors.
 Pick up pet waste in the yard.
 In home kitchens, restaurants and commercial kitchens, drain flies can become a problem. An
excellent product to treat home drains and restaurant drains is invade bio treatment gel.
 Dead rodents and birds can increase a fly problem. Remove the carcasses, because flies lay eggs
on decomposing rodents and fowl. The eggs become larvae and the maggots become adult flies.
 Do not over water indoor potted plants.
 Keep outdoor areas cleaned. Clean away any soiled bedding, decaying plant, straw animal
matter.
Exclusion
 Keep window and door screens in good repair
 Keep doors, windows and vents closed when not in use. Use automatic door closing devices
where possible
 Caulk or cover other possible fly entry areas, such as around vents, cracks, and holes in the
house siding and windows or doors. Screen vent openings.
 Plug weep holes with pieces of nylon, plastic scouring pads or window screening.
Chemical control
It is recommended that all other methods be tried first because flies have become resistant to
many insecticides making them more difficult to control. So, only when and where needed. Examples
of these are Fumigation, Fogging, Misting , and using of any other pesticides which is labeled for flies.
Mechanical control
 Involves anything that is not chemical but kills or captures the flies. Examples are Fly papers, fly traps,
fly glue, fly tape, fly catcher and etc. You can bait fly traps with molasses, sugar, fruit or meat

ACTIVITY NO. 1

NAME: Jobenson B. Camiguing SCORE:_________________

COURSE&YEAR: BSCE V DATE: May 21, 2020__ ____
A. Answer the following:
1. In your home/community, describe the rodents you have seen & what do think the type of rodent it is?
Most of the rodents that are present in our home are slender, small and active climbers. I think that
these types are house mouse ( mus musculus) and roof rats (rattus rattus).
2. Is Rodent a menace to the community? Why?
Yes, rodents are undeniably a great menace to us, especially at home. They bit our clothes and even some of
the things in our house and the reeking smell of a dead rat is a major disturbance to our living and health.
3. What do you think is the best way to control rodents? Why?
For me, trapping is better than using the baiting program. Because, you can get rid of finding dead rodents
that causes very unpleasant smell when undiscovered. Any of the trappings can do but I think snap trap will be
better.
4. Make a diagram shows how the rodents can multiply in a year if not controlled.
5. What do you think why mosquito is a threat to the community?
Because mosquitoes might transmit diseases including Malaria, Chikungunya, Dog Heartworm (Dirofilaria
Immitis), Dengue, Yellow Fever, and Zika Virus. Moreover, more than one million deaths and 300 - 500 million
cases are still reported annually in the world because of malaria for example.
6. Why do only female mosquito bite?
Because only female mosquitos need the protein in blood to help her eggs develop.
7. What do you think is the most effective way of controlling mosquito? Why?
For me, biological control would be the most effective type of control in reducing the population of mosquitos
considering the fact that it uses natural enemies to manage their growth. This natural enemies could take
direct contact with mosquitos and take the action of controlling the total population of mosquitos without
harming the environment.
8. Most advance country used to breed good mosquito as their biocontrol method, is it possible? Why?
Yes, this is undeniably possible. Indeed other countries are already using this method which is also called the
Sterile Insect Technique and it is proven effective. Sterile males with mutations that disrupt the fertility of
mosquitos mate with wild type females and no offspring is produced, reducing the population size.
9. In our home which method do u think is applicable for mosquito control? And why?
At home, the most applicable mosquito control that we can use is the source reduction. Because this can be
done by just removing unused plastic pools, old tires, or buckets; by clearing clogged gutters and repairing
leaks around faucets; by regularly changing water in bird baths; and by filling or draining puddles, swampy
areas, and tree stumps.
10. What are the significant differences of mosquito and flies?
Any insect that belongs to the order Diptera is a fly, a winged insect with mouth parts designed for piercing and
sucking, or for lapping in other groups. A mosquito is a fly --- little fly. The only difference of mosquito from
common fly is that it consume blood from humans and other animals. Most other flies don’t consume blood.
11. What does flies attracted most?
Flies are mostly attracted to food.
12. In the 3 topics, Rodent Control, Mosquito Control, & Fly Control; why is it that the only thing we can do is
control, not totally eliminate them?
Because this animals or insects play a significant role in the food chain. Eliminating them wholly will leave a huge blank in
the ecosystem and even decrease the population of other species including humans because of unbalance food chain.
Therefore controlling them will be the only best answer to balance everything.

X . Milk and Food Sanitation

What is Food Sanitation?
It included all practices involved in:
• Protecting food from risk of contamination, harmful bacteria, poisons and foreign bodies
• Preventing any bacteria from multiplying to an extent which would result in an illness;
• And destroying any harmful bacteria in the food by thorough cooking or processing
TYPES OF FOOD CONTAMINANTS
• Biological Contaminants
• Physical Contaminants
• Chemical Contaminants
Biological Contaminants
A microbial contaminant that may cause a food borne illness (bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites,
biological toxins)
Examples
• Seafood toxins
• Mushroom toxins
• Clostridium Botulinum
• Salmonella Bacteria
PREVENTING BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION
• Purchase food only on reputable supplier
• Do not use wild mushroom
• Maintain good personal hygiene
• Observe proper handwashing
• Clean and sanitize equipment
• Maintain clean and sanitize facilities
• Control pests

PHYSICAL CONTAMINANT
Any foreign object that accidentally find its way into food
Examples
• Hair
• Staple Wire
 • Dust
• Jewelry
• Dirt
• Fake Nails
PREVENTING PHYSICAL CONTAMINANTS
• Wear hair restraint
• Avoid wearing jewelry when preparing, cooking, and holding foods
• Do not carry pencil or pen
• Do not wear nail polish or artificial nails when working with foods
• Clean can openers regularly
• Place shields on lights

CHEMICAL CONTAMINANT
A chemical substance that can cause food borne illness.
Examples
• Toxic Metals
• Pesticides
• Cleaning Powder
• Sanitizers
• Preservatives

PREVENTING CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS

• Know how to use chemicals
• Store chemicals in original containers to prevent accidental misuse, as well as leakage into food.
• Wash hands thoroughly after working with chemicals
• Wash foods in cold running water

FOOD BORNE ILLNESS

A disease carried or transmitted to people by food.
MAIN CAUSES OF FOOD BORNE ILLNESSES
• Cross-Contamination
• Time-Temperature Abuse
• Poor Personal Hygiene

CROSS CONTAMINATION
• Hand to food contamination
• Food to food contamination
• Equipment to food contamination
TIME TEMPERATURE ABUSE
• Happens when the food is exposed to Temperature Danger Zone (41-140 deg F) for more than 4
hours

• Psychrophilic bacteria (spoilage organisms) – grow within the temperature range of 32-70 deg F
• Mesophilic bacteria – grow at temperature 70-110 deg F
• Thermophilic bacteria – grows best above 110 def F

POOR PERSONAL HYGIENE

A carrier is a person who harbours, and may pass on, harmful bacteria even though that person may
show no sign of illness.
Hazards include:
1. Smoking over food
2. Wearing jewelry
3. Long hair uncovered by hair net
4. Licking fingers to taste food
5. Boil on face uncovered 6. Dirty clothing

Route of Contamination
• Bacteria are found in the feces, urine, in the nose, mouth, hair, cuts, etc.

WHAT IS MILK?
• A nutrient-rich, white liquid food produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of
nutrition of infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of foods
• Composed of mainly water is 87.89% and Milk solids that make up the other 12-13%
• Milk solids include the carbs, lactose, fat, protein and minerals

MILK SOLIDS
• 27% Protein: casein
• 30% Fat: combined with water is called “cream”
• 37% lactose milk sugar
• 6% ash/minerals: vitamins and minerals including calcium and phosphorus

PRODUCTION PRACTICES
• Cows are milked twice a day
• Milk as immediately cooled from the body temperature of the cow to below 41 degrees F
• It is then stored at the farm under refrigeration until it is picked up. A sample of the milk is collected
at this time for lab analysis.

QUALITY CONTROL
• On the farm, inspectors monitor herd health, farm water supply, sanitation, milk temperature,
holding times, bacteria counts.
• Violations of health standards result in heavy penalties up to and including suspension from business

QUALITY CONTROL
• Inspections occur both at the farm and processing plants on regular on-going basis
• Inspectors have full authority to suspend plant operations in order to conduct detailed examinations
of equipment, facilities and products.

QUALITY CONTROL
• The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) sets the standards of identity for beverage and milk
products

PROCESSING
• When milk arrives at the plant it is checked to make sure that it meets the standards for
temperature, total acidity, flavor, odor, tanker cleanliness and absence of antibiotics.
• Once the milk passes these receiving test, it is pumped into large refrigerated silos

PASTEURIZING
• The great French scientist, Louis Pasteur, discovered this procedure
• Pasteurization is a process. Raw milk is heated to a temperature that kills all disease-causing bacteria.
• Virtually all milk sold in grocery stores in the United States today has been pasteurized.

HOMOGENIZATION
• Normally, the “fat” particles in the milk like to cling together. They are lighter and float to the top.
When milk is homogenized, however, the fat particles are separated, broken up into very small pieces,
and are distributed throughout the liquid. The pieces are so small, in fact, that they cannot go back
together and float to the top as long as the milk is fresh.
• Does not affect the nutrition or quality.
• One visible sign that milk has lost its freshness is the appearance of streaks of fat in the liquid, or a
layer of fat floating on the top.

XI. HOUSING AND SWIMMING POOL SANITATION:

Introduction

Our health depends not only on personal hygiene but also on the hygiene of our homes and housing.
We spend much of our daily time in our home and our physical and mental development takes place
there. This study session describes the basic hygiene requirements of housing to ensure that it is
appropriate for our health. Factors affecting housing sanitation and possible interventions will be
discussed. We will also closely examine the status and effect of indoor air pollution. You will learn the
linkages between our health and environmental needs with respect to housing.

What is healthful housing?

Every family and individual has a basic right to a decent home and a suitable living environment.
Housing is a basic prerequisite for health. This right is noted in the constitutions of many countries.
With significant proportion of the population in rural and urban areas.
 The definition has three elements:

1. The physical structure or building that provides the shelter.

2. The necessary services, facilities, equipment and devices that are used by an individual, for example,
a bedroom for sleeping or a latrine for human waste excretion.
3. The goal of housing is preserving one’s health. This is the purpose of a physical building and its
immediate environment.

 Basic requirements of healthful housing

In order to understand further what housing is, WHO has adopted four basic requirements:
 satisfaction of physiological needs
 protection against infection
 protection against accidents
 protection against psychological and social stresses.

 Satisfaction of physiological needs

Human physiology (the functioning of our bodies) is highly dependent on the immediate
environment. Our environment should supply the necessary services and facilities for our
physiological needs. For example:

Breathing
Breathing is a physiological process that utilizes oxygen for energy production and expels the waste as
carbon dioxide (CO2). Housing must allow adequate fresh air to get into the house and used air to get
out. This ventilation of air is facilitated by a window. The area of the window surface through which
air can pass must be proportional to the floor area of the room in order to get adequate air supply per
given time. A guide of 10% (light and air admitting window area divided by floor area) is assumed to
be adequate for residential housing.

*The floor dimensions of a room are 3 m wide and 4 m long. Calculate the size of the window that
could supply adequate ventilation.
Getting clean and fresh air through the window could be compromised by household activities.
Interference with breathing due to smoke and gases from the use of fuels such as wood or dung is
common. Inefficient combustion releases many toxic chemicals that can affect our skin, eyes and
lungs.

Seeing
This is the ability to observe the immediate environment using our eyes. Naturally, visual physiology
requires adequate light in order to effectively see or look at an object. Adequate light is also
important for reading, watching TV and attending class lectures in a school. The physical structure of
housing provides the required light through two sources: artificial light from electric sources and
natural light through the windows from the sun. The minimum recommended light-admitting window
area is similar to that for breathing.

Sleeping
Sleep is a time when our body must get complete rest in order to be refreshed for the next day.
Sleeping requires a separate room and should be free from any disturbance such as noise and indoor
air pollution. The housing structure should provide adequate space in the form of a bedroom that is
 reasonably free from any environmental hazard that could disrupt sleeping. Separate bedrooms for
children and adults are, in many families, a necessity.

Body heat regulation

Housing helps us to regulate our body heat, which means it helps us to keep warm or to keep cool.
The exchange of heat between our body and the immediate environment is dependent on the
difference of temperature between the two. Relatively cold air is useful to take away excess heat
through the process of convection. Convection is involved when there is a heat exchange between
our body and relatively cold air moving across the body. Heat loss by conduction is involved when
body heat is transferred to a colder surface by direct touch. The third mechanism for heat transfer is
radiation, when body heat is lost directly to the immediate environment because of a temperature
difference between two objects. Our housing should be suitable to help us regulate our body heat.

