Investigation of the factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL

learners in learning speaking skills and the influence it casts on

communication in the target language.

By

MUHAMMAD TANVEER

A Dissertation Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Education in English Language Teaching Pathway (M.Ed. ELT Pathway)

Educational Studies, Faculty of Education,

University of Glasgow

AUGUST, 2007

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 Acknowledgements

I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my mum, dad, family

members and friends whose prayers, love and best wishes were a source of inspiration,
encouragement and motivation for me as I was successfully completing this study.

I would also like to extend my special thanks to my brothers who have endured me
throughout this period and financed my studies.

I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Ms. Julie McAdam, who read my draft copies,
listened to my anxieties and whose stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped
me throughout the time I was researching and writing this dissertation.

I owe a special note of gratitude to Dr. Esther Daborn for the assistance, guidance,
generosity and advice I received from her throughout this project and for granting me
permission to access the participants.

I would also wish to thank Ms. Carole MacDiarmid and Mr. Douglas Graham who were
insightful and perceptive in their valuable suggestions and hints to complete this
research study.

Finally, I am extremely thankful to all the participants who provided me rich and
detailed data for the study and lent breadth and value to the research findings.

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 Abstract

Feelings of anxiety, apprehension and nervousness are commonly expressed by

second/foreign language learners in learning to speak a second/foreign language. These
feelings are considered to exert a potentially negative and detrimental effect on
communication in the target language. The use of modern communicative language
teaching approaches in the language classrooms and the wide-spread use of English
Language have increased the demand to learn good communication skills but existence
of such feelings in the learners may prevent them from achieving the desired goal.
Consideration of learners’ anxiety reactions in learning to speak another language by a
language teacher is deemed highly important in order to assist them to achieve the
intended performance goals in the target language. This study has attempted to
investigate the factors that language anxiety can possibly stem from, both within the
classroom environment and out of classroom in the wider social context, and has
recommended a variety of strategies to cope with it. The past researchers, considering it
a complex and multi-faceted psychological phenomenon, have suggested to use a
variety of perspectives and approaches to investigate the subject. This study used a
qualitative semi-structured interview format and focus-group discussion technique to
investigate the issue. A total of twenty participants, six ESL/EFL learners, three highly
experienced ESL/EFL teachers and eleven ESL/EFL practitioners participated. The
findings suggested that language anxiety can originate from learners’ own sense of
‘self’, their self-related cognitions, language learning difficulties, differences in
learners’ and target language cultures, differences in social status of the speakers and
interlocutors, and from the fear of losing self-identity. The pedagogical implications of
these findings for understanding second/foreign language anxiety for enhancing
learners’ communication abilities in the target language were discussed, as are
suggestions for future research. Furthermore, considering the crucial role of teachers in
second or foreign language pedagogy, a need was felt to investigate the beliefs and
perceptions of language teachers about learning and teaching a second or a foreign
language.

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 Definition of terms and some Abbreviations Used

For clarity of meaning throughout the dissertation the following definitions and
abbreviations are applicable.
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Learners and Teachers: are those who are
learning or teaching English while living in a community where English is not spoken
as a first language.
English as a Second Language (ESL) Learners and Teachers: are those who are
learning and teaching English while living in a community where English is spoken as a
first language.
Note: As the participants of this research study fall into both of these categories, a
combination of both the terms (ESL/EFL) will be used.
First or Native Language (L1): The language a child learns from infancy. Many
children learn more than one language from birth and may be said to have more than
one ‘First’ language.
Second Language (L2): In this dissertation the term refers to any language other than
the first language learned. For this reason, second (L2) or foreign language (FL) will be
used with the same meaning.
Language Acquisition and Language Learning: ‘Acquisition’ is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire
their first language. 'Learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a
conscious process, which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for
example knowledge of grammar rules (Krashen, 1985: 2-3).
Note: In order to avoid confusion, the term ‘learning’ will be used in the dissertation,
which encompasses ‘acquisition’ as well.
Psycholinguistics: A term that links psychology and linguistics. That is to say it links
learners’ psychological variables (personality traits, perceptions, beliefs, etc.) and the
language learning and speaking process. The aim of the psycholinguists is to find out
about the structures and processes, which underlie a human’s ability to speak (Aitchison,
1998: 1)

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 Table of Contents
Chapter 1 1
1.1: Introduction
1.2: Difference between First and Second/Foreign Language Anxiety 3
1.3: Definition and Types of Anxiety 3
1.4: Second or Foreign Language Anxiety 4
1.5: What Causes Language Anxiety? 4
1.6: Statement of the Problem 5
1.7: Rationale for the Study 6
1.8: Research Aims and Objectives 7
1.9: Research Questions 7
1.10: Research Site and Subjects 8
1.11: Significance of the Study 8
Chapter: 2 9
Literature Review
2.1: Introduction 9
2.2: Section I 10
Background of the Study
2..2.1: Previous Research 10
2.2.2: Conceptual Foundations: Components of Foreign Language Anxiety and Related 11
Causal Factors
(a) Communication Apprehension (CA) 11
(b) Test Anxiety 13
(c) Fear of Negative Evaluation 14
2.3: Section II 14
Factors Associated with Learner’s own Sense of “Self” and “Language Classroom
Environment
2.3.1: Self Perceptions 15
2.3.2: Learners’ Beliefs about Language Learning 15
2.3.3: Instructors Beliefs about Language Teaching 17
2.3.4: Classroom Procedure 18
2.4: Section III 19
Three Stages of Language Learning
2.4.1: Input 20
2.4.2: Processing 20
2.4.3: Output 23
2.5: Section IV 24
Socio-cultural Factors
2.5.1 : Social Environnent for L2/FL Acquisition 24
2.5.2: Errors in Social Setting 25
2.5.3: Social Status, Power Relations and a Sense of Identity 25
2.5.4: Intercultural/Interethnic Communication Apprehension (ICA) 27

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2.5.5: Gender 29
2.6: Section V 29
Manifestation of Language Anxiety and Its Effective Reduction
2.6.1: Manifestation 29
2.6.2: Alleviation of Foreign or Second Language Anxiety 30
2.7: Summary 31
Chapter 3 33
Methodology
3.1: Qualitative Study 33
3.2: Rationale of choosing Qualitative Strategy 33
3.3: Participants 33
3.4: Instruments 34
3.5: Interviews 35
3.5.1: Individual Interviews 35
3.5.2: Focus Group Interviews 36
3.6: Procedure 36
3.7: Data Analysis 37
Chapter 4 39
Findings and Discussion
4.1: Introduction 39
4.2: Section I 40
Cognitive and Linguistic Factors Related to Classroom Procedure
4.2.1: Strict and Formal Classroom Environment 40
4.2.2: Presentation in the Classroom 41
4.2.3: Fear of Making Mistakes and Apprehension about Others’ Evaluation 42
4.2.4: Role of Language Instructors 44
4.2.5: Self-related Cognition; Variations in Individual’s “self-perceptions” 45
4.2.6: Linguistic Difficulties 47
4.2.7: Pronunciation 47
4.2.8: Grammar 49
4.2.9: Vocabulary 50
4.3: Section II 50
Socio-Cultural Factors
4.3.1: Social Environment and Limited Exposure to the Target Language 51
4.3.2: Cultural Differences 52
4.3.3: Social Status and self-identity 52
4.3.4: Gender 53
4.4: Section III 54
Manifestation of Language Anxiety and Its effective Alleviation
4.4.1: Manifestation 54
4.4.2: Strategies to Cope with Language Anxiety 55
4.5: Summary of the Chapter 58
Chapter 5 59
Issues, Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1: Issues 59

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5.2: Limitations of the Study 60
5.3: Conclusions 60
5.4: Recommendations 63
Bibliography 66
Appendices 73

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 CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction

I always feel nervous when speaking English.