Eating
Eating food is linked with the digestive system of our physiology. A kitchen for food preparation and a
separate space/room where a family gets together for meals are necessary to satisfy our housing
needs for eating.

 Protection against infection

Healthful housing is essential for the prevention of a number of diseases that you have learned about
in the Communicable Diseases Module. Poor housing is associated with a wide range of diseases.
Categories of communicable diseases due to poor housing include:
 Diarrhoeal diseases (acute watery diarrhoea, dysentery, shigellosis, typhoid fever and other faeco-
orally transmitted diseases) because of poor personal hygiene, absence or poor utilization of latrines
and poor waste management.
 Tuberculosis, measles and other droplet infections due to poor ventilation and crowding.
 Acute and chronic lung diseases due to indoor/cooking smoke. Indoor smoke causes eye
infection and irritation.
 Skin infections such as scabies and ringworm due to crowding as a result of limited housing
space.
 Typhus fever and relapsing fever are possible due to crowding. Lice can easily travel from an
infected person to the next nearby one.
 Disturbance of human comfort as a result of the bites of insects such as bedbugs and fleas.
 Breeding sites of rats in poor housing.

We want to make sure that our housing provides the necessary service and facilities to ensure the
prevention of communicable diseases and protection of our health. These are summarized in Table
4.1. Household hygiene, personal hygiene, food hygiene and safe water supply are critical
interventions for the prevention of infections in rural areas.

Table 4.1  Housing facilities and services needed for protection against infections.
Needs Facilities/services needed in the residential environment
Drinking water supply Access to protected water source; safe household water
and its safe handling storage and utilisation
Safe human waste Presence and proper utilisation of latrines
management
Safe solid waste Presence of solid waste storage and disposal
 management
Safe liquid waste Presence of liquid waste removal facilities (seepage pit,
management drainage pit)
Maintenance of personal Presence of handwashing facilities
hygiene practice
Food safety Presence of hygienic kitchen; proper storage and handling of
kitchenware
Vector control (flies, Application of environmental controls; periodic cleaning of
bedbugs, fleas) floors and walls; separate animal shed; proper dung
management

 Protection against accidents

 What accidents could be possible because of poor housing?

Table 4.2 shows several types of accident in the home and indicates the housing conditions that may
cause them.
Table 4.2  Possible home injuries and their contributory causes.
Injury Conditions that may cause the injury
Person falling over causing broken Slippery floor; steps that are too high or too low
bones, bruising etc.
Building materials falling on people Poor structure of roof and walls
Burn Improper use of fuel; damage to electrical wires
Carbon monoxide poisoning (see Box Not extinguishing fire sources while sleeping
4.1)
Chemical poisoning (a child drinking Improper handling and storage of chemicals
pesticide, handling drugs, etc.)
Lack of air, breathing problems No separate kitchen; keeping children close by
while cooking with wood or dung fuel
Electric shock Electrical wire is damaged by a rat; incorrect
installation; overloading a circuit, etc.
Box 4.1  Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas that is given off in incomplete combustion, when fuels don’t burn
properly. You can’t see, smell or taste carbon monoxide, so it is very difficult for people to detect; this
makes it very dangerous.
When we breathe in, oxygen is taken in through the lungs and carbon dioxide is breathed out.
Hemoglobin in the red blood cells is used to carry oxygen to various parts of the body.
O2 + hemoglobin = oxyhemoglobin
If there is carbon monoxide in the breathed-in air, it combines with hemoglobin more easily than
oxygen does.
CO + hemoglobin = carboxyhemoglobin
 CO reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and poisons the body. It can lead to illness and
even death.

 Protection against psychological and social stresses

Remember that housing was defined as more than just a shelter. Poor housing can contribute to
psychological and social stresses. These stresses cannot be physically observed but they may be
revealed in the words people use to describe how they feel. We know that stress is not good for a
healthy person. For example, the absence of a school in a village can be a stressful condition for a
family with school-age children. Poorly built housing or the absence of water in a household could be
a source of stress. On the other hand, the presence of a church or mosque pleases those who want to
have access to them. The presence of playgrounds for children, markets, kebele (neighbourhood) and
police offices, and recreational sites are some of the facilities that could alleviate human stresses. The
satisfaction of psychological and social requirements through the presence of these facilities is very
important to any organized village or community. These facilities are important for any existing as
well as new settlements that include individual housing.
The objective of a healthful housing programme is to satisfy all or most of the above basic
requirements. Improvements can be suggested based on priorities. Poor housing sanitation,
overcrowding, insufficient daylight and poor ventilation.

Guidelines for model housing

Here are suggested operational guidelines for the basic structural needs of a model house or other
rural house.
1. Location of housing
The location of a housel must be free from flooding and any potential natural disaster.
2. Size of housing
Based on the requirement to satisfy physiological needs, a minimum of 9–10 m 2 per individual
is advised. This square unit is adequate for all purposes and services that our body needs. For
a family of five, the total area required therefore is about 50 m 2. The wall height should not be
less than 2 m depending on the length of the central axis of the house.
3. Type and size of rooms
Rooms for sleeping (bedroom), eating meals (dining room or salon) and storage (store room)
are important (Figures 4.2 and 4.3). Sleeping rooms for children and adults should be separate if
possible. Animal sheds and kitchen must not be part of the main rooms (sleeping and salon),
but should be placed outside. Partitions should be used to create separate areas within the
house although in a traditional housel, it is not possible to have partitions that reach up to the
ceiling. Based on the available literature, the space requirements are as follows:
 a living room (dining room or salon) 3–5 m2 per person
 bedroom(s) at 5–6 m2 per person, with a minimum room area of 8–12 m2
 a kitchen (greater than or equal to 7 m2)
 a store (5 m2).

Figure1 : Traditional house: front view and floor plan.

 Figure 2:  A housing unit with corrugated iron sheet roof and its floor plan.

4. Windows
The proportion of window surface area to floor area must be 10% at minimum. It is good to
locate the window facing south, south-east or south-west so that adequate sunlight can be
possible throughout the day. The presence of two windows is advisable for effective ventilation.
5. Structure of the walls
Walls must be well plastered with local materials both on the interior and exterior. Smooth
interior walls are less likely to harbour insects such as bedbugs and cockroaches.
6. Kitchen
The kitchen must be totally separate from the main house. It must have an improved stove with
a chimney for cooking injera and other foods.
7. Latrines and handwashing facilities
Latrines and handwashing facilities are explained in more detail in later sessions of this Module.
Good housing has a latrine and handwashing facilities to maintain personal hygiene and the
prevention of infections.
8. Cleanliness
The interior of the dwelling and the immediate environment must be clean. Any type of solid
waste and fecal matter must not be seen within and around the house.

 Indoor air pollution

Cooking activities inside the main house, where family members spend most of their time, generates
smoke that is hazardous to health. Mothers, children and elders are the ones who are most exposed to
the effects of smoke.

Indoor air pollution occurs when the air inside a house is predominantly smoke instead of clean air. The
presence of indoor air pollution is associated with acute respiratory infections, bronchitis and chronic
lung diseases among children and mothers. You can help to prevent indoor air pollution by:
 Figure3:Indoor air pollution.
 Advising the family to use an efficient stove that minimises fuel consumption and therefore smoke
emission. The improved stove must be equipped with a chimney.
 Promoting the separation of the kitchen from the main house.
 Promoting the separation of animal sheds from the main house because fresh animal dung and urine
produce bad odours when decaying.
 Advising mothers to cook without involving children in the kitchen.
 Recommending that a window be installed and left open until cooking is finished.

Swimming pool sanitation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Swimming pool sanitation is the process of ensuring healthy conditions in swimming pools, hot
tubs, plunge pools, and similar recreational water venues. Proper sanitation is needed to maintain the
visual clarity of water and to prevent the transmission of infectious diseases.

Methods
Sanitation methods include filtration to remove pollutants, disinfection to kill infectious microorganisms,
swimmer hygiene to minimize the introduction of contaminants into pool water, and regular testing of
pool water, including chlorine and pH levels.

Guidelines
The World Health Organization has published international guidelines for the safety of swimming pools
and similar recreational-water environments, including standards for minimizing microbial and chemical
hazards.[1] The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also provides information on pool
sanitation and water related illnesses for health professionals and the public. [2] The main organizations
providing certifications for pool and spa operators and technicians are the National Swimming Pool
Foundation and Association of Pool & Spa Professionals. The certifications are accepted by many state
and local health departments.[3][4]

Contaminants and disease

Swimming pool contaminants are introduced from environmental sources and swimmers. Affecting
primarily outdoor swimming pools, environmental contaminants include windblown dirt and debris,
incoming water from unsanitary sources, rain containing microscopic algae spores and droppings from
birds possibly harbouring disease-causing viruses.[5] Indoor pools are less susceptible to environmental
contaminants.
Contaminants introduced by swimmers can dramatically influence the operation of indoor and outdoor
swimming pools. Sources include micro-organisms from infected swimmers and body oils
including sweat, cosmetics, suntan lotion, urine, saliva and fecal matter. In addition, the interaction
between disinfectants and pool water contaminants can produce a mixture of chloramines and
other disinfection by-products.
Pathogenic contaminants are of greatest concern in swimming pools as they have been associated with
numerous recreational water illnesses (RWIs).[6] Public health pathogens can be present in swimming
pools as viruses, bacteria, protozoa and fungi. Diarrhea is the most commonly reported illness associated
with pathogenic contaminants, while other diseases associated with untreated pools
are Cryptosporidiosis and Giardiasis.[7][8] Other illnesses commonly occurring in poorly maintained
swimming pools include otitis externa, commonly called swimmers ear, skin rashes and respiratory
infections.
The journal Environmental Science & Technology reported that sweat and urine react with chlorine and
produce trichloramine and cyanogen chloride, two chemicals dangerous to human health. [1]

Maintenance and hygiene

Many public swimming pools offer showers

Contamination can be minimized by good swimmer hygiene practices such as showering before and
after swimming, not letting children swim with intestinal disorders. Effective treatments are needed to
address contaminants in pool water because preventing the introduction of pool contaminants,
pathogenic and non-pathogenic, into swimming pools is impossible
A well-maintained, properly operating pool filtration and re-circulation system is the first barrier in
combating contaminants large enough to be filtered. Rapid removal of filterable contaminants reduces
the impact on the disinfection system thereby limiting the formation ofchloramines, restricting the
formation of disinfection by-products and optimizing sanitation effectiveness. To kill pathogens and help
prevent recreational water illnesses, pool operators must maintain proper levels of chlorine or another
sanitizer.[9][10]
Pool operators must also store and handle cleaning and sanitation chemicals safely. [11]
Prevention of diseases in swimming pools and spas

Automatic chemical feeders

Disease prevention should be the top priority for every water quality management program for pool and
spa operators. Disinfection is critical to protect against pathogens, and is best managed through routine
monitoring and maintenance of chemical feed equipment to ensure optimum chemical levels in
accordance with state and local regulations.[12]
Modern digital equipment when used in conjunction with automatic chemical feeders results in stable
pH and chlorine levels. Check with your local jurisdiction if you are adding chemicals by hand to the
water, since there is generally a wait time within the health code so that swimmers are not injured.
Chemical parameters include disinfectant levels according to regulated pesticide label
directions.pH should be kept between 7.2-7.8. Human tears have a pH of 7.4, making this an ideal point
to set your pool.[13] More often than not, it is improper pH and not the sanitiser that is responsible for
irritating swimmers' skin and eyes.
Total alkalinity of 80-120 ppm and calcium hardness between 200 – 400 ppm. [14]
Good hygienic behavior at swimming pools is also important for reducing health risk factors at swimming
pools and spas. Showering before swimming can reduce introduction of contaminants, and showering
again after swimming will help to remove any.
Those with diarrhea or other gastroenteritis illnesses should not swim within 2 weeks of an outbreak,
especially children. Cryptosporidium is chlorine resistant.[15]
To minimize exposure to pathogens, swimmers should avoid getting water into their mouths and never
swallow pool or spa water.[16]

Standards
Maintaining an effective concentration of disinfectant is critically important in assuring the safety and
health of swimming pool and spa users. When any of these pool chemicals are used, it is very important
to keep the pH of the pool in the range 7.2 to 7.8-according to the Langelier Saturation Index, or 7.8 to
8.2- according to the Hamilton Index; higher pH drastically reduces the sanitizing power of the chlorine
due to reduced oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), while lower pH causes bather discomfort, especially
to the eyes. However, according to the Hamilton Index, a higher pH can reduce unnecessary chlorine
consumption while still remaining effective at preventing algae and bacteria growth.
To help ensure the health of bathers and protect pool equipment, it is essential to perform routine
monitoring of water quality factors (or "parameters") on a regular basis. This process becomes the
essence of an optimum water quality management program.