I feel bad in my mind because I wonder why I can’t speak English very well.
I never learned the preposition; I cannot learn this bloody language.
My English appear is not good enough; I can’t express very well.
I need to use English perfectly; I can’t make mistakes in front of my students.
Sometimes I feel stupid, some people look at me, a strange man, cannot speak good.

(Quoted from the transcripts of this study)

Such statements are commonly uttered by foreign language learners and are too
familiar to the foreign language teachers. These statements indicate an important
problem that the majority of students face in learning and particularly speaking a second
or foreign language. Many learners express their inability and sometimes even
acknowledge their failure in learning to speak a second/foreign language. These learners
may be good at learning other skills but, when it comes to learning to speak another
language, they claim to have a ‘mental block’ against it (Horwitz et al., 1986: 125).
What, then, hinders or stops them to succeed in learning a second/foreign language? In
many cases, students’ feeling of stress, anxiety or nervousness may impede their
language learning and performance abilities. Theorists and second language acquisition
(SLA) researchers have frequently demonstrated that these feelings of anxiety are
specifically associated with learning and speaking a second/foreign language, which
distinguishes L2/FL learning from learning other skills or subjects. Both teachers and
students are aware and generally feel strongly that anxiety is a major hurdle to be
overcome when learning to speak another language. Learning a language itself is “a
profoundly unsettling psychological proposition” because it directly threatens an
individual’s ‘self-concept’ and world-view (Guiora, 1983 cited in Horwitz et al., 1986:
28).

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 Two basic questions regarding language anxiety need to be addressed in the
introduction, which may otherwise cause some confusion in the minds of the readers.
First, what kind of anxiety is language anxiety and how is it unique to learning and
speaking a foreign, in this case English language? Second, how is second or foreign
language anxiety different from the language anxiety experienced in the first language?

In general, there are two approaches to the description of language anxiety: (1)
Language anxiety in the broader construct of anxiety as a basic human emotion that may
be brought on by numerous combinations of situational factors (McIntyre, 1995;
McIntyre & Gardner, 1989: cited in Tittle, 1997: 11). For example, (a) a shy student
may feel anxious when asked to give a short talk in front of the whole class; (b)
Language anxiety as a combination of other anxieties that create a separate form of
anxiety intrinsic to language learning (Horwitz et al., 1986: 128). The later approach
believes that there is something unique to the language learning experience that makes
some individuals nervous. When this nervousness or anxiety is restricted to the
language-learning situations, it falls into the category of specific anxiety. Psychologists
use the term specific anxiety reaction to differentiate people who are generally anxious
in a variety of situations from those who are anxious only in specific situations (1986:
125). Researchers appear to differ in their views about the definition and construct of
language anxiety but there is merit, as MacIntyre (1995: cited in Tittle, 1997: 11) opines,
in discussing language anxiety as a unique construct because it classifies the source of
anxiety for the reader. Students may feel anxiety in learning other subjects like
mathematics, statistics, etc. (Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 218) and the fundamental
motivations behind being anxious may be similar for learners in various disciplines, but
the sources of anxiety will also be a unique experience for each learner (Tittle, 1997:
11).

The intrinsic nature of language anxiety poses an additional challenge to

language learners as well as teachers. Several recent approaches to foreign language
teaching, such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Suggestopedia (See
appendix (1) for definition and more detail about Suggestopedia), are explicitly directed
at reducing learner anxiety. These approaches lay emphasis on pair or group work and
learning through communication in the target language as a way to reduce language
anxiety. Conversely, the demand on communication in the modern language classes

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may enhance students’ anxiety, as there are more chances for their weaknesses to be
exposed in front of others. Consideration of learner anxiety in the modern language
classroom is deemed highly essential in order to help learners develop their
communication skills in the target language.

1.2 Difference between First and Second/Foreign Language Anxiety

Anxiety and speech communication appear to have a strong bond with each
other. Speaking, either in first (L1) or second/foreign (L2/FL) language in different
situations, particularly the situations that demand public speech, tend to be anxiety-
provoking. However, the anxiety experienced when speaking in a second/foreign
language seems to be more debilitating than the anxiety experienced when speaking in
the first language. Anxiety while communicating in other than L1 goes a step further
with the addition of the difficulties associated with learning and speaking a foreign
language. In a foreign language, a speaker has to look for suitable lexis, has to construct
an appropriate syntactic structure and needs to use a comprehendible accent, plus the
demanding tasks of thinking and organizing ideas and expressing them at the same time.
Daly (1991: 1) while discussing the reactions to second language learning from the
perspective of first language communication apprehension expresses that the anxiety
experienced by many people while communicating in their first language seem to have
many logical ties to second language anxiety. Educators and second language
acquisition (SLA) researchers can get insight from the analogy of first language anxiety
to cope with the second language anxiety.

What ‘anxiety’ actually refers to and how can we define ‘foreign language
anxiety’ are also important questions to understand the construct of ‘language anxiety’.

1.3 Definition and Types of Anxiety

“Anxiety is a psychological construct, commonly described by psychologists as
a state of apprehension, a vague fear that is only indirectly associated with an object”
(Hilgard, Atkinson, & Atkinson, 1971 cited in Scovel, 1991: 18).

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 Anxiety, as perceived intuitively by many language learners, negatively
influences language learning and has been found to be one of the most highly examined
variables in all of psychology and education (Horwitz, 2001: 113). Psychologists make
a distinction between three categories of anxiety: trait anxiety, state anxiety, and
situation-specific anxiety. Trait anxiety is relatively stable personality characteristic, ‘a
more permanent predisposition to be anxious’ (Scovel, 1978: cited in Ellis, 1994: 479)
while state anxiety is a transient anxiety, a response to a particular anxiety-provoking
stimulus such as an important test (Spielberger, 1983: cited in Horwitz, 2001: 113). The
third category, Situation-specific anxiety, refers to the persistent and multi-faceted
nature of some anxieties (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991a: cited in 2001: 113). It is
aroused by a specific type of situation or event such as public speaking, examinations,
or class participation (Ellis, 1994: 480).

1.4 Second or Foreign Language Anxiety

Anxiety has been found to interfere with many types of learning but when it is
associated with leaning a second or foreign language it is termed as ‘second/foreign
language anxiety’. It is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon (Young, 1991:
cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 217) and can be defined as “a subjective feeling of
tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the
automatic nervous system” (McIntyre & Gardner, 1994: cited in 1999: 217). It has been
found that the feelings of tension or nervousness centre on the two basic task
requirements of foreign language learning: listening and speaking (Horwitz et al., 1986:
29) because, in interaction, both the skills can not be separated.

1.5 What Causes Language Anxiety?

What causes language anxiety is a central question of this research study and is
of interest to all language teachers and learners, as well as SLA scholars who are
interested in anxiety and learning. Considering anxiety as a highly influential construct
in language learning, SLA researchers have tried to investigate the sources or reasons
that language anxiety can stem from within both academic and social contexts, and have
suggested a variety of strategies to cope with it. The fact that language anxiety is a
psychological construct, it most likely stems from the learner’s own ‘self’, i.e., as an
intrinsic motivator (Schwartz, 1972; cited in Scovel 1991: 16), e.g., his or her self-

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perceptions, perceptions about others (peers, teachers, interlocutors, etc.) and target
language communication situations, his/her beliefs about L2/FL learning etc. Language
anxiety may be a result as well as a cause of insufficient command of the target
language (Sparks and Ganschow; cited in Horwitz, 2001: 118). That is to say it may be
experienced due to linguistic difficulties L2/FL learners face in learning and using the
target language. Within social contexts, language anxiety may be experienced due to
extrinsic motivators (Schwartz, 1972; cited in Scovel, 1991: 16), such as different social
and cultural environments, particularly the environments where L1 and L2/FL learning
takes place. Also, the target language is a representation of another cultural community;
there is a predisposition among some people to experience such anxiety because of their
own concerns about ethnicity, foreignness, and the like (Gardner cited in Horwitz &
Young, 1991: viii). Social status of the speaker and the interlocutor, a sense of power
relations between them, and gender could also be important factors in causing language
anxiety for L2/FL speakers. A further detailed investigation of these factors could
potentially assist language teachers to alleviate anxiety in the classroom setting and to
make the classroom environment less anxiety-provoking and hence to improve learners’
performance in the target language.