Systems and disinfection methods

Chlorine and bromine methods
Conventional halogen-based oxidizers such as chlorine and bromine are convenient and economical
primary sanitizers for swimming pools and provide a residual level of sanitizer that remains in the water.
Chlorine-releasing compounds are the most popular and frequently used in swimming pools [17] whereas
bromine-releasing compounds have found heightened popularity in spas and hot tubs. [18] Both are
members of the halogen group with demonstrated ability to destroy and deactivate a wide range of
potentially dangerous bacteria and viruses in swimming pools and spas. Both exhibit three essential
elements as ideal first-line-of-defense sanitizers for swimming pools and spas: they are fast-acting and
enduring; they are effective algaecides; and exhibit strong oxidizer action of undesired contaminants.
Swimming pools can be disinfected with a variety of chlorine-releasing compounds. The most basic of
these compounds is elemental chlorine gas (Cl2); however, its application is primarily in large commercial
public swimming pools. Inorganic forms of chlorine-releasing compounds frequently used in residential
and public swimming pools include sodium hypochlorite commonly known as liquid bleach or
simply bleach, calcium hypochlorite and lithium hypochlorite. Chlorine residuals from elemental chlorine
and inorganic chlorine-releasing compounds break down rapidly in sunlight. To extend their disinfectant
usefulness and persistence in outdoor settings, swimming pools treated with one or more of the
inorganic forms of chlorine-releasing compounds can be supplemented with cyanuric acid—a granular
stabilizing agent capable of extending the active chlorine residual half-life(t½) by four to sixfold.
[19]
 Chlorinated isocyanurates, a family of organic chlorine-releasing compounds, are stabilized to prevent
UV degradation due to the presence of cyanurate as part of their chemical backbone.
Chlorine reacting with urea in urine and other nitrogen-containing wastes from bathers can
produce chloramines. Chloramines typically occur when an insufficient amount of chlorine is used to
disinfect a contaminated pool. Chloramines are generally responsible for the noxious, irritating smell
prominently occurring in indoor pool settings. A common way to remove chloramines is to "super-
chlorinate" (commonly called "shocking") the pool with a high dose of inorganic chlorine sufficient to
deliver 10 ppm chlorine. Regular superchlorination (every two weeks in summer) helps to eliminate
these unpleasant odors in the pool. Levels of chloramines and other volatile compounds in water can be
minimized by reducing contaminants that lead to their formation (e.g., urea, creatinine, amino acids and
personal care products) as well as by use of non-chlorine "shock oxidizers" such as potassium
peroxymonosulfate.
Copper ion system
Copper ion systems use a low voltage current across copper bars (solid copper, or a mixture of copper
and zinc or silver) to free copper ions into the flow of pool water to killorganisms such as algae in the
water and provide a "residual" in the water. Alternative systems also use titanium plates to
produce oxygen in the water to help degrade organic compounds.
Other methods
Conditions sometimes exist in heavily used commercial and/or public swimming pools whereby
supplemental oxidation is warranted. In these instances advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) can be
employed whereby water contaminants are oxidized by one or more of various precursors. These AOPs
react with water (H2O) to produce powerful oxidants such as hydroxyl radical (OH·), singlet oxygen (O)
and molecular oxygen (O2).[20]
Private pool filtration

Water pumps
An electrically operated water pump is the prime motivator in recirculating the water from the pool.
Water is forced through a filter and then returned to the pool. Using the filtration method requires a
constant electrical supply, with the typical pool pump using 500 watts to 2,000 watts. Using a water
pump by itself is often not sufficient to completely sanitize a pool.[21] Commercial and public pool pumps
usually run 24 hours a day for the entire operating season of the pool. Residential pool pumps are typical
run for 4 hours per day in winter (when the pool is not in use) and up to 24 hours in summer. To save
electricity costs, most pools run water pumps for between 6 hours and 12 hours in summer with the
pump being controlled by an electronic timer.[citation needed] Commercial pools require a minimum 4 hour
circulation of the total water volume. Some use of solar panelgeneration power for the pumps is done in
the Southwestern United States, along with solar water heating pool water heaters.
Some pool pumps have two motor speeds to reduce power consumption at times when full power is not
needed. Other pump manufacturers (typically Italian or other European) have redesigned their units to
use a smaller electric motor with heavier windings, therefore consuming less energy, to power a larger
pump impeller. Variable-speed pumps allow power consumption to be reduced further, and are popular
in the United States, where they are often run 24 hours a day. The slow speed typically cleans better
because smaller particles can be filtered. At the slow speed, minimal resistance in the pipes reduces the
energy needed to move the water.[22]
Pool pumps are typically "self priming": they may be positioned above the mean water level of the pool
yet still start up and function after a timed rest period. Pumps that do not "self prime" are termed
"flooded suction" and must be gravity fed by the pump by being located below the mean level of the
pool water.
Most pool pumps available today incorporate a small filter basket termed a "hair and lint strainer" or
"lint pot" as the last effort to avoid leaf or hair contamination reaching the close-tolerance impeller
section of the pump.
Filtration units
Sand
A pressure-fed filter is typically placed in line immediately after the water pump. The filter typically
contains a media such as graded sand (called '14/24 Filter Media' in the UK system of grading the size of
sand by sifting through a fine brass-wire mesh of 14 to the inch (5.5 per centimeter) to 24 to the inch
(9.5 per cm)). A pressure fed sand filter is termed a 'High Rate' sand filter, and will generally filter turbid
water of particulates no less than 10 micrometers in size.[23] The rapid sand filter type are periodically
'back washed' as contaminants reduce water flow and increase back pressure. Indicated by a pressure
gauge on the pressure side of the filter reaching into the 'red line' area, the pool owner is alerted to the
need to 'backwash' the unit. The sand in the filter will typically last five to seven years before all the
"rough edges" are worn off and the more tightly packed sand no longer works as intended.
Recommended filtration for public/commercial pools are 1 ton sand per 100,000 liters water (10 ounces
avdp. per cubic foot of water) [7.48 US or 6.23 UK gallons].
Introduced in the early 1900s was another type of sand filter; the 'Rapid Sand' filter, whereby water was
pumped into the top of a large volume tank (3' 0" or more cube) (1 cubic yard/200US gal/170UK gal/770
liters) containing filter grade sand, and returning to the pool through a pipe at the bottom of the tank. As
there is no pressure inside this tank, they were also known as 'gravity filters'. These type of filters are not
greatly effective, and are no longer common in home swimming pools, being replaced by the pressure-
fed type filter.
Diatomaceous earth
Some filters use diatomaceous earth to help filter out contaminants. Commonly referred to as 'D.E.'
filters, they exhibit superior filtration capabilities.[24] Often a D.E. filter will trap water-borne
contaminants as small as 1 micrometer in size. D.E. filters are banned in some states, as they must be
emptied out periodically and the contaminated media flushed down the sewer, causing a problem in
some districts' sewage systems.
Cartridge filters
Other filter media that have been introduced to the residential swimming pool market since 1970
include sand particles and paper type cartridge filters of 50 to 150 square feet (14 m2) filter area
arranged in a tightly packed 12" diameter x 24" long (300 mm x 600 mm) accordion-like circular
cartridge. These units can be 'daisy-chained' together to collectively filter almost any size home pool.
The cartridges are typically cleaned by removal from the filter body and hosing-off down
a sewer connection. They are popular where backwashed water from a sand filter is not allowed to be
discharged or goes into the aquifer.
Automated pool cleaners
Automated pool cleaner
Automated pool cleaners more commonly known as "Automatic pool cleaners" and in particular electric,
robotic pool cleaners provide an extra measure of filtration, and in fact like the handheld vacuums can
microfilter a pool, which a sand filter without flocculation or coagulalents is unable to accomplish [25]
Other systems
See also: Salt water chlorination
Saline chlorination units, electronic oxidation systems, ionization systems, microbe disinfection
with ultra-violet lamp systems, and "Tri-Chlor Feeders" are other independent or auxiliary systems for
swimming pool sanitation.
Consecutive dilution
A pool filtration system as described (above) is termed a "consecutive dilution" system, as a constant
and consecutive stream of fresh, chlorinated, and filtered water is being continually returned to the pool
as part of a process that could ultimately result in a pool with 100% newly introduced fresh water over a
period of time. Of course this goal is never achieved, as there is also a constant stream of new
contaminants entering the pool as subsequent sections of this page will indicate.
Skimmers
Coping apertures
Water is typically drawn from the pool via a rectangular aperture in the wall connected through to a
device fitted into one (or more) wall/s of the pool. The internals of the skimmer are accessed from the
pool deck through a circular or rectangle lid, about one foot in diameter. On lifting the lid you will see
water being drawn from the pool (if the pool water pump is operational), over a floating weir (operating
from a vertical position to 90 degrees angle away from the pool, in order to stop leaves and debris being
back-flooded into the pool by wave action), and down into a removable "skimmer basket", the purpose
of which is to entrap leaves and other floating debris.
The aperture visible from the pool side is typically 1' 0" (300 mm) wide by 6" (150 mm) high, which
intersects the water midway though the center of the aperture. Skimmers with apertures wider than this
are termed "wide angle" skimmers and may be as much as 2' 0" wide (600 mm). Floating skimmers have
the advantage of not being affected by the level of the water as these are adjusted to work with the rate
of pump suction and will retain optimum skimming regardless of water level leading to a markedly
reduced amount of bio-material in the water. Skimmers should always have a leaf basket or filter
between it and the pump to avoid blockages in the pipes leading to the pump and filter.
Perimeter overflow channel
An overflow channel is a gutter that surrounds the pool, covered by a removable grille. Surface water
flows over the edge of the pool and runs by gravity to the filtration plant, usually via a catchment and
top-up tank. Often the exterior pool wall is higher than the overflow channel, eliminating the possibility
of pool water overflowing onto the adjacent pool surround. Other designs may not have this feature,
relying instead on a wider drainage system to trap any overflowing water.
Overflow channels allow faster turnover of the surface water than is possible with simple weir skimmers,
which is why they are commonly found in public pools. They can also be attractive designs, particularly
when transformed into a total Infinity edge pool. This design has been used to great effect in prize
winning contemporary home design, notably inSouthern California and the surrounding desert states.
Pool recirculation
The final link in the pool recirculation system: skimmer-pump-filter-returns are the water returns.
Typically these are referred to as "eyeballs" as they incorporate a swiveling nozzle that can be locked
down to point in the desired direction and are reminiscent of a swiveling human eyeball. The directional
adjustment is usually a 360 degree radius circle of 45 degrees away from the pool wall. Most home pools
would incorporate at least two such "eyeballs".
One recent development in skimmers was the 1970s "Aquagenie(TM)" which differers considerably
operationally from conventional skimmers—most of which are quite similar in operation, if not
appearance—by both drawing the pool water and returning it to the same location through a
submerged slot which diverts the water downwards and in a wide fan shape. The concept incorporates
a reservoir system to contain saturated trichor tablets which the resulting high strength chlorinated
water dribbles back into the recirculation system, so it doubles up as a chlorine feeder as well as a
normal skimmer. Arguably an "improvement" in skimmer design, patents on the device expired in 2003
and the system is now available from several US manufacturers.
Heaters
Other equipment which may be optioned in the recirculation system include pool water heaters. They
can be heat pumps, natural gas or propane gas heaters, electric heaters, wood burning heaters, or Solar
hot water panel heaters - increasingly used in the sustainable design of pools.
Other equipment
Diversions to electronic oxidation systems, ionization systems, microbe disinfectinon with ultra-
violet lamp systems, and "Tri-Chlor Feeders" are other auxiliary systems for Swimming pool sanitation;
as well as solar panels; are in most cases required to be placed after the filtration equipment, and are
the last items before the water is returned to the pool.