1.6 Statement of the Problem

We live in an educational world where orality is seen as a necessary, positive

personal characteristic (Daly, 1991: 7). Worldwide expansion of English Language has
increased this demand to acquire good communication skills in English. However,
learners of English language often express a feeling of stress, nervousness or anxiety
while learning to speak English Language and claim to have, as mentioned above, a
‘mental block’ against learning English. The problem exists among ESL/EFL learners
from beginning to more advanced levels. Even highly advanced ESL/EFL learners feel
anxious while learning and particularly speaking English in some situations, both within
and out of the classroom settings. These learners wonder why they cannot speak English
well, because their compulsive efforts do not lead to their intended performance.
Horwitz and Young (1991: xiv) – two well-known researchers in the area of ‘language
anxiety’ express, “we have been truly surprised at the number of students who
experience anxiety and distress in their language classes”. Similarly, Campbell and

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Ortiz (1991: 159) found language anxiety among university students to be ‘alarming’
and estimated that up to one half of all language students experience debilitating levels
of language anxiety.

Being an L2 learner as well as a practitioner of English Language Teaching, the

author himself has not only experienced language anxiety but also observed this
phenomenon among students of varied nationalities while studying alongside them in an
international context at the University of Glasgow, United Kingdom. The author was
interested to know why ESL/EFL learners feel anxious while learning and particularly
speaking English.

1.7 Rationale for the Study

While the previous research has done much to statistically demonstrate the
existence of second/foreign language anxiety, many researchers view that “even without
empirical proof, the mere awareness of foreign language anxiety, even on an intuitive
level, is testimony enough to its existence and worthy of fuller investigation” (Shams,
2006: 14). Reviewing past research, Ohata (2005: 139) concludes that language anxiety
cannot be defined in a linear manner but rather it can be better construed as a complex
psychological phenomenon influenced by many different factors. Thus it seems to be
more appropriate to deal with this issue from a variety of perspectives or approaches
(Young, 1992).

For this reason, some research in this area has been descriptive in nature.
Researchers such as Horwitz (1986), Price (1991), and Young (1990) have interviewed
anxious students in order to have a better understanding of their experiences. Young
(1992) conducted interviews with well-known language specialists such as Krashen,
Omaggio Hadley, Terrell, and Rardin. Ohata (2005) considering teachers’ role and the
particular social context they create in the classroom interviewed seven experienced
ESL/EFL teachers to investigate this phenomenon.

Similar to the interview studies by the above researchers, this study is a further
step to investigate the factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners from

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three different perspectives: from the perspectives of ESL/EFL learners, ESL/EFL
practitioners, and ESL/EFL teachers. Thus, this study intends to be more comprehensive
in nature as it looks at the issue from this variety of perspectives in an attempt to
identify the sources of language anxiety; focusing on the actual sources of anxiety, as
Shams (2006: 2) suggests, could prove an effective means of alleviating second/foreign
language anxiety, which unfortunately are not clear-cut (Horwitz, 2001: 118).

In addition, this research was conducted in the context of the University of

Glasgow, with multi-lingual groups of students belonging to different cultures and
nationalities. This allows the data to be compared to the body of literature on language
anxiety.

1.8 Research Aims and Objectives

The major purpose of the research is to find out why ESL/EFL learners feel
anxious or embarrassed while learning to speak English Language and what influence it
casts on their communication in the target language. In other words, what are the factors
or sources that make speaking English more stressful in some situations than in others.
This study seeks to discover the phenomenon of language anxiety from both within and
outside of the language classroom setting in a wider social context. This includes
considering the factors originate from the learner’s own sense of self, from the language
learning process, or from the situation or social environment he/she is a part of. The
second most important aim of this study is to find out and suggest some strategies for
language teachers in order to alleviate language anxiety in the learners. It will also
inform the researcher of this study about the phenomenon, as a learner, as well as a
practitioner in English Language Teaching. In addition, integrating the findings of this
research on language anxiety - regarding its nature, sources, effects and treatment - with
the existing literature is also an underlying consideration of the study.

1.9 Research Questions

1: What are the psycholinguistic factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL
learners in learning and speaking English Language?
2: What are the socio-cultural factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL

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 learners in learning and speaking English Language?
3: How is language anxiety manifested in the learners?
4: Which strategies can be used to successfully cope with language anxiety?

1.10 Research Site and Subjects

Research has been conducted in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) Unit
and Department of Education of the University of Glasgow, United Kingdom. The
subjects were drawn from beginning to advanced levels of learners as well as
experienced ESL/EFL practitioners and teachers. Twenty subjects in total, from a range
of nationalities, participated in the study. Six of them were EFL/ESL learners in the
EFL Unit and eleven were EFL/ESL practitioners (enrolled in M.Ed. in English
Language Teaching and had been practicing teaching English in their home countries).
Three highly experienced EFL/ESL teachers (whose first language was English) in the
EFL Unit also participated in this research project. (Chapter 4 for more details)

1.11 Significance of the Study

The issue of language anxiety is being studied with increasing frequency in

recent years because of the influence it can have on second language learning,
performance and ultimate achievement. This study will be of considerable interest to
language educators and students because of the potentially negative impact of foreign
language anxiety, not only on the various domains of language performance, but also on
students’ attitudes and perceptions of language learning in general (Phillips, 1992, cited
in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 222). This study is also significant with respect to its
implication for foreign or second language pedagogy, particularly in the context where
learners come from a wide range of linguistic, cultural and ethnic backgrounds. The
investigation of the anxiety-producing factors that arise while learning to communicate
in the target language will hopefully broaden the insight into the issue of language
anxiety and will help language teachers in making the classroom environment less
stressful.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
Traditionally, the focus of research in second language acquisition (SLA) has
been primarily on issues such as language pedagogy (Grammar Translation Method,
Audio-lingual, etc.), contents of pedagogical instructions, and ways to improve them.
Consequently, the implications of this research remained restricted to the learning and
teaching of the language itself; that is to say, to the cognitive domain with little attention
being paid to the affective variables learners bring with them into language classroom. It
was only in late twentieth century, in the 1970s, that the SLA researchers began to study
the significant role played by personality and motivational variables in second language
acquisition (Shams, 2006: 5). They posited that, in order to gain a holistic understanding
of this process, learners’ affective variables need to be taken into account to cater for
their needs and interests (Samimy, 1994: 30). In addition, as the focus of L2/FL
instruction has shifted from the narrow concern for developing learners’ linguistic
competence to the need for communicative competence, learners are challenged to be
able to speak in the target language spontaneously in various social contexts. In order to
meet this challenge, attention has diverted to studying the role of affective variables like
‘learning styles’, motivation, personality traits, etc. that can impede the process of
learning and speaking a second/foreign language. Among these affective variables,
learner anxiety has come to be recognized as an important area of study in second
language acquisition because of the negative influence it can have on students’
performance.