Other features
Equipment enclosure
Most swimming pool installations incorporate an outdoor structure designed to house the pool filtration
equipment; as a protective measure against premature deterioration fromsunlight and rain; and as
motor noise-sound insulation for the pool users and neighboring properties. Typically, these structures
range in size from a simple flip-lid three-sided sound-insulated box set against a convenient house wall,
the lid being constructed on a 15 to 20 degree slope and the interior large enough to hold the filter
plant, pump, and whatever chlorination system has been included.
Some structures are, in addition to a separate sound-proofed pool equipment location, a Pool
House (Pool Cabana - "Pool Shed") with a bathroom, shower, changing, and storage area; and
sometimes a full-size building with an: entertainment and recreation room, a small kitchen, and "guest
house" accommodations. Consistent vigilance for the safety of young children in and around the pool,
often by a designated adult, is important where social distraction is possible.
Recreation amenities
Features that are part of the water circulation system can extend treatment capacity needs for sizing
calculations and can include: artificial streams and waterfalls, in-poolfountains, integrated hot tubs and
spas, water slides and sluices, artificial "pebble beaches," submerged seating as bench-ledges or
as"stools" at in-pool bars, plunge pools, and shallow children's wading pools.
Landscape designers often integrate the pool and its amenities and surrounding decking with the
property's gardens and the residence. Outdoor kitchens, barbecues and pizza ovens, walkways and
patios, plantings, shade structures, garden furniture and outdoor fireplaces, and landscape lighting in
the pool and the garden, all can expand the recreational and aesthetic possibilities of a well sanitized
sparkling pool.

XII. STREAM SANITATION:

Stream - A small, narrow river. A stream is a body of water with a current, confined within a bed and
stream banks
Types of Streams:
• Brook – a stream smaller than a creek. It is usually small and easily forded. A brook is
characterized by its shallowness and its bed being composed of primarily rock.
• Creek – a medium-sized natural stream.
• River – a large natural stream.
Stream Order - is a measure of the relative size of streams. The smallest tributaries are referred to
as first-order streams, while the largest river in the world, the Amazon, is a twelfth-order waterway.
First- through third-order streams are called headwater streams. Streams classified as fourth-
through sixth-order are considered medium streams. A stream that is seventh-order or larger
constitutes a river.
Sources of Stream Pollution:
Urban Runoff
- Fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides don't all come from farms, though. Most of them these
days actually come from peoples' lawns and gardens
-  Every year, approximately 75,000 liters of detergents and 12,000 kilograms of dirt and other
pollutants flow into North Shore City’s streams, lakes and beaches from people washing their cars
on the road.
Sewage
- Urban pollutants also enter rivers through water-treatment plants. One of the results we are
beginning to see is that male fish are becoming feminized and incapable of reproducing. Sex ratios
are changing.
Mining
- During the early years of gold mining, mercury was used to separate gold from ore. This
mercury remains in streambeds, continuing to poison life long after the practice became illegal.
Today, the main pollutant from gold mining is sulfuric acid. Acidification not only kills streams but
also puts toxic metals found in the soils--such as aluminum, copper, and cadmium--into solution,
enabling them to enter streams. Nearly all mining results in large quantities of acids leaching into
streams as well as runoff of heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and arsenic
Power Plant
- Nuclear, natural gas, and coal power plants inject heated water into rivers, raising
temperatures above normal. This heat pollution can cause a devastating change in river ecology. In
the USA alone, an estimated 200 million gallons of used motor oil are improperly disposed off by
dumping on the ground, tossed in the trash (ending up in landfills) and poured down stored sewers
and drains.
Solid Waste
- Poor waste disposal activities
Agriculture
- Modern agriculture depends on chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation to produce high-
quality crops for animal and human consumption. To maximize the crop yield, nitrogen-based
fertilizers are spread on the land. In addition, phosphorus and other essential minerals also may be
applied where they are lacking or have been depleted in the soil
Airborne
- Rain and snow are considered by some individuals to be relatively "pure," yet gases and
particles introduced into the atmosphere by human activities and natural phenomena, such as
volcanoes, can contaminate precipitation that falls back to Earth

Effect of Stream Pollution:

• Death of aquatic (water) animals
• Disruption of food-chains
• Destruction of ecosystems
• Eutrophication
- This is when a water body has a lot of pollutants containing nutrients thrown into it in a way
that increases algae and plant growth in the water
Importance of Streams
Streams, headwaters and streams that flow only part of the year provide many upstream and
downstream benefits. They protect against floods, filter pollutants, recycle potentially-harmful
nutrients, and provide food and habitat for many types of fish. These streams also play a critical role
in maintaining the quality and supply of our drinking water, ensure a continual flow of water to
surface waters, and help recharge underground aquifers.
Preventing Stream Pollution
Individual
- Know where all your drains and sewage lead to and make an effort not to throw waste water
into drains
- Ensure that you comply with the waste disposal arrangements made by your council
- Reduce waste creation
- Be mindful of where to dispose of hazardous chemicals and medicines
Government
- Laws must be enforced with fines and actions for industries or even individuals who do not
comply with water pollution prevention laws or regulations. Constant monitoring should be done
regularly, by this industries will ensure their best to practice proper waste and chemical disposal
- Government should lead the cleaning of the environment specially the streams. They should
also provide education on the effect of pollution and how can it be prevented.
- It could be a very much helpful if the government will invest in the accumulation of water
treatment plant to treat wastewater before.
 ACTIVITY NO. 2

NAME: Jobenson B. Camiguing SCORE:_________________

COURSE&YEAR: BSCE V - P DATE: May 31, 2020

Answer the following:

1. What is your basic principle of food hygiene that you practice at home?
Thoroughly washing or cleaning the kitchenwares before using it and the food like fruits or vegetables before
eating or cooking. And to those ready-to-eat foods, always checking the expiry date before consuming is a
must.
2. Why do food hygiene is very particular to milk and milk products?
Because it is an excellent medium for the growth of microorganisms – particularly bacterial pathogens – that
can cause spoilage and food-borne illness or diseases to consumers.
3. What are most issues regarding on swimming pool sanitation?
Swimming pools are full of contaminants. Sources include micro-organisms from infected swimmers and body
oils including sweat, cosmetics, suntan lotion, urine, saliva and fecal matter. Diarrhea is the most commonly
reported illness associated with pathogenic contaminants, while other diseases associated with untreated
pools are Cryptosporidiosis and Giardiasis. Other illnesses commonly occurring in poorly maintained swimming
pools include otitis externa, commonly called swimmers ear, skin rashes and respiratory infections.
4. Briefly describe the main factors that contribute to indoor air pollution from smoke. What effect can it have
to human physiology?
Cooking activities inside the house, absence or closed window in the cooking area, and low-quality stoves are
the main contributors of indoor air pollution. This indoor air pollution can link to acute respiratory infections,
bronchitis and chronic lung diseases among children and mothers.
5. What are the requirements for a model house in terms of size, rooms (separation of rooms), ventilation,
facilities and cleanliness?
Based on the requirement, a minimum of 9–10 m2 per individual is advised for the house’s size. A living room
should be 3–5 m2 per person, bedroom(s) is 5–6 m2 per person, a kitchen should be greater than or equal to 7
m2 and a storage room is 5 m2. The presence of two windows is advisable for effective ventilation. Latrine and
handwashing facilities should be present to maintain personal hygiene and the prevention of infections. The
interior of the dwelling and the immediate environment must be clean.
6. Suppose you are assessing the housing in the village where you are working to see if there are any
problems.

a. What will you do in order to identify the problems?

Of course, I would ask the dwellers of the village of what bothers them most or what
inconveniences are they experiencing in living inside the village, because I can never tell it my
own by just mere assumptions of what I speculated that aggravated them. Conclusively confirm it
after by thorough inspections of their claims.
 b. What are the most important criteria you would use when judging the healthfulness of a
house?
The World Health Organization four basic requirements for healthful housing should be significantly
considered in dealing healthful housing. For me, criteria for satisfaction of physiological needs together
with protection against infection and protection against accidents is mostly important. Sometimes, we
cannot considerably guaranty protection against psychological and social stresses.
7. Match the four basic requirements of healthful housing with the following problems linked to housing.

Problem linked to housing The basic requirements of healthful housing

Diarrhoea Protection against infection
Lack of windows Satisfaction of physiological needs
No school in the village Protection against psychological and social stresses.
Injury from falling Protection against accidents

8. Name at least one disease from each category that can be related to poor housing, and describe how poor
housing aids the spread of these diseases.
Tuberculosis due to poor ventilation, crowding or to indoor/cooking smoke. Poor housing is a major
contributor that helps this problem expand especially lack of enough windows where air can go in-and-out
because it might make someone suffocated and make indoor smokes confined inside the house.
9. What do you think mainly causes the suspended solids in the bottom beds of the streams that can cause the
stream to become shallow?
It is the slow water current that might also be associated by waste or chemicals prohibiting the stream to carry
heavily solids to go with the flow of stream making solids stack in the bottom beds
10. Lists down some indication of a polluted stream.
Fish population is usually absent; sludge worms and mosquito larvae are present at significant levels; and
water body has a lot of pollutants
11. What can you recommend to the government regarding on the issue of stream pollution in our country?
It would be best if the government will invest in the accumulation of water treatment plant to treat
wastewater, just like what western countries are practicing, to take the health of the nationals through
potable water on the top prior because I can see that the country do not really put much interest on this
matter.

XIII. INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

What is Industrial Hygiene?
The science of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling
workplace conditions that may cause workers' injury or illness.
Industrial hygienists use environmental monitoring and analytical
methods to detect the extent of worker exposure and employ
engineering, work practice controls, and other methods to control
potential health hazards.”

Typical Roles of an Industrial Hygienist

 Investigating and examining the workplace for hazards and potential
dangers
 Making recommendations on improving the safety of workers and the
surrounding community
 Conducting scientific research to provide data on possible harmful
conditions in the workplace
 Developing techniques to anticipate and control potentially dangerous
situations in the workplace and the community
 Training and educating the community about job-related risks
 Advising government officials and participating in the development of
regulations to ensure the health and safety of workers and their
families
 Ensuring that workers are properly following health and safety
procedures Source: www.aiha.org

Control Anticipation

Workplac
e Healt
Evaluation
Hazard
h Recognition
s

4/16/2 4
019
What Are Different Types of Industrial Hygiene
 Drying
:
• Machining
• Assembly What
• Pre-finishing hazards
• Coating applications do you
• Finishing
• expect?

Example Industrial Hygiene Hazard:

Drying : Heat, Carbon Monoxide, particulates

Machining : Noise, Dusts
Assembly: Noise, adhesive, Dusts, Solvent
Pre-Finishing : Dust, resins, glues, acetone, ammonia, bleaching agents
Coating & Finishing Application: Mineral spirits, alcohols, solvents, pigments, lacquers, stains,
paints, dust
General Industrial Hygiene Hazards Type:

Chemical Hazards Physical Hazards Biological Hazards

Gas Heat Stress Bacteria
Vapor Cold Stress Fungi
Dust Ionizing Radiation Viruses
Mist Non-Ionizing Radiation Plants
Fume Noise Animals
Fiber Vibration Insects
Smoke Ergonomics
Solid
Liquid

When Evaluating chemical hazards, what information you should know?

 Physical form
 Toxicity and Health Hazard
 Concentration
 How chemical is used

Types of chemical hazards:

Airborne: Gas, Vapor, dusts, mists, fumes, fiber, smoke
Physical State: Solid, Gas, Liquid, Vapor
Properties & Appearance: Vapor Pressure, Color, Odor

Routes of Exposure:

Source https://riskmanagement.unt.edu/hcs
: -ghs-module2

CHEMICAL HEALTH
HAZARD:
 Acute Toxicity
 Skin Corrosion or
Irritation
 Eye Damage or
Eye Irritation
 Respiratory or
Skin Sensitization
 Mutagenicity
 Carcinogenicity
 Reproductive
Toxicity
 Specific Organ
Toxicity (e.g.
kidney, liver,
nerves)
 Aspiration Source: OSHA 3491 Hazard Communication Standard
Hazard Pictogram Quick Card

Types of Exposure Limits

 8-hour Time Weighted Average (TWA)
 Short-term Exposure Limit (STEL)
 Ceiling Limit (C)
 Excursion Limit
 Biological Monitoring Levels
 Exposure Limit Durations
 8-hour Time Weighted Average (TWA)
 Set for a routine 8-hr workday and a 40-hr work week
Level is set so that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed without adverse health effects

Biological Monitoring Limits

 Represent warning levels of biological response to either the chemical or a metabolite
 Levels are measured in tissues, fluids, or exhaled air
 Blood lead levels – 40 µg/100 g

Hierarchy of Controls

Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene

 Know types of hazards to expect
 Understand toxicology and how chemicals affect the body
 Recognize routes of exposure
 Evaluate/measure exposure levels
 Compare exposure levels to appropriate exposure limit
 Devise control strategies to eliminate/reduce worker exposures

XIV. AIR POLLUTION:

WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION?
It is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals from factories, dust, pollen
and mold spores may be suspended as particles.
TYPES OF POLLUTANTS:
1. Primary Air Pollutants
Are any type of pollutant directly into the environment. Primary pollutants can be emitted from many
sources including cars, coal-fired power plants, natural gas power plants, biomass burning, natural forest
fires, volcanoes, and many more.