This chapter reviews literature on language anxiety from two broader

perspectives: psycholinguistic and socio-cultural. It has been divided into five sections.
The first section, as a background to the study, (a) reviews the past research on language
anxiety, and (b) establishes the conceptual foundations of the construct of ‘Language
Anxiety’ in terms of its three components: communication apprehension, test anxiety
and fear of negative evaluation. These components have been discussed with relation to
some factors that cause language anxiety while communicating in the target language.

9
The second section (II) looks at the factors that stem from a learner’s own sense of ‘self’
and from the ‘classroom environment’. The third section (III) deals with
psycholinguistic factors, i.e., the factors that contribute to anxiety by creating
difficulties in the process of learning and speaking a foreign language. The next section
(IV) attempts to explore the literature regarding socio-cultural factors; these are the
factors outside of the class in the broader social context. The final section (V) describes
how anxiety is manifested in the learners and presents some strategies to cope with it.

2.2 Section I

Background of the Study

2.2.1 Previous Research

The academic literature has offered a somewhat confusing account of language
anxiety. Researchers have been unable to draw a clear picture of how anxiety affects
language learning and performance. Some researchers reported a negative relationship
between language anxiety and achievement, e.g. the higher the anxiety, the lower the
performance, (Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977, 1980: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al.,
1999: 218). Others reported no relationship, or a positive relationship (Pimsleur,
Mosberg, & Morrison, 1962, Backman, 1976, Scovel, 1978: cited in 1999: 218). More
recently, Horwitz (2001: 121) has reiterated that the issue of understanding the
relationship between anxiety and achievement is unresolved. The reason for these mixed
results is perhaps, as stated by Philip (cited in Shams, 2006: 8), that “a comparison of
the experimental research examining the relationship between anxiety and second
language learning is, to a degree, perplexing, presenting some conflicting evidence and
illustrating that anxiety is a complex, multi-faceted construct.”

In addition to the negative effects of anxiety on language learning and

performance, anxiety has occasionally been found to facilitate language learning.
Anxiety, in its debilitating and facilitating forms, serves simultaneously to motivate and
to warn the learner. Facilitating anxiety “motivates the learner to “fight” the new
learning task; it gears the learner emotionally for approach behaviour” (Scovel 1991:

10
22). Debilitating anxiety, in contrast, “motivates the learner to “flee” the new learning
task; it stimulates the individual emotionally to adopt avoidance behaviour” (1991: 22).

2.2.2 Conceptual Foundations: Components of Foreign Language Anxiety and

Related Causal Factors
Horwitz et al. (1986: 127), considering language anxiety with relation to
performance evaluation within academic and social contexts, drew parallels between it
and three related performance anxieties: (1) communication apprehension (CA); (2) test
anxiety; (3) fear of negative evaluation. Due to its emphasis on interaction, the construct
of communication apprehension is also relevant to the conceptualization of foreign
language anxiety (McCroskey, 1977: cited in 1986: 127). The description of these
components will lay the foundations for the concept of second/foreign language anxiety,
providing an insight to comprehend the sources or causes it can originate from. As the
focus in this dissertation is on speaking skills, the first component (CA) will be
explained more than the other two components.

(a) Communication Apprehension (CA)

The speaking skill is so central to our thinking about language learning
that when we refer to speaking a language we often mean knowing a
language…. Many researchers have pointed out that the skill producing
most anxiety is speaking (MacIntyre and Gardner 1991)…. This anxiety
comes in part from a lack of confidence in our general linguistic
knowledge but if only this factor were involved, all skills would be
affected equally. What distinguishes speaking is the public nature of the
skill, the embarrassment suffered from exposing our language
imperfections in front of others.
(Arnold, 2000: 3)

One of the most studied topics in the field of speech communication is the
tendency on the part of some people to avoid, and even, fear, communicating orally
(Daly 1991: 3). Horwitz et al. (1986: 128) define communication apprehension (CA) as
“a type of shyness characterized by fear or anxiety about communicating with people”.
Most of the research in this area is based on McCroskey’s conceptualization of CA as

11
“an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated
communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey’s 1997a, p. 78: cited in
Apaibanditkul, 2006: 3).

Communication anxiety may be specific to just a few settings (e.g., public

speaking) or may exist in most everyday communication situations, or may even be part
of a general anxiety trait that arises in many facets of an individual's life (Friedman,
1980: cited in Taylor, 1987: 1). Learners’ personality traits such as shyness, quietness,
and reticence are considered to frequently precipitate CA. These feelings of shyness
vary greatly from individual to individual, and from situation to situation. McCroskey
and Bond (1980, 1984: cited in 1987: 1) found seven factors that could result in a quiet
child (this can equally offer explanation of adult CA); (1) low intellectual skills, (2)
speech skill deficiencies, (3) voluntary social introversion, (4) social alienation, (5)
communication anxiety, (6) low social self-esteem, (7) ethnic/cultural divergence in
communication norms. While communication apprehension is but one of these factors,
the others can lead to communication apprehension.

Daly (1991: 5) presents five explanations in the development of CA which can

offer an insight into the issue of understanding what causes language anxiety for
EFL/ESL learners. In the first place, he explains CA in terms of ‘genetic disposition’
indicating that one’s genetic legacy may be a substantial contributor to one’s anxiety.
Later in 1997, McCroskey (cited in Apaibanditkul, 2006: 4) stated the same: that
children seem to be born with certain personality predispositions towards CA. Secondly,
he explains CA in terms of reinforcement and punishment related to the act of
communication. He asserts that individuals who, from early childhood, are greeted with
negative reactions from others in response to their attempt to communicate develop a
sense that staying quiet is more highly rewarded than talking. This can suggest,
according to behaviourist learning methodology, that the negative reactions to learners’
errors by language instructors can reinforce their fear of making mistakes and future
attempts to communicate. (See appendix (2) for more detail about behaviourist theory.)
Related to this cause is the inconsistent and random pattern of rewards, punishments,
and nonresponses for engaging in the same verbal activity. Another explanation Daly
(1991: 5) focuses on is the adequacy of people’s early communication skills acquisition.

12
Children who receive a wealth of early experience of talking are more likely to be less
apprehensive than those who receive less opportunities of communication. The last
perspective he emphasizes is that the children who have been exposed to appropriate
social–interactive models of communication are generally less apprehensive than those
who have been exposed to inadequate or less interactive models. All these five
explanations suggest that development of CA in individuals results from nature or their
surroundings.

In case of situational CA, the causes are numerous. According to Richmond

and McCroskey “these causes vary from one person to another or from one situation to
another” (1998: cited in Apaibanditkul, 2006: 4). Buss (1980, cited in 2006: 4) lists
novelty, formality, subordinate status, conspicuousness, unfamiliarity, dissimilarity, and
degree of attention as the major sources of situational CA.

Communication apprehension obviously plays a large role in second/foreign

language anxiety. People who are apprehensive speaking in dyads or groups are likely
to be even in more trouble when doing so in a second/foreign language class, where “in
addition to feeling less in control of the communicative situation, they also may feel that
their attempts at oral work are constantly being monitored” (Horwitz, et al., 1986: 127).
This apprehension is explained in relation to the learner’s negative self-perceptions
caused by the inability to understand others and make himself understood (MacIntyre &
Gardner, 1989: cited in Ohata, 2005: 137). McCroskey (cited in Apaibanditkul, 2006: 4)
labels this kind of apprehension - which Neer refers to as “apprehension about
classroom participation” (1987: cited in, 2006: 4) - as classroom communication
apprehension (CCA). The emphasis on group work and oral presentation in the modern
communicative classroom can be particularly exacerbating for students who have
communication apprehension (Shams, 2006: 9).

(b) Test Anxiety

An understanding of test anxiety is also pertinent to the discussion of foreign
language anxiety. Test anxiety, as explained by Horwitz et al. (1986), “refers to a type
of performance anxiety stemming from a fear of failure”. Test anxiety is quite pervasive
in language classrooms because of its continuous performance evaluative nature.

13
Unfortunately, for highly anxious students, second/foreign languages, more than any
other academic subject, require continual evaluation by the instructor – the only fluent
speaker in the class (1986: 129). It is also important to note that oral testing has the
potential to provoke both test and oral communication anxiety simultaneously in
susceptible students (1986: 127).

(C) Fear of Negative Evaluation

Fear of negative evaluation is an extension of the second component (test
anxiety) of second/foreign language anxiety because it is not limited to test-taking
situations; rather, it may occur in any social, evaluative situation, such as interviewing
for a job or speaking in second/foreign language class (Horwitz et al., 1986: 127). It is
also broader in the sense that it pertains not only to the teacher’s evaluation of the
students but also to the perceived reaction of other students as well (Shams, 2006: 10).

Horwitz et al. (1986: 127-128) believe that, although communication

apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation provide useful conceptual
building blocks for a description of second/foreign language anxiety, it is more than just
the conglomeration of these three components: “we conceive foreign language anxiety
as a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to
classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning
process”. What makes language learning a distinct and unique process is its interaction
with the concept of ‘self’.
2.3 Section II
Factors Associated with Learner’s own Sense of ‘Self’ and ‘Language Classroom

Environment’

The previous section has established the conceptual basis of language anxiety
with relation to its three components. All the three components are strongly linked with
learners’ sense of ‘self’, as it is learners’ ‘self’ which is at risk of failure or being
negatively evaluated in any test-like situation or a situation which requires
communication in front of others. This risk to one’s sense of ‘self’ frequently occurs in
a L2/FL classroom. This section reviews literature on language anxiety related to
learners’ sense of ‘self’ and ‘language classroom environment’.

14
2.3.1 Self Perceptions
According to Horwitz et al. (1986: 128), perhaps no other field of study poses as
much of a threat to self-concept as language study does. They believe that any
performance in L2 is likely to challenge an individual’s self-concept as a competent
communicator, which may lead to embarrassment. Self-concept is “the totality of an
individual’s thoughts, perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and values having reference to
himself as object” (Laine, 1987: 15). This self-concept forms the basis of the distinction,
made by Horwitz et al. (1986: 128), between language anxiety and other forms of
academic anxieties. They posited, “the importance of the disparity between the ‘true’ or
‘actual’ self as known to the language learner and the more limited self as can be
presented at any given moment in the foreign language would seem to distinguish
foreign language anxiety from other academic anxieties such as those associated with
mathematics or science” (1986: 128).

The term 1 ‘self-esteem’ has been used in much the same meaning as ‘self-
concept’ and has been found to be strongly linked with language anxiety. Krashen (1980,
15: cited in Young, 1991: 427) suggests, “the more I think about self-esteem, the more
impressed I am about its impact. This is what causes anxiety in a lot of people. People
with low self-esteem worry about what their peers think; they are concerned with
pleasing others. And that I think has to do a great degree with anxiety”. Individuals who
have high levels of self-esteem are lees likely to be anxious than are those with low self-
esteem (Horwitz et al., 1986: 129). According to Terror Management Theory (TMT),
“People are motivated to maintain a positive self-image because self-esteem protects
them from anxiety” (Greenberg et al., 1992: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 229).

2.3.2 Learners’ Beliefs about Language Learning

As language learning poses a threat to learners’ self-concept, in response learners
may generate some particular beliefs about language learning and its use. Research on
‘language anxiety’ suggests that certain beliefs about language learning also contribute
to the student’s tension and frustration in the class (Horwitz et al., 1986: 127). For
example, the followings are such reported beliefs:

1
‘Self-esteem’, refers to “a person’s evaluative attitudes towards self and indicates the extent to which an
individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful, and worthy” (Laine, 1987: 16).

15
 “I just know I have some kind of disability: I can’t learn a foreign language
no matter how hard I try.”
(Horwitz et al. 1986: 123)

“Russian is too hard. I’ll never be able to learn Russian enough to go to

Russia and talk to people”
(Tittle, 1997: 15)

Such beliefs have been found to cast a considerable influence upon the ultimate
achievement and performance in the target language. The researchers use terms such as
‘erroneous’ or ‘irrational’ to indicate certain widely held “beliefs about language
learning which can be a source of anxiety” (Gynan, 1989: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al.,
1999: 220). Horwitz (1988: cited in Ohata, 2005: 138) noted that a number of beliefs
derived from learner’s irrational and unrealistic conceptions about language learning,
such as 1) some students believe that accuracy must be sought before saying anything in
the foreign language, 2) some attach great importance to speaking with excellent native
(L1)-like accent, 3) others believe that it is not ok to guess an unfamiliar second/foreign
language word, 4) some hold that language learning is basically an act of translating
from English or any second/foreign language, 5) some view that two years are sufficient
in order to gain fluency in the target language, 6) some believe that language learning is
a special gift not possessed by all. Similarly, Gynan (1989, cited in Onwuegbuzie et al.,
1999: 221) reported that learners believe that pronunciation is the most important
aspect of language learning.

These unrealistic perceptions or beliefs on language learning and achievement

can lead to frustration or anger towards students’ own poor performance in a
second/foreign language. According to Young (1991: 428), erroneous beliefs about
language learning can contribute greatly to creating language anxiety in students. In his
review of literature on language anxiety, Ohata (2005: 138) explained that unrealistic
beliefs can lead to greater anxiety and frustration, especially when the beliefs and reality
clash. He elaborates that if the learners start learning an L2/FL with the belief that
pronunciation is the single most important aspect of language learning, they will

16
naturally feel frustrated to find the reality of their poor speech pronunciation even after
learning and practicing for a long time. These beliefs are most likely to originate from
learners’ perfectionist nature. The perfectionist learners like to speak flawlessly, with no
grammar or pronunciation errors, and as easily as an L1 speaker – these high or ideal
standards create an ideal situation for the development of language anxiety (Frost,
Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990: cited in Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002: 564). (See
appendix (3) for more detailed description of perfectionism.)

2.3.3 Instructors Beliefs about Language Teaching

Just like learners’ beliefs about language learning, some instructor’s beliefs
about language learning and teaching have also been found to be a source of anxiety.
Brandl (1987: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 220) asserted that instructors’ belief
that their role is to correct rather than to facilitate students when they make mistakes
exacerbates second/foreign language anxiety in students. Further, he stated that the
majority of instructors considered their role to be “less a counselor and friend and
objected to a too friendly and inauthoritative student-teacher relationship”. The
researchers also reported that students realize that some error corrections are necessary
but they consistently report anxiety over responding incorrectly and looking or sounding
‘dumb’ or ‘inept’ (Koch and Terrell, Horwitz, 1986, 1988, and Young, 1990: cited in
Young 1991: 429). Young (1991: 429), realizing this phenomenon, stated that the
problem for the students is “not necessarily error correction but the manner of error
correction – when, how often, and most importantly, how errors are corrected”.

In addition to error correction, some instructors have been reported not to

promote pair or group work in fear that the class may get out of control, and think that a
teacher should be doing most of the talking and teaching, and that their role is more like
a drill sergeant’s than a facilitator’s; these beliefs have been found to contribute to
learner’s language anxiety (Young, 1991: 428). Recognition or awareness of these
beliefs by both the learners, as well as the teachers, is essential for effective alleviation
of language anxiety in learners.