Types of Primary Pollutants include:

• Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Sulfur oxides (SOx)
• Particulate matter (PM)
• SMOG – A combination of smoke & fog

2. Secondary Air Pollutants

Are pollutants which form in the atmosphere. These pollutants are not emitted directly from a
source (like vehicles or power plants).

Types of Secondary Pollutants include:

• Ozone (O3)
• Sulfuric acid and nitric acid (component of acid rain)
• Particulate matter
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANS)
• and more
VARIOUS CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
1. Burning of fossil fuels
Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and other factory
combustibles are one of the major causes of air pollution.
2. Agricultural Activities
Use of insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown quite a lot. They
emit harmful chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution. Ammonia is a very common
by-product from agriculture-related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the
atmosphere.
3. Exhaust from factories and industries
Manufacturing industries release a large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic
compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby depleting the quality of air.
4. Mining operations
Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large equipment. During
the process, dust and chemicals are released in the air causing massive air pollution.
5. Indoor air pollution
common sources of indoor air pollution:
• Carpet fumes
• Paint and VOCs
• Toxins in nonstick pots and pans
• Arts and crafts---- and health concerns
• Harmful household cleaners and disinfectants
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
1. Respiratory and heart problems
People in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to suffer from the following:
• Asthma attacks
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
• Reduced lung function
• Pulmonary cancer- caused by a series of carcinogen chemicals that enter the body
• Mesothelioma- a particular type of lung cancer, usually associated with exposure to asbestos.
• Pneumonia
2. Global warming
With increased temperatures worldwide, increase in sea levels and melting of ice from colder
regions and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat have already signalled an impending disaster
if actions for preservation and normalization aren’t undertaken soon.
3. Acid rain
Rainfall is made sufficiently acidic by atmospheric pollution that causes environmental harm,
typically to forests and lakes. The main cause is the industrial burning of coal and other fossil fuels.
4. Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a condition where a high amount of nitrogen present in some pollutants gets
developed on sea’s surface and turns itself into algae and adversely affect fish, plants and animal
species.

5. Effect on wildlife
Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to a new place and change their
habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water and can also affect sea animals.

6. Depletion of the ozone layer

Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to a new place and change their
habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water and can also affect sea animals.

ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN TO REDUCE POLLUTION

 Everyday Tips to Reduce Pollution:

1. Conserve energy at home, at work, everywhere.
2. Carpool, use public transformation, bike or walk whenever possible.
3. Follow gasoline refuelling instructions for efficient vapour recovery, being careful not to spill fuel
and always tightening your gas cap securely.
4. Use environmentally safe paints and cleaning products whenever possible.
5. Mulch or compost leaves and yard waste.
6. Consider using gas logs instead of woods.

 On days when high ozone levels are expected:

1. Choose a cleaner commute – share a ride to work or use public transportation.
2. Combine errands and reduce trips. Walk to errands when possible.
3. Avoid excessive idling of your automobile.
4. Refuel your car in the evening when it is cooler.
5. Conserve electricity and set air conditioners no lower than 78 degrees.
6. Defer lawn gardening chores that use gasoline-powered equipment or wait until evening.

 On days when higher particle levels are expected:

1. Reduce the number or trips you take in your car.
2. Reduce or eliminate fireplace and wood stove use.
3. Avoid burning leaves, trash and other materials.
4. Avoid using gas-powered lawn and garden equipment.

WHO ARE THE PEOPLE AFFECTED?

 Populations that are particularly at risk include:

1. People with asthma
2. People with heart disease
3. People with respiratory diseases
4. Children
5. Active adults who exercise outdoors
6. Older adults
7. People with diabetes
8. Pregnant woman
PARTICULATE MATTER (PM)
The term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some
particles such as dust, soot or some are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others
are so small they can be detected using an electron microscope.

Particle Pollution includes:

 PM10 – inhalable particles with diameter that are generally 10 micro meters and smaller.
 PM2.5 - fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micro meters and smaller.

SOURCE OF PARTICULATE MATTER

 These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different
chemicals. Some are emitted directly from a source, such as:
 Construction Sites
 Unpaved Roads
 Fields
 Smokestacks or fires

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF PM
Particulate matter contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they can
be inhaled and cause serious health problems. Some particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter
can get deep into your lungs and some may even get into your bloodstream. Of these, particles less
than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, also known as fine particles or PM 2.5, pose the greatest risk.

PM2.5
- Atmospheric particulate matter that have a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers.
- Particles are so small that can only be detected with an electron microscope.
- Smaller than PM10

WHY IS PM2.5 DANGEROUS?

Since they are small and light, fine particles tend to stay longer in the air than heavier particles.
The increases of the chances of human and animals inhaling them into the bodies. Owing to their
minute size, particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers are able to bypass the nose and throat and
penetrate deep into the lungs and some may even enter the circulatory system.
It could lead to:
 Premature death from heart and lung disease
 Triggers chronic disease such as asthma, heart attack, bronchitis, and other respiratory problems.

HOW TO DETERMINE THE QUALITY OF AIR?

Through Air Quality Index (AQI)

XV. RADIOLOGICAL HEALTH

Radiation & Health

Radiation and Radioactive materials are part of our environment. The radiation in the environment
comes from both cosmic radiation that originates in outer space, and from radioactive materials
that occur naturally in the earth and in our own bodies. Together, these are known as background
radiation. Everyone is expose in background radiation daily. In addition, radiation and radioactive
materials are produced by many human activities. Radiation is produced by X-ray equipment and
by particle accelerator used in search and medicine. Radioactive materials are produced in nuclear
reactors and particle accelerators.
Radioactivity:
- Is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation.
- It results in the release of radiation, not all radiation is produced by radioactive material.
- The SI unit of radioactivity is the Becquerel (Bq). Other units includes the curie, gray and Sievert.
- Alpha, beta and gamma decay are three common processes through which radioactive materials
lose energy.
*a substance that contains unstable atomic nuclei is considered to be radioactive.

Radiological Health Section has three primary focus area:

1. Regulation of radiation-producing equipment, including X-ray machines
2. Regulation of radioactive materials
3. Radiological emergency and incident response.
RADIATION EMITTING GADGETS

1. LAPTOPS.
Radiation Source: Laptop Radiation is due to its need to be connected to WiFi and Bluetooth signals for
browsing the internet or sending/transmitting files. They also have internal parts that are made of metal,
such as laptop battery and antennas, that amplify these signals. Basically, Laptops are full-size versions
of smartphones, which means they emit radiation similarly. In fact, a study conducted by the American
Society for Reproductive Medicine found that laptop can affect fertility.
2. WiFi Routers:
Radiation Source: Wireless routers give off electromagnetic radiation which like wireless signals can pass
through walls. Because these systems are not turned off at night, it means people are exposed to it
round-the-clock . In addition, most homes will have WiFi routers installed- this means the EMF signals
you are exposed to and have to worry about are not just limited to your own home, but your neighbors,
not to mention public areas as well. In addition, electromagnetic sensitivity is a fairly new condition that
is proving to be more common than you think. Sufferers report that exposure to radiation emitted by
devices especially WiFi routers, are prompting symptoms that range from skin rashes to fatigue to sleep
disturbance.
3. Tablets:
Radiation Source: Tablets are designed to connect via three mains sources: WiFi, Bluetooth, and Cellular
connections. Tablets are also specifically to be compact and function using touch screens, which means
EMF exposure is basically guaranteed.

4.Earphones:
Radiation Source: It’s almost surprising to hear that earphones are sources of radiation – but they do, in
fact, emit and aggravate RF signal to a point that using them to put distance between your head and
your phone becomes counter intuitive. Traditional headsets metal parts amplify RF, while Bluetooth
headsets emits radiation wirelessly.

5. Wearables:
Radiation Source: like laptops and smartphones, wearables operate via connectivity to your main
wireless devices. They may be small and generally inconspicuous, but these devices work in tandem with
the smartphones or laptops, and require connectivity. This means it constantly seeks radio or WiFi
signals and consistently emits radiation. The most worrying thing here is that smartwatches and fitness
trackers are meant to be worn on your body, typically on your wrist or around your neck, which means
you are always expose to it.

Harmful effects of Radiation

Deterministic/Early Effects of Radiation

Erythema/Skin Damage- sunburn like reddening of the skin
Epilation- loss of hair
Desquamation- ulceration and denudation of the skin.
DNA Hit- result in an invincible disruption of the molecular structure of DNA
Chromosome Hit- produces visible derangement of the chromosome.
Lethal Injury- causes depletion of mature circulating cells.
Lymphophenia- Reduced in number of lymphocytes
Thrombocytopenia- depletion of platelets
Granulocytopenia- rapid decrease and slower decrease of granulocytes.
Death- most devastating human response to radiation exposure
Acute Radiation Syndrome

Stochastic/Late Effects of Radiation

 Radiodermatitis
Cataracts
Life span shortening
Leukemia
Temporary & Permanent Infertility
Cancer
 Thyroid Cancer
 Bone Cancer
 Skin Cancer
 Breast Cancer
 Lung Cancer
 Liver Cancer

Radiation and Pregnancy

Before Pregnancy- Interrupted Fertility
During Pregnancy- Possible congenital Effects in new born
Post Pregnancy- suspected genetic effects

Effects in Utero
 Prenatal Death
 Neonatal Death
 Congenital Abnormalities
 General Impairment of growth
 Genetic Effects
 Mental Retardation

All of the aforementioned harmful effects of radiation depends on the amount of exposure.

Safety Measurement
Engineering Controls
Employers should use engineering controls to maintain occupational radiation doses (and doses to the
public) ALARA is applied after determining that radiation dose will not exceed applicable regulatory dose
limits. To the greatest extent possible, administrative controls should not be used as substitutes for
engineering controls. Engineering controls, in some cases, may be incorporated into facility design.
Some examples of engineering controls are discussed below, including shielding and interlock systems.
In addition, radioactive material containment is sometimes incorporated into shielding, such as in
gamma cameras used for nuclear medicine or industrial radiography devices containing a radioactive
source.
Shielding
The need for shielding depends on the type and activity of the radiation source. Uses in adjacent areas,
including the areas above and below the room or facility, should also be considered.
For shielding of rooms containing medical X-ray equipment or rooms with other medical X-ray imaging
devices, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) recommends that the
shielding design goal be 500 mrad (5 mGy) in a year to any person in controlled (restricted) areas. For
uncontrolled (unrestricted) areas, NCRP recommends that the shielding design goal be a maximum of
100 mrad (1 mGy) to any person in a year (~0.02 mGy per week). 1
Shielding design requires a qualified expert (e.g., health physicist). Before using any new or remodeled
rooms or facilities or any new or relocated X-ray equipment, a qualified expert should conduct an area
survey and evaluate shielding to verify radiation protection behind shielding materials. Before
performing any room modifications or if any changes occur to a facility that may change radiation
exposure levels (e.g., new equipment, increased workload, altered use of adjacent spaces), a qualified
expert should review the shielding design.
In general, the floors, walls, ceilings, and doors should be built with materials that provide shielding for
the desired radiation protection. Lead shielding may be installed, if appropriate, including leaded glass,
sheet lead (e.g., built into walls), pre-fabricated lead-lined drywall or lead-lined plywood, pre-fabricated
lead-lined doors and door frames, lead plates, and lead bricks. Sometimes it may be sufficient to
construct a wall of a suitable thickness of normal building materials (e.g., dense concrete). The shielding
design may include a control booth or load/lead-equivalent drapes provided for protection of workers
operating equipment or devices that emit ionizing radiation.
Portable or temporary shielding materials (e.g., thick steel, lead, or high-density concrete blocks) can
sometimes be fabricated in the area of the inspection when conducting portable industrial
radiography (e.g., using industrial radiography cameras to inspect pipe welding or concrete slabs).
Where such portable or temporary shielding is not practical or adequate to protect workers (and the
public), employers should ensure that operating procedures maximize distance from the portable
industrial radiography equipment while it is operating.
When working with high-energy beta particles, avoid shielding with high atomic number (Z>13) materials
as this can result in production of X-rays (Bremsstrahlung radiation), which are more penetrating than
the original beta radiation. Beta particles should be shielded using an appropriate thickness of low
atomic number (Z<14) materials such as aluminum or plastics (e.g., Plexiglas®).
Interlock Systems
A radiation safety interlock system is a device that automatically shuts off or reduces the radiation
emission rate from radiation-producing equipment (gamma or X-ray equipment or accelerator). The
purpose of a radiation safety interlock system is to prevent worker exposure and injury from high
radiation levels. Typically, interlock systems are required by state or federal (e.g., NRC, FDA (U.S. Food
and Drug Administration)) regulations for equipment registration/licensing and performance/safety
standards.
In most applications, interlock systems to stop X-ray or particle beam production can be activated by the
opening of a worker access point (e.g., door) into a controlled (restricted) area. Interlock safety systems
may also include door pressure sensors or motion detectors.
For applications involving high-energy radiation sources, a system with interlock keys can control access
or prevent entry into a radiation treatment room or during accelerator operations. Because removal of
interlock keys will stop X-ray or particle beam production, such interlock systems rely on constant
monitoring of all interlock keys and appropriate worker training for controlled access to high radiation
areas.
In addition to worker safety, patient safety is a concern for interlock systems for medical X-ray
equipment or accelerators. NCRP recommends that interlock systems that stop X-ray or particle beam
production should not be placed on doors to any diagnostic or interventional X-ray room to prevent
inadvertent patient injury or the need to repeat exposures to patients.1 As an alternative, appropriate
access control measures could be implemented at such facilities for both worker and patient radiation
safety.
When used, interlock systems should be inspected regularly by a qualified expert.

Minimizing Radiation Exposure

 Minimize the amount of time spent near sources of radiation.
 Maximizing distance, as the distance from the radioactive source doubles, the exposure rate
decreases by a factor of four.
 Using Shielding. Lead blanket shielding around letdown radiation monitor.
 ACTIVITY NO. 3

NAME: Jobenson B. Camiguing SCORE:__________________

COURSE & YEAR: BSCE V - P DATE: May 31, 2020

Answer the following:

1. Why Industrial hygiene is important?

Because a workplace is full of hazard, therefore an appropriate anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and
control of this condition that may cause workers' injury or illness is significant.
2. Is it important for you as a future civil engineer to undergo Occupational health and safety training?
Why?
Yes, indeed. It is important because our health and safety are major priority in our workplace. I need to
know how to carefully act especially at field, not just for myself but also to my company at work, to
avoid from any risk.
3. How does Ergonomic considered as physical hazard?
Ergonomic may pose risk of injury to the musculoskeletal system, such as the muscles or ligaments of
the lower back, tendons or nerves of the hands/wrists, or bones surrounding the knees, resulting in a
musculoskeletal disorder

4. Can you sight an example of an air pollution that is visibly happened?

Black smoke emission from unmaintained vehicles especially jeepneys that are moving in the main
streets of NCR or Cebu.
5. Among the considered Air Pollutants what do you think is the most hazardous & why?
Sulfur Dioxide, from the combustion of fossil fuels at power plants and other industrial facilities, because
it is extremely harmful to the respiratory system, causing increased asthma symptoms. Sulfur dioxide
can react with various compounds in the air forming small particles. These particles can imbed in the
lungs, and aggravate emphysema patients, as well as those affected by heart disease.
6. Lists down the sources of pollution that you’ve known.
Car emissions, exhaust from factories and industries, dust from volcanoes, natural forest fires, and burnt
plastics.
7. What do you think is the most effective approach in implementing the industrial hygiene?
I think that to isolate people from the hazard by adequate engineering control is a better approach in
implementing industrial hygiene. Use equipments that can sustain a nominal contact of workers from
hazards.
8. Does Industrial Hygiene have direct effect on air pollution and radiological health? Why?
Absolutely, because most of the problem associated by radiological health and air pollution are
grounded to lack of proper control. Industrial hygiene is an effective response to efficiently regulate this
issues.
9. In the Present times how radiological health issue should be taken? What is your stand for it?
The fear that radiation affects the human body has much to do with people’s perception of radiation.
Nuclear and radiological problems are increasingly being stigmatized, radiation discussion is focused on
nuclear energy development due to people’s exaggerated perception of nuclear accidents. However, the
fact that radiation exposure is dangerous does not mean all kinds of radiation are harmful. Radioactive
sources are used to study living organisms, to diagnose and treat diseases, to sterilize medical
instruments and food, to produce energy for heat and electric power, and to monitor various steps in all
types of industrial processes. For me, these problems should be manage with a massive amount of social
effort and cost in order to be dealt with. Proper and right usage of radiation should be enforce.
10. What can you say about upgrading connection to 5G?
It is truly better if it can also work well in rural and not fully developed cities especially that, in the latest
Speedtest Global Index study, it showed that in terms of mobile internet speed, the Philippines ranks
103rd among the 139 surveyed countries. Although, it is a good news, but for me what is an upgraded
internet connection if it is not fully accessible to the public.
11. Can you gave examples of activities in construction industry that deals with radiation?
Radiation sources can also be encounter at construction sites. Industrial radiography, natural
radioactivity in building materials and nuclear gauges are some of the things that will be found.
Industrial radiography is used to test gas and oil pipelines, metal welding, boilers, and vehicle parts
through the use of x-rays or gamma rays. Natural radioactivity is contained in some building materials,
such as granite, brick, marble and other items. The amount of radioactivity in building materials depends
on the type of material, but the amount of radiation released from these materials is typically very, very
low. For example, a brick contains the radioactive materials uranium and thorium. Lastly, nuclear gauges
use radioactive sources to identify the thickness, density or make up of a wide variety of material or
surfaces. These gauges, which are safe to use when the proper safety measures are followed, help
people build safe buildings, roads, and make reliable products.
12. What are among the listed gadgets that are source of radiation do you have? What is your reaction
after learning those things?
Some of the gadgets that I have that are also a source of radiation are laptop, smartphones, pocket wifi,
Bluetooth speakers, and earphones. It’s almost surprising to hear that these gadgets are sources of
radiation–but they truly do in fact. But with enough information we can lessen the harm brought by the
exposure to radiation due to these gadgets. Just remember, keep distant or remove these devices
whenever possible. Do not sleep with these gadgets on and put them at a safe distance when not in use.
13. What is the approach applied in engineering controls as safety measure in dealing with radiation?

ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) program is applied after determining that radiation dose will
not exceed applicable regulatory dose limits.
XVI. ODOR CONTROL:
Odor Control -is a significant environmental concern for many types of industries and businesses
including wastewater treatment facilities, nursing homes, hospitals, restaurants, poultry farms and
airports. Because of the increasing intricacy and massive amount of chemicals used by industries
worldwide, odor control is constantly evolving.

Causes of Odor
-Odor in wastewater systems is primarily caused by hydrogen sulfide(H 2S), which is released in the form
of gas. High levels of Hydrogen Sulfide can lead to odor complaints from the surrounding community and
unsafe conditions for workers. In addition, hydrogen sulfide accelerates corrosion in collection systems
and wastewater plants, leading to dangerous leaks and costly repairs.
The first step in controlling odor should always be the removal of its source. If this is not possible,
chemical control should be employed.

Odor Control Methods

The following are odor control method and procedures:

 Cleaning and Scrubbing- water based detergent cleaning can remove water-soluble malodors
and, to some extent, non-water-soluble malodors.

 Airing out the contents- sometimes airing out the contents, especially in sunlight, can dissipate
some odors. The major treatments are thermal oxidation (incineration), adsorption, absorption
with chemical oxidation and biological oxidation.

 Oxidation- Ozone is a very powerful oxidizing agent it is produced in situ. Ozone in water
decomposes to oxygen and hydroxyl radicals, each of which has a higher oxidation potential
than either ozone or chlorine.

 Sanitization- while sterilization kills all microorganisms, more practical sanitation is obtain
through the use of chemicals labeled as sanitizers or germicides.

 Adsorption – Most odor using compounds are organic in nature, and granulated activated
carbon is very effective on organic odors. The odorous molecule removal by soil is attributed to
physical and chemical interactions between these molecules and the soil itself.

 Microorganisms occurring naturally in many soils can destroy odors. Some of these bacteria
and fungi (bugs) have been commercially isolated and selectively adapted for destruction of
urine-based odors. The disadvantages are that the substrate has to be kept moist and warm for
the bacterium to be effective on odor.
  Odor neutralizers- these are propriety formulations of essential oils. The essential oils form a
thin charged film around each droplet. Odorous molecules, attracted to the film, attach to the
droplets where they are captured and neutralized by the essential oils.

 Encapsulation- Cyclodextrins are carbohydrate derives materials obtain by starch fermentation.

Cyclodextrins can reduce malodors on textile surfaces like carpet and upholstery.

XVII. NOISE POLLUTION:

Noise pollution is an invisible danger. It cannot be seen, but it is present nonetheless, both on
land and under the sea. Noise pollution is considered to be any unwanted or disturbing sound
that affects the health and well-being of humans and other organisms.
Sound is measured in decibels. There are many sounds in the environment, from rustling leaves (20 to
30 decibels) to a thunderclap (120 decibels) to the wail of a siren (120 to 140 decibels). Sounds that
reach 85 decibels or higher can harm a person’s ears. Sound sources that exceed this threshold
include familiar things, such as power lawn mowers (90 decibels), subway trains (90 to 115 decibels),
and loud rock concerts (110 to 120 decibels).
Noise pollution impacts millions of people on a daily basis. The most common health problem it
causes is Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL). Exposure to loud noise can also cause high blood
pressure, heart disease, sleep disturbances, and stress. These health problems can affect all age
groups, especially children. Many children who live near noisy airports or streets have been found
to suffer from stress and other problems, such as impairments in memory, attention level, and
reading skill.

Noise pollution also impacts the health and well-being of wildlife. Studies have shown that loud
noises cause caterpillars’ hearts to beat faster and bluebirds to have fewer chicks. Animals use
sound for a variety of reasons, including to navigate, find food, attract mates, and avoid
predators. Noise pollution makes it difficult for them to accomplish these tasks, which affects their
ability survive

Increasing noise is not only affecting animals on land, it is also a growing problem for those that live in
the ocean. Ships, oil drills, sonar devices, and seismic tests have made the once tranquil marine
environment loud and chaotic. Whales and dolphins are particularly impacted by noise pollution. These
marine mammals rely on echolocation to communicate, navigate, feed, and find mates, and excess
noise interferes with their ability to effectively echolocate.
Some of the loudest underwater noise comes from naval sonar devices. Sonar, like echolocation,
works by sending pulses of sound down into the depths of the ocean to bounce off an object and
return an echo to the ship, which indicates a location for object. Sonar sounds can be as loud as 235
decibels and travel hundreds of miles under water, interfering with whales’ ability to use
echolocation. Research has shown that sonar can cause mass strandings of whales on beaches and
alter the feeding behavior of endangered blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus). Environmental
groups are urging the U.S. Navy to stop or reduce using sonar for military training.
Seismic surveys also produce loud blasts of sound within the ocean. Ships looking for
deep-sea oil or gas deposits tow devices called air guns and shoot pulses of sound down to
the ocean floor. The sound blasts can damage the ears of marine animals and cause serious
injury. Scientists believe this noise may also be contributing to the altered behavior of
 whales.
 Among those researching the effects of noise pollution is Michel Andre, a bioacoustics researcher in
Spain who is recording ocean sounds using instruments called hydrophones. His project, LIDO
(Listening to the Deep Ocean Environment), collects data at 22 different locations. Back in the lab,
computers identify the sounds of human activities as well as 26 species of whales and dolphins. The
analysis aims to determine the effects that underwater noise is having on these animals. Andre hopes
his project will find ways to protect marine animals from the dangers of ocean noise.

Noise pollution is generally defined as regular exposure to elevated sound levels that may lead to
adverse effects in humans or other living organisms. According to the World Health Organization,
sound levels less than 70 dB are not damaging to living organisms, regardless of how
long or consistent the exposure is. Exposure for more than 8 hours to constant noise beyond 85 dB
may be hazardous. If you work for 8 hours daily in close proximity to a busy road or highway, you are
very likely exposed to traffic noise pollution around 85dB.

This type of pollution is so omnipresent in today’s society that we

often fail to even notice it anymore:

 street traffic sounds from cars, buses, pedestrians, ambulances etc.

 construction sounds like drilling or other heavy machinery in
operation
 airports, with constant elevated sounds from air traffic, i.e. planes taking off or landing
 workplace sounds, often common in open-space offices
 constant loud music in or near commercial venues

 industrial sounds like fans, generators, compressor, mills

 train stations traffic

 household sounds, from the television set to music playing on the stereo or computer,
vacuum cleaners, fans and coolers, washing machines, dishwashers, lawnmowers etc.
 events involving fireworks, firecrackers, loudspeakers etc.
 conflicts generate noise pollution through explosions, gunfire etc. The dysfunctions, in this
case, are likely caused by the conflict and insecurity and less by the noise pollution in itself,
although that compounds stress levels too.