17
2.3.4 Classroom Procedure
Different activities in the classroom procedure, particularly ones that demand
students to speak in front of the whole class, have been found to be the most anxiety
provoking. For instance, Koch and Terrell (1991, cited in Horwitz, 2001: 118) found
that more than half of their subjects in their Natural Approach classes – a language
teaching method specifically designed to reduce learner’s anxiety – expressed that
giving a presentation in the class, oral skits and discussion in large groups are the most
anxiety-producing activities. They also found that students get more anxious when
called upon to respond individually, ratherthan if they are given choice to respond
voluntarily. In addition, students were found to be more relaxed speaking the target
language when paired with a classmate or put into small groups of three to six than into
larger groups of seven to fifteen students. Similarly, Young (1991: 429) found that more
than sixty-eight percent of her subjects reported feeling more comfortable when they did
not have to get in front of the class to speak. Earlier, Horwitz et al. (1986: 123) reported
the same:

“Sometimes when I speak English in class, I am so afraid I feel like

hiding behind my chair. When I am in my Spanish class I just freeze! I
can’t think of any thing when my teacher calls on me. My mind goes
blank.”
(Horwitz et al. 1986: 123)

This suggests that any measure to treat language anxiety should not fail to exploit
learning environments where students feel relatively free of anxiety (Jones, 2004: 34).
For this, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approaches are often recommended
by the researchers to provide such an unthreatening environment where students talk to
one another and not exclusively to the teacher. This is deemed necessary because “the
rapport [the student] feels with the teacher as well as with….. classmates may be crucial
in determining the success or failure of the venture [practice in communication]”
(Svignon, 1972, p. 67: cited in Smimy, 1994: 30). It indicates that arousal of anxiety
reactions is also likely to occur in interpersonal relations or communication. (See
appendix (4) for more detail about anxiety in Interpersonal Relations.)

18
 2.4 Section III

Three Stages of Language Learning

The previous sections have reviewed the findings of the past research on language
anxiety and its three basic components to establish the conceptual foundations of the
topic along with some causal factors within the learner’s own sense of ‘self’ and
‘classroom setting’. This section discusses the psychological and linguistic reasons of
language anxiety that occurs at all the three stages of language learning: input,
processing, and output.

It is a fact that communication in L2/FL requires second/foreign language

learning (MacIntyre & Baker, 2003: 67). However, the complexities or difficulties
involved in the process of learning a second/foreign language may also cause language
anxiety for EFL/ESL learners. From a linguistic perspective, “students’ anxiety about
L2/FL learning is likely to be a consequence of their language learning difficulties”
(Sparks, Ganschow, & Javorsky, 2000: 251). Appropriate use of ‘linguistic knowledge’-
a part of the definition of ‘speaking skills’- is required to create an oral message that
will be meaningful for the intended audience (Chastain 1988: cited in Arnold, 2003: 1).
In their attempt to create and convey this oral message, an insufficient command of
linguistic knowledge enhances the possibilities of making mistakes, which leads to
negative evaluation and hence anxiety. In other words, “in the consciousness of the
learner, the negative evaluation of the learner may come from the linguistics mistakes
he/she makes” (Jones, 2004: 32).

Language anxiety has been theorized to occur at all the three stages of language
learning: input, processing and output. The description of these three stages with
relation to anxiety will point out why L2/FL learners make mistakes and the reasons of
linguistic difficulties L2/FL learners face in learning and using the target language. This
can offer an insight to help understand anxiety experienced while communicating in the
target language.

19
2.4.1 Input

Input is the first stage of language learning. It activates ‘Language Acquisition

Device’ (LAD) – an innate language-specific module in the brain (Chomsky cited in
Lightbown & Spada, 2006: 38), which carries out the further process of language
learning. Anxiety at the input stage (input anxiety) refers to the anxiety experienced by
the learners when they encounter a new word or phrase in the target language. Input
anxiety is receiver’s apprehension when receiving information from auditory and visual
clues.
Krashen (1985: 3), considering input as a basic stage of language learning,
asserted in his ‘Input Hypothesis’ that “speech cannot be taught directly but emerges on
its own as a result of building competence via comprehensible input”. What causes
incomprehensibility is learners’ ‘affective filter’, i.e. anxiety or lack of confidence – and
this prevents utilizing fully the comprehensible input. For successful language
acquisition, a learner’s affective filter needs to be lower, otherwise a tense, nervous or
bored learner may ‘filter out’ input, making it unavailable for acquisition (Lightbown &
Spada, 2006: 37).

‘Affective filter’ at the input stage may reduce the effectiveness of input by
restricting the anxious students’ ability to pay full attention to what their instructors say
and reduce their ability to represent input internally (Tobias, 1977: cited in
Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000: 475). Learners’ with high level of input anxiety request their
instructors to repeat sentences quite frequently compared to their low-anxious
counterparts (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994b: cited in 2000: 475). Input anxiety is more
likely to cause miscomprehension of the message sent by the interlocutors, which may
lead to the loss of successful communication and an increased level of anxiety.

2.4.2 Processing
Anxiety at the processing stage, called processing anxiety, refers to the
“apprehension students experience when performing cognitive operations on new
information” (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000: 476). Cognitivists like Segalowitz (2003: cited
in Lightbown and Spada: 2006: 39) working on the ‘Information Processing Model’
have tried to explore how these cognitive operations are performed in human brain and

20
have explained the learners’ inability to spontaneously use everything they know about
a language at a given time.

These psychologists believe that learners have to process information and to

‘pay attention’ to produce any linguistic aspect by using cognitive sources. However,
they suggest that there is a limit to how much information a learner can pay attention to
or, in other words, there is a limit to the amount of focused mental activity a learner can
engage in at one time (2006: 39). Speaking, particularly in the target language, requires
more than one mental activity at one time like “choosing words, pronouncing them, and
stringing them together with the appropriate grammatical markers”, etc. (2006: 39). In
order to perform these operations while communicating “complex and nonspontaneous
mental operations are required” and failure to do so may “lead to reticence, self-
consciousness, fear, or even panic” (Horwitz et al., 1986: 128). Similarly, with respect
to listening, Chen (2005: 10) reported that students face difficulties in recognizing and
matching the pronunciation of the spoken words due to the slow mental processing
abilities of some students. “The pronunciation is familiar to me but I forgot what the
word is”, as one of his subjects said. (See appendix (5) for more detail related to
learners’ listening difficulties.)

Where limited processing mental capacity may cause anxiety, conversely,

anxiety may restrict this operational capacity of the mind, and both together may cause
impaired performance or altered behaviour. Researchers have found a recursive or
cyclical relationship among anxiety, cognition and behaviour (Leary, 1990; Levitt, 1980:
cited in MacIntyre, 1995: 92).

21
 Anxiety

Behaviour Cognition

Figure: 2 Recursive relations among anxiety, cognition and

behaviour

Source: MacIntyre 1995, p. 93,

Figure: 2 shows that anxiety, behaviour and cognition are mutually inter-related.
MacIntyre (1995) explains this relationship as follow:

For example, a demand to answer a question in a second

language class may cause a student to become anxious; anxiety leads to
worry and rumination. Cognition performance is diminished because of
the divided attention and therefore performance suffers, leading to
negative self-evaluations and more self deprecating cognition which
further impairs performance, and so on. (p. 92)

The Cognitive Processing Model can also explain the difficulty learners feel in
remembering and retrieving vocabulary items while communicating in the target
language - another important source of language anxiety for the EFL/ESL learners.
MacIntyre and Gardner (1991b, cited in MacIntyre, 1995: 93), found a significant
negative correlation between language anxiety and ability to repeat a short string of
numbers and to recall vocabulary items. This demonstrates that anxiety can limit the use

22
of both short term and long term memory. According to Tobias (1977, cited in
Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000: 475), “processing anxiety can impede learning by reducing
the efficiency with which memory processes are used to solve problems”.

2.4.3 Output

Anxiety while communicating in the target language is more likely to appear at

the output stage, which entirely depends upon the successful completion of the previous
stages: input, and processing. Anxiety at the output stage refers to learners’ nervousness
or fear experienced when required to demonstrate their ability to use previously learned
material (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000: 475). According to Tobias output anxiety involves
interference, which is manifested after the completion of the processing stage but before
its effective reproduction as output (1977: cited in 2000: 475). ManIntyre and Gardner
asserted, “High level of anxiety at this stage might hinder students’ ability to speak… in
the target language” (1994b, cited in: 2000: 475).

All the three stages of anxiety have been found to be somewhat interdependent;
each stage depends on the successful completion of the previous one, which may help
defining language-learning process as follows:

Language learning is a cognitive activity that relies on

encoding, storage, and retrieval processes, and anxiety can interfere
with each of these by creating a divided attention scenario for anxious
students. Anxious students are focused on both the task at hand and
their reactions to it. For example, when responding to a question in a
class, the anxious student is focused on answering the teacher’s
question and evaluating the social implications of the answer while
giving it (MacIntyre, 1995: 96).

In short, “acquisition of deviant linguistic forms”, as Krashen (1985: 46)

believes or faulty input and “slow and nonspontaneous mental processes” (Horwitz,
2001: 114) can explain the difficulties involved in the process of L2/FL learning. This
further demonstrates the sources/causes of anxiety experienced by the ESL/EFL
learners at the output stage, particularly while speaking in the target language. The

23
description of this process can suggest many implications for language teachers who
demand quick answers or expect learners to speak fluently. Teachers’ or learners’ own
expectations to speak fluently and the slow process in the mind result in apprehension
and reticence in the learner.

2.5 Section IV

Socio-cultural Factors
Language anxiety stems primarily from social and communicative aspects of
language learning and therefore can be considered as one of the social
anxieties.
(MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989, 1991b: cited in MacIntyre,1995: 91)

In the previous section, it has been viewed that difficulties in leaning L2/FL can
explain the potential causes of language anxiety at the output stage of language learning
within the classroom setting. However, language anxiety may also be an outcome of
social and communicative aspects of language learning. This section reviews the
literature on language anxiety from a socio-cultural perspective of language learning
and its use.

2.5.1 Social Environnent for L2/FL Acquisition

L2 or FL can take place in two different kinds of social environments: a) where

the target language is not used as L1 in the community, and b) where it is used as L1.
The first kind of environment provides L2/FL learners only limited and sometimes
faulty input. As Krashen (1985: 46) states, for such learners, “the only input is teachers’
or classmates’ talk - both do not speak L2 well”. Learners in such environments are
exposed to the language only in the classroom where they spend less time in contact
with the language, covering a smaller discourse type. The limited exposure to the target
language and lack of opportunities to practice speaking in such environments do not let
the communicative abilities of L2/FL learners fully develop and result into
embarrassment or stress for them when they are required to speak both in and out of the
class.

24
 In contrast, the second kind of environment provides learners with greater
exposure to the target language. However, even in this case, some researchers’ view that
learners’ use of cognitive skills and metalinguistic awareness (world and social
knowledge) may interfere with language learning and they may not be able to achieve
native (L1)-like proficiency as is gained by a child (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 30).
Krashen explains this child-adult difference in ultimate attainment in terms of the
strength of ‘affective filter’. He believes that ‘affective filter’ may exist for the child
L2/FL acquirer but it is rarely high enough to prevent L1-like levels of attainment, and
for adults, it rarely goes down enough to allow L1-like attainment. Older learners may
have increased inhabitations and anxiety and may find themselves afraid to make errors
(Richard, 1996: 2).

2.5.2 Errors in Social Setting

Although it is axiomatic that language learning cannot be without errors, errors

can be a source of anxiety in some individuals because they draw attention to the
difficulty of making positive social impressions when speaking a new language
(MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989: cited in Horwitz & Gregersen, 2002: 562). Errors in social
settings are mostly overlooked if they do not interfere with meaning because people
consider it impolite to interrupt and correct somebody who is trying to have a
conversation with them. Interlocutors only react to an error if they cannot understand
the speech and try to adjust their speech with the speaker in their effort to negotiate for
meaning (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 32). It is only in the classroom environment that
feedback on errors is provided frequently; this leads many learners to frustration and
embarrassment by making them conscious about their deficiencies.

2.5.3 Social Status, Power Relations and a Sense of Identity

From a socio-cultural perspective, status is an important consideration in

people’s interaction with one another in social relationships. Within any social context,
there exists a status relationship between interlocutors that carries a significant impact
on language and language use and this is an important aspect of social interaction, for
example, “what can be said, the ways it can be said, and possibly, what language to use,
and even how much must be said” (Carrier, 1999: 70). Carrier, considering the role of

25
status on L2 listening comprehension, asserts that the listener must consider the status
relationship as part of the social context in order to determine the appropriateness of the
verbal behaviour for delivering the response to the spoken messages. In addition, he
raises a crucial question as to whether in face-to-face interaction receiver apprehension
(anxiety) can be triggered by the particular status relationship between the interlocutors
(p. 69). He states:

The effects of status in terms of perceived power over another

can also effectively silence a person in a conversation; for example,
where there are large power differentials, as in White-Black relations
in South Africa, the potential threat of loss of face may cause the
person of lower of status to do nothing in the conversation even when
instructions are not fully understood.
(Chick, 1985: cited in Carrier, 1999: 72).

Sociolinguists posit that social relationships can have a deep impact on

conversational interaction. Wolfson (1989: 131), in her Theory of Social Interaction,
postulates that inequality of status or social distance “disfavour attempts at negotiation”.
Leary & Kowalski (1995: 1), working on the construct of ‘social anxiety’, also assert
that, when speaking in interaction with one’s boss, someone high in status or power,
and also when dealing with complete strangers, feeling of anxiety, uncertainty and
awkwardness are often the consequence of such encounters. Similarly, studies of
classroom interaction on the pattern of social relationship found that the social
relationship between teachers and students gives them an unequal status relationship as
interlocutors that can hinder “successful second language comprehension, production,
and ultimately acquisition” (Pica, 1987: 4). Earlier research of Doughty and Pica (1986:
cited in Carrier, 1999: 74) also showed that there was less interaction when the
relationship was unequal, such as, teacher-to-students, than when the relationship was
equal, for instance, student-to-student. A sense of power, social distance and self-
identity exists in interaction between L1 and L2/FL speakers, as reported by Peirce:

26
 I feel uncomfortable using English in the group of people whose English
language is their mother tongue because they speak fluently with out any
problems and I feel inferior
(Peirce, 1995: 21).
In such an interaction, L2/FL speakers may feel anxious due to the fear of social
embarrassment and a threat to their social identity. Language, in this regard, seems
crucial because it is used to convey this identity to other people. Particularly when
speaking in a second/foreign language “our self image becomes more vulnerable when
our expression is reduced to infantilised levels, which inevitably leads to anxiety”
(Arnold, 2000: 3). L2/FL speakers’ fear of losing self-identity and retaining positive
self-image is aggravated when their attitudes towards the target language community
and culture are hostile (Dewaele, 2002: 26). (See appendix (6) for more detail about the
role of attitudes.)