Human diseases cause by Noise Pollution:

Whether we realize we are subjected to it or not, noise pollution can be hazardous to our
health in various ways.
Hypertension is, in this case, a direct result of noise pollution caused elevated blood levels for
a longer period of time.
Hearing loss can be directly caused by noise pollution, whether listening to loud music in your
headphones or being exposed to loud drilling noises at work, heavy air or land traffic, or
separate incidents in which noise levels reach dangerous intervals, such as around140 dB for
adult or 120 dB for children.
Sleep disturbances are usually caused by constant air or land traffic at night, and they are
a serious condition in that they can affect everyday performance and lead to serious
diseases.
 Child development. Children appear to be more sensitive to noise pollution, and a number of
noise-pollution-related diseases and dysfunctions are known to affect children, from hearing
impairment to psychological and physical effects. Also, children who regularly use music players
at high volumes are at risk of developing hearing dysfunctions. In 2001, it was estimated that
12.5% of American children between the ages of 6 to 19 years had impaired hearing in one or
both ears
Various cardiovascular dysfunctions. Elevated blood pressure caused by noise
pollution, especially during the night, can lead to various cardiovascular diseases.
Dementia isn’t necessarily caused by noise pollution, but its onset can be favored or
compounded
by noise pollution.
Psychological dysfunctions and noise annoyance. Noise annoyance is, in fact, a recognized name
for an emotional reaction that can have an immediate impact.

Pollution on Wildlife and Marine Life

Our oceans are no longer quiet. Thousands of oil drills, sonars, seismic survey devices, coastal
recreational watercraft and shipping vessels are now populating our waters, and that is a serious
cause of noise pollution for marine life. Whales are among the most affected, as their hearing
helps them orient themselves, feed and communicate. Noise pollution thus interferes with
cetaceans’ (whales and dolphins) feeding habits, reproductive patterns and migration routes,
and can even cause hemorrhage and death.
Other than marine life, land animals are also affected by noise pollution in the form of traffic,
firecrackers etc., and birds are especially affected by the increased air traffic.

Tips for avoiding Noise Pollution:

 Wear earplugs whenever exposed to elevated noise levels

 Maintain a level of around 35 dB in your bedroom at night and around 40 dB in your
house during the day.
 If possible, choose your residential area as far removed from heavy traffic as you can.
 Avoid prolonged use of earphones, especially at elevated sound levels.
 If possible, avoid jobs with regular exposure to elevated sound levels.

VARIOUS CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION:

1. INDUSTRIALIZATION
 Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing a large amount of
noise. Apart from that, various equipment like compressors, generators, exhaust fans, grinding mills
also participates in producing big noise. Therefore, you must have seen workers in these factories and
industries wearing earplugs to minimize the effect of noise.
2. POOR URBAN PLANNING
 In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also plays a vital role.
Congested houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking, frequent
fights over basic amenities leads to noise pollution which may
disrupt the
environment of society.
3. SOCIAL EVENTS
 Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage, parties, pub, disc or place of
worship, people normally flout rules set by the local administration and create nuisance in the area.
People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight which makes the condition of people
living nearby pretty worse. In markets, you can see people selling clothes via making a loud noise to
 attract the attention of people.

4. TRANSPORTATION
 A large number of vehicles on roads, airplanes flying over houses, underground trains produce
heavy noise and people get it difficult to get accustomed to that. The high noise leads to a situation
wherein a normal person loses the ability to hear properly.
5. CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
 Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges, dams, buildings, stations,
roads, flyovers takes place in almost every part of the world. These construction activities take place
every day as we need more buildings, bridges to accommodate more people and to reduce traffic
congestion. The down point is that these construction equipment are too noisy.
6. HOUSEHOLD CHORES
 We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our daily life. Gadgets like TV,
mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners, washing machine and dryer, cooler, air
conditioners are minor contributors to the amount of noise that is produced but it affects the quality
of life of your neighborhood in a bad way.
 While this form of pollution may seem harmless, it, in fact, has far-reaching consequences.
The adverse effects on the health of the e n v i ro n m e nt are quite severe. Not only is the
local wildlife affected by pollution but humans also face a number of problems due to it.

XVIII. LANDFILL:

Other names:
- Tip
- Dump
- Rubbish Dump
- Garbage Dump
- Dumping Ground

NOTES:
What is it?
- Is a site for the disposal of waste materials.
- Is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal
- Unless they are stabilized, landfills may experience severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the
ground during a large earthquake

Landfill Processes:
Three types of processes:
a. Physical Process –in general, significant physical reactions in the fill are in one of
the three very broad forms : Compression (compaction), dissolution, and sorption.
Because settlement is an invariable accompaniment of compression, the two
unusually discussed together. Similarly, dissolution and transport are closely
associated phenomena, although not the same degree as compression and
settlement. All components of the buried fill are subjected to the three processes.
Compaction is an on going phenomenon that begins with compression and size
reduction of particles by the compacting machinery and continues after wastes are in
place. The continuing compression is due to the weight of the wastes and that of the
soil cover (burden). Sifting of soil and other fines is responsible for some
consolidation. Settling of the completed fill is an end result of compression. The
settling is in addition to the settlement brought about by other reactions (e.g., loss of
mass due to chemical and biological decomposition).

The amount of water that enters a fill has an important bearing on physical reactions.
Water acts as a medium for the dissolution of soluble substances and for the
transport of unreacted materials. The unreacted materials consist of animate and
inanimate particulates. Particle sizes range from colloidal to several millimeters in
cross-section.

Of the physical phenomena, adsorption is one of the more important because it

brings about the immobilization of living and non-living substances that could pose a
problem if allowed to reach the external environment. It could play an important part
in containment of viruses and pathogens and of some chemical compounds.
Adsorption does have its limit, one of which is its questionable permanency. One or
several factors can alter permanency. For example, it can be altered by the effect of
biological and chemical decomposition on adsorption sites.

Absorption is another of the physical phenomena that takes place in a fill. It is

significant in large part because it immobilizes dissolved pollutants by immobilizing
the water that could transport them and suspended pollutant particulates out of the
confines of the fill. Absorption is the process whereby substances are taken in by
capillarity. Most of the absorption potential of landfilled municipal waste is
attributable to its cellulosic content. However, it should be recognized that, excepting
fills located in arid regions, eventually all absorbent material in a fill becomes
saturated. Consequently, absorption may be regarded as being only a delaying action
as far as pollutant release is concerned.

b. Chemical Process

Oxidation is one of the two major forms of chemical reaction in a fill. Obviously, the
extent of oxidation reactions is rather limited, in as much as the reaction depend
upon the presence of oxygen trapped in the fill when the fill was made. Ferrous
metals are the components to be most affected.

The second major form of chemical reaction includes the reaction that are due to the
presence of organic acids and carbon dioxide (CO2) synthesized in the biological
processes and dissolved in water (H2O). Reactions involving organic acids and
dissolved carbon dioxide are typical acid-metal reactions. Products of these reaction
are largely the metallic ions and salts in the liquid contents of the fill. The acid lead to
the solubilization and, hence, mobilization of materials that otherwise would not be
sources of pollution. The dissolution of carbon dioxide in water deteriorates the
quality of the water, especially in the presence of calcium and magnesium.

c. Biological Process:
The importance of the biological reaction in the fill is due to the following two
results of the reactions:
1. The organic fraction is rendered biologically stable and, as such, no longer
constitute a potential source of nuisances.
2. The conversion of a sizeable portion of the carbonaceous and proteinaceous
material into gas substantially reduces the mass and volume of the organic fraction.

At this point it should be remembered that a fraction of the nutrient elements in the
waste is transformed into microbial protoplasm. Eventually, this protoplasm will be
subject to decomposition and, hence, it makes up a reservoir for breakdown in the
future.

The wide variety fills the components that can be broken down biologically constitute
the biodegradable organic fraction of MSW. This fraction includes the garbage
fraction, paper and paper products, and “natural fibers” ( fibrous material of plants or
animal origin). Biological decomposition may take place either aerobically or
anaerobically. Both modes come into play sequentially in a typical fill, in that the
aerobic mode precedes the anaerobic mode. Although both modes are important,
anaerobic decomposition exerts the greater and longer lasting influence in terms of
associated fill characteristics.

Aerobic Decomposition
The greater part of decomposition that occurs directly after the wastes are
buried is aerobic. It continues to be aerobic until all of the oxygen in the interstitial air
has been removed. The duration of the aerobic phase is quite brief and depends upon
the degree of compaction of the wastes, as well as the moisture content since the
moisture displaces air from the interstices. Microbes active during this phase include
obligate as well as some facultative aerobes.
Because the ultimate end products of biological aerobic decomposition “ash”,
CO2 and H2O, and adverse environmental impact during the aerobic phase is minimal.
Although intermediate breakdown products may be released, their amounts and
contribution to pollution usually are small.

Anaerobic Decomposition
 Because the oxygen supply in the landfill soon is depleted, most of the
biodegradable organic matter eventually subjected to anaerobic breakdown. This
anaerobic decomposition is biologically much the same as that in the anaerobic
digestion of sewage sludge. Microbial organisms responsible for anaerobic
decomposition include both facultative and obligate anaerobes.
Unfortunately, the breakdown products of anaerobic decomposition can exert a
highly unfavorable impact on the environment unless they are carefully managed.
The products can be classified into two main groups: volatile organic acids and gases.
Most of the acids are malodorous and of the short-chain fatty-acid type. In addition
to chemical reactions with other components, the acid serve as substrates for
methane-producing microbes.
The two principal gases formed are methane (CH4) and CO2.. Gases in trace
amount are Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2).

OPERATION:
For well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying
techniques to:

1.) Confine waste to as small an area as possible

2.) Compact the waste to reduce its volume

SANITARY LANDFILL LIFE CYCLE:

5 Distinct Phases
- PHASE I
o Initial Adjustment
- PHASE II
o Transition
- PHASE III
o Acid Formation
- PHASE IV
o Methane Fermentation
- PHASE V
o Final Maturation and Stabilization

SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:

Landfills have the potential to cause a number of cause various issues such as:

- Infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur.

- Pollution of local roads and water courses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill
can be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems.

- Pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil

contamination may occur, as well.
 - Leachate (any liquid that, in the course of passing through matter, extracts soluble or
suspended solids, or any other component of the material through which it has passed.)

- Decomposition gases (Decaying organic waste from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition)

- Vectors (Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies
which can spread infectious diseases. The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through
the use of daily cover.)

Other Nuisance:

- Other potential issues include wildlife disruption due to occupation of habitat and animal health
disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills, dust, odor, noise pollution, and reduced
local property values.

TYPES:

- Municipal solid waste: takes in household waste and nonhazardous material. Included in this type
of landfill is a Bioreactor Landfill that specifically degrades organic material.

- Industrial waste: for commercial and industrial waste. Other related landfills include Construction
and Demolition Debris Landfills and Coal Combustion Residual Landfills.

- Hazardous waste or PCB waste: Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) landfills that are monitored in the
United States by the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA).

SITE SELECTION FOR LANDFILL:

The location and characteristic of the site will determine the extent and nature of the impact of
sanitary landfill on public health and the quality of the surrounding water, air and land resources.
Among the adverse effects that can be substantially limited or even avoided through proper siting of a
fill are:

a. Pollution of air, water and soil resources with chemicals, gases, and organisms
introduced or generated by landfill wastes.
b. A reduction of aesthetic quality and monetary value of adjacent properties. Even with
the best design, it is very difficult to completely isolate all natural resources from the
contaminants and from the impacts that are mentioned.

Selection on the best possible site becomes an extremely important matter. A pre-requisite to
the selection is the ability to determine which of the available sites most closely meets all
criteria demanded by a “best possible site”. Another factor that must be considered is the
ownership and tenancy of land.
 Proper consideration of these will lead to the development of disposal facility that will protect
quality of groundwater and surface water resources and of human life and habitation.

USEFUL LIFESPAN AND AREA OF SITE:

Useful lifespan and area constitute the first of the factors and is determined by the following
parameters: depth of the fill; quantity, rate of delivery, and characteristics of the solid wastes; and
operating practice. The site should be selected such that the useful life of the fill is sufficient to recover
the capital investment. It is generally recommended that a landfill be designed for a useful lifespan of
at least ten years. Determination of the size of the site must include two elements: gross area and
useful fill area. Gross area is the total area within the property boundaries. Useful fill area excludes
the area that will be taken up by buffers, access roads, and soil stockpiles. Useful fill area may be about
50% to 80% of the gross area.