2.5.4 Intercultural/Interethnic Communication Apprehension (ICA)

Communication anxiety can also be triggered during intercultural or interethnic
communication. When a person interacts with people of other cultures and encounters
cultural differences, he or she inclines to view people as strangers. Situation of this kind
may lead to intercultural communication apprehension; this can be defined as “the fear
or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated interaction with people of different
groups, especially cultural and ethnic and/or racial groups” (Neuliep & McCroskey,
1997: 145).

ICA is more likely to occur in initial acquaintance. Gudykunst (1995, cited

in Carrier, 1999: 71), in his Uncertainty Management Theory, maintains (a) that
initial uncertainty and anxiety about another’s attitudes and feelings in a
conversational interaction are the basic factors influencing communication between
individuals and (b) that uncertainty inhibits effective communication. Neuliep &
Ryan (1998: 93) identify several potential factors that could influence intercultural
communication by summarizing previous work on ICA. (See figure 2.)

27
Figure: 2. Potential Effects on Inter-Cultural Communication Apprehension
Source: Neuliep & Ryan (1998)

Figure 2 indicates that one’s ability to cope with anxiety and uncertainty can
result in effective intercultural communication (Gudykunst, 1995: cited in Kwok et al.,
2001: 3). Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) posits that when two people interact for
the first time, uncertainty exists (Berger and Calabrese, 1975: cited in 2001: 3).
Furthermore, Kwok et al. (2001: 3) state that the higher people perceive an uncertainty,
the higher they feel anxiety. Gudykunst (1988; 1995: cited in 2001: 4) found that there
are at least five factors that may influence the amount of uncertainty experienced by
interactants during an intercultural communication: (1) expectations; (2) social
identities; (3) degree of similarities between interactants; (4) shared communicative
networks; and (5) the interpersonal salience of the contact with ‘stranger’. Suggesting
how this type of anxiety can be controlled, McCroskey and Richmond (1996, cited in

28
2001: 4) claim that assertiveness and responsiveness, as two dimensions of socio-
communication orientation, may reduce intercultural communication apprehension.

2.5.5 Gender

Gender has also been found to cause anxiety in male and female interaction both
within and out of the classroom settings. Carrier (1999: 70) states that past research has
revealed that gender affects communication between L2/FL dyads and L1 and L2/FL
speaker dyads (e.g., Pica, Holliday, Lewis, Berducci, & Newman, 1991, cited in 1999:
70). He deems it necessary to consider whether the gender of the L1 speaker
interlocutor has an effect on the listening comprehension of the L2/FL speaker
interlocutor.

Gobel and Matsuda (2003) asserted that gender-related anxiety research has
yielded conflicting results. Spielberger (1983: 19), in her study on state anxiety found,
“females are more emotionally stable than males in their reactions to highly stressful
and relaxing circumstances”. Similarly, in Kitano’s study (2001, cited in Gobel and
Matsuda, 2003: 23) of Japanese college students, male students have been found to feel
more anxiety when they perceived their spoken Japanese less competent than that of
others; however, such a relationship was not observed among female students. On the
contrary, Machida (2001: cited in 2003: 23) examined FL Japanese language class
anxiety based on gender and found that female learners are more anxious than male
counterparts.
2.6 Section V

Manifestation of Language Anxiety and Its Effective Reduction

2.6.1 Manifestation
SLA researchers and foreign language teachers have decoded a number of
symptoms and behaviours manifested in anxious learners. Negative consequences of
language anxiety manifest in the form of changed behaviour, such as responding less
effectively to language errors (Gregersen, 2003: cited in Gregersen, 2007: 210);
engaging in negative self-talk and ruminating over poor performance, which affects
information processing abilities (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994: 285); exhibiting

29
avoidance behaviour by missing class, having unrealistic high performance standards
(Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002: 563); freezing up in role play activities, participating
infrequently (Horwitz et al., 1986: 129); and ultimately receiving low course grades
(Gardner, 1985: cited in Gregersen, 2007: 210). In addition, Harrigan et al. (2004: cited
in 2007: 210) posited that anxiety can be accurately decoded both through prosodic
(stress and intonation pattern), paralinguistic (non verbal) features of vocal
communication and through visual non-verbal cues. Gregersen (2005, cited in 2007:
210) in her study on nonverbal behaviour of anxious and non-anxious language learners
found that “anxious learners manifested limited facial activity, including brow
behaviour and smiling, maintained less eye contact with the teacher, and were more
rigid and closed with their posture”. (See appendix (7) for more signs of students’
anxiety and Leary’s three categories of behaviour arising from social anxiety.)

2.6.2 Alleviation of Foreign/Second Language Anxiety

Identifying anxiety producing factors for L2/FL learners and recognizing learner
manifestations of this anxiety while communicating in the target language are important
first steps in coping with language anxiety. An extensive body of research has suggested
a variety of strategies to cope with language anxiety in academic settings, which can
also offer an understanding of how to deal with it in the broader social contexts. In
general, the remediation of such anxiety has focused on cognitive, affective, and
behavioural approaches (Hembree, 1988, p. 67: cited in Ying-Ling & Kondo: 2004:
259). The cognitive approach holds that the thinking disturbances that occur in the
classroom are the primary sources of anxiety. The researchers recommend a ‘cognitive
modification (CM)’ method for its treatment which focuses on changing the students’
own cognitive appraisals (Mejias et al., 1991, 97). Students are encouraged to develop
more positive and facilitating self-talk and are taught to manage their self-evaluation
more realistically. The affective approach attempts to change the negative involuntary
association between the classroom and anxiety, and assumes that emotional arousal
(physiological responsiveness) is the main concern (Ying-Ling & Kondo, 2004: 259).
Researchers suggest taking steps to control bodily reactions and stress in order to
alleviate anxiety and recommend systematic desensitization therapy (SDT) as a
treatment method. The students are taught how to relax in the presence of the anxiety
stimuli and, thus, the anxiety is reduced in the subsequent oral communication situations

30
(Mejias et al., 1991, 97). Those who take the behavioural approach presume poor
academic skills as the main source of anxiety (Ying-Ling & Kondo, 2004: 259). For its
treatment, the researchers recommend skills training (ST) method where the students are
taught the behavioural skills required for success in particular oral communication
context (Mejias et al., 1991: 97).

Research on language anxiety suggests a variety of techniques to reduce or

successfully cope with language anxiety. Foss and Reitzel (cited in Young, 1991: 430)
hold that the recognition of students’ irrational beliefs or fears and their unrealistic
expectations can help students interpret anxiety-producing situations more realistically
and adopt an approach rather than ‘avoiding behaviour’. They recommend verbalization
or articulation of any fears as a strategy to cope with language anxiety. Young (1990: 1)
also offered some suggestions in this regard such as; (1) using an anxiety graph to
pinpoint the highest level of anxiety of a given interaction; (2) for anxieties stemming
from learner’s personality, providing supplemental instruction or a support group; (3)
for anxieties stemming from classroom procedures, using more pair and group work; (4)
playing language games with an emphasis on problem-solving; and (5) role-playing
with preparatory activities to instill class rapport. Furthermore, he found that the
students felt more at ease when the instructors’ manner of error correction was not harsh
and when they were friendly, patient, and had a good sense of humour. So, it can also be
suggested that equal status relationship between teacher and student is an important
aspect for anxiety alleviation. Hauck and Hurd (2005) offered a list of eleven such
strategies; See appendix (8) for the list.)

2.7 Summary of the Chapter

The chapter has reviewed the past research on the construct of language anxiety,
which has been asserted as inconclusive and unresolved by the researchers, and has tried
to present the literature on the theoretical contentions of language anxiety