Example of a site development plan for landfill:

The following formula can be used to calculate the useful life of a sanitary landfill:

L = VT
365 ( QP(1 + FQs))

Where:
L = useful lifespan in years.
VT = volume of the selected site in m3
QP = quantity of solid wastes in m3/day and
FQs = quantity of cover material expressed as a fraction of Q P in m3/day.

The quantity of waste can be projected using estimates population. The estimate can be carried
out by using the following formula:

Qi = QP (1 + r)n
Where:

Qi = quantity of wastes collected in a year “i”.

Qp = present annual quantity of wastes collected.
r = average annual growth rate in population as a decimal fraction
n = number of years.

The surface area required for a particular volumetric capacity decreases as the depth of the landfill
increases. The area requirement can be calculated by using the following formula:

A = VT/h

Where :
A = area required in m3. h = average depth of fill in meters.
VT = Total volume of solid waste and cover in m3
 ACTIVITY NO. 4

NAME: Jobenson B. Camiguing___________________________ SCORE:__________________

COURSE & YEAR: BSCE V – P_____________________________ DATE: June 2, 2020________

Answer the following:

1. How can you say that there is an odor pollution in your community?
If there is experienced constant smelled odor in the community especially if you are close in any
industrial plants, nursing homes, hospitals, poultry farms, airports, wastewater treatment facilities, and
other businesses.
2. Is Odor pollution can be linked to Air pollution? why?
Yes, odor pollution is associated to air pollution. Odor is constituted by the presence stinky particles and
gases in the air which can also be apprehended as air pollution. Air pollution is a mixture of solid
particles and gases in the air.
3. How does odor pollution affect human?
Unpleasant odors can be a warning sign of potential risks to human health. Sometimes people can
smell certain chemicals in the air before they are at harmful levels. Smelling odors in the air decreases
the quality of life and sense of wellbeing.
4. Can you gave at least identified sources of odor pollution? Rank them from most to least irritable to
you.
ODOR POLLUTION RANK
Poultry Farms 1
Hospitals and nursing homes 2
Drainage 3
Industrial Plants 4
Wastewater treatment facilities 5
Airports 6
Restaurants 7

5. What is your perception about noise pollution?

For me, noise pollution is not that serious issue, especially in my community, but as I live in the major
cities of the country I can say that noise in some places is undeniably a major disturbance for your
freedom of silence and peace of mind. Indeed, noise is annoying. Moreover, it’s so sad to know that it
greatly affects other living creature of the planet.
6. How can you say that it is already a noise pollution?
Sound is measured in decibels (db) .The minimum sound of 50 db, which we be can listened pleasantly,
is called sound. The sound which is above 95 db and which also causes irritation to listen is what
considered noise pollution.
7. What should be the best way to do by the government to eradicate noise pollution?
In my opinion, it would be best for the government to plant trees in town centers or plazas to alleviate
noise pollution and also to promote an eco-friendly environment. We can plant more trees as they are
good noise absorbents. According to studies it can reduce noise by 5 to 10 decibels (db) around them.
8. Do you think Landfill is the most effective solution for Municipal Solid Waste Management? Why?
Yes, I think it is much better compared to the traditional dumping. Landfill is more favourable because it
is highly regulated and advanced. But an effective reuse, recycling, and composting efforts should also
be enforce before municipal solid waste meets it’s final destination in a landfill.
9. What do you think will be the issue of landfill after its use life?
In my opinion, landfill leachate and toxins will be the ultimate cause of pollution in the local
environment including the water and the soil. The gases emitted in the landfill will also be a large threat
to the locals living near the area and will be an unfavourable issue of odor and air pollution, especially
greenhouse gases.

XIX. INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS TREATMENT AND RESIDUAL MANAGEMENT:

EFFLUENT - Is an outflowing of water or gas to a natural body of water, from a structure such as a
wastewater treatment plant, sewer pipe, or industrial outfall.
Or Effluent is the stream exiting a chemical reactor.
How are industrial Effluents Treated?
*Methods include advanced oxidation processing, distillation, adsorption, ozonation, vitrification,
incineration, chemical immobilisation or landfill disposal. Some materials such as detergent may be
capable of biological degradation and in such cases, a modified from a wastewater treatment can be
used.
* Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for treating wastewater that is produced
by industries as an undesirable by- product. After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater ( or
effluent) may be reused or released to a sanitary sewer or to a surface water in the environment.

RESIDUAL MANAGEMENT:
In all biological waste treatment processes some surplus sludge is produced.

Objectives of Residual Management are:

 Reduction of water content
 Stabilization of sludge solids
 Reduction in sludge solid volume

In extended aeration process where aerobic digestion of surplus sludge is done, the sludge can be taken directly
for dewatering and disposal. In case of activated sludge and trickling filter plants, the sludge is taken ( along the
primary sludge) to sludge digester for further demineralization and thereafter it is dewatered.
In facultive type aerated lagoons and algal waste stabilization ponds, the surplus sludge settles out in
the unit itself and is removed only once in a few years after emptying the unit.
Sand Beds for Sludge Drying
Sludge is generally spread over the sand which is supported on a gravel bed, through which is laid an
open-joint earthen pipe 15 cm apart and sloping at a gradient of 1 in 150 towards the filtrate sump. The
drying beds are often subdivided into smaller units each bed 5-8 m wide and 15-50 m long. The drying
time averages about 1-2 weeks in warmer climates, and 3-6 or even more in unfavourable ones.
Sludge Dewatering Methods
• Natural: sludge drying beds, sludge lagoons
• Mechanical: sludge thickeners centrifuges, vacuum filters, filter press
• Physical: heat drying, incineration.

Disposal of Sludge
Final disposal of sludge is to land and sometimes to the sea, in one of the following ways:
• Agricultural use of dried or wet sludge.
• Use of dried sludge as landfill in absence of agricultural demand.
• Spreading wet sludge on eroded or waste land, contouring the field, so as to gradually build up a
top soil of agricultural value

• Disposing of wet sludge along with solid wastes for composting, sanitary landfill.
• Transporting and dumping into the sea.

XX. E-WASTE:

E-Waste Problem, Hazards and Solutions

In most parts of the world, underground water is not drinkable directly. Long ago, people simply used
to draw up water from wells and drink it. But now, you have to use some sort of filter to purify the
water and make it drinkable. Why? It is just one of the many problems and hazards of E-waste. The
electronic devices, dead cells, and batteries you throw away with other garbage contain lead that
easily mixes with underground water, making it unfit for direct consumption. That is just the tip of the
iceberg – the problems of e-waste disposal!

What is E-Waste

This word has caught up in the recent past only when someone studying the subject noted that our
environment will be 3x more congested with e-waste by 2017. I did not save that tweet else I could
have given you some reference. Even if it is not to be tripled, e-waste is growing in volumes… huge
volumes. The reason why e-waste is increasing is that technology is growing fast and in an attempt to
get better devices, we casually get rid of old electronics – the best examples being that of
smartphones.
One may ask about the relationship between old electronics and e-waste. I would say, e-waste is
actually the old electronic goods that people simply give away to garbage trucks that are then
dumped into landfill or similar sites. Electronics have a number of harmful elements that react with
air and water to create problems of e-waste such as water, air, and soil pollution as well as problems
that affect human beings in the form of diseases.

In the above example, we used old cells and batteries as an example. Most of the cheaper batteries
are lead-based and easily react with water (rain or moisture) to seep and mix with underground
water along with polluting the soil and air where it was disposed of by the garbage department.

Thus, everything that falls into the electronics’ category, that you intend to throw away, is e-waste
(electronic waste).  This includes computers, laptops, tablets, smartphones and so on. There are
proper methods to dispose off electronic items. They should be handled differently, but
unfortunately, even the developed countries do not have strong policies to take care of such harmful,
toxic garbage.

Effect Of E-Waste on Humans and Environment

Let’s check out some of the most common elements found in computers, monitors and TVs, etc. and
how they affect human life.

The solder present on the motherboard of computers and TV contains high levels of lead. Even the
glass panels of computer monitors and of course, the lead batteries contaminate air, water, and soil.
In addition, they distort the process of brain development, while posing danger to the central nervous
system and kidneys. This (lead poisoning) is among the most dangerous hazards of e-waste.

Other than lead, motherboards also have high levels of Mercury. Improper disposal may create skin
and respiratory disorders. Mercury poisoning also causes acute brain damages.

The cables and PVC panels as well as glass, when reacts with moisture and oxygen, creates hazardous
soil that may not be suitable for even building a home as the people breathing that air will suffer from
reproduction and proper development of body parts, including the brain. It also spoils the immune
system. Stress, anxiety, and other mental problems can arise out of breathing air polluted with glass,
PVC and other forms
of plastic remains found in electronic items.

The motherboard circuits can cause lung cancer when you breathe air polluted by the fumes released
when the motherboard elements react and create Beryllium. It is also responsible for skin diseases,
including warts and certain forms of dangerous allergies.

Treating E-Waste

As of now, there are no proper methods being implemented even in the first world to eliminate the
problem of e-waste. The two methods I found interesting for the proper treatment of e-waste
are recycling and refurbishing.
For recycling, there may be products that cannot be recycled completely. PVC layers, for example,
stay as such for ages and cannot be recycled. It would be better if the manufacturers use recyclable
material so that the e-waste is converted into something that can be used again without harming the
 planet and its inhabitants. Thus, one of the major factors in treating e-waste is to compel
manufacturers to use green elements.
If electronics are refurbished, they can be sold again at a lower price. Thus, both society and the
environment will benefit. Instead of simply dumping your old TV into the garbage bin, you might want
to think about calling the vendor and ask him where to present the item for refurbishing. If you
cannot find, consider donating the item to some charity that can either use it as such or get it
repaired and use it. I do not think it is a practice well implemented, but it would be nice if all vendors
provide a refurbishing facility.
The Microsoft Refurbisher program is one initiative from Microsoft, where the refurbisher procures
pre-owned computers, refurbishes them, and preinstalls genuine Microsoft software.
The bottom line when talking about the proper disposal of e-waste is to convert them into less
harmful items before disposing them off completely. There should be a sound policy on this subject
and should be implemented without any irregularities for the benefit of the entire planet.

ACTIVITY NO. 5

NAME: Jobenson B. Camiguing___________________________ SCORE:__________________

COURSE & YEAR: BSCE V - P______________________________ DATE: June 3, 2020________

Answer the following:

1. What are the impacts of industries in the environment in our country?
Industries are one of the factor that elevated the economy of the country and even give several
opportunities to the Filipinos, but it is also one of the major cause of pollution in our environment.
Some industries lack adequate treatment facilities for their liquid waste and even some are having a
hard time dealing with the right storage for solids and other wastes.
2. In the current situation of our country is it possible to invest wastewater treatment facilities? If YES,
why? If NO, what is your recommendation?
Yes, anyone could do, it’s just that we do not put a great concern regarding to this matter. Wastewater
treatment issue is far from our interest. Imagine that even one of the most famous tourist spot in the
country, the Boracay, was even affected by a related issue because of poor management of waste.
Good to know that the government have already acted when the problem was already clear. But I
think that’s the problem, we are just taking our move if the problem is truly visible. Wastewater
treatment facility is a huge remedy to maintain the good quality of our water, I hope that one from the
top would realize it one day. Our country is just lucky that it has a lot of good water sources.
3. What is E – Waste?
E-waste is a term for electronic products that are defective or obsolete, or simply nearing in the end of
their useful life. E-waste is a broad and growing range of electronic devices, ranging from large
household devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, cellphones, personal stereos, and consumer
electronics to computers which have been discarded by their users.
4. Why is it E-waste cannot be accommodated in the Landfill?
When electronics end up in landfills, toxics like lead, mercury, and cadmium leach into the soil and
water. The electronic waste problem and hazard is huge. The electronic devices, dead cells, and
batteries contains these toxins that easily mixes with underground water, making it unfit for direct
consumption.
5. Recycling and Refurbishing are the proper method of treating E-waste, how can we implement this
in our country?
We can do it if the government will lead the move towards E-waste management problem. It is good to
know that the government is already starting its actions, as in the 17th Congress, there are two bills
that tackle e-waste. First aims to provide a “manufacturer’s responsibility” approach system of
collection, transportation, and recycling of e-waste, particularly cellphones and other video display
devices. The other aims to cover the management, disposal, recycling, and trade of e-waste. Similar to
the first, producers and distributors shall monitor or track their products including the volume of
their sales, imports, storage and amount of the products they recycle, and recyclers shall register in
the DENR and comply to the standards the latter shall set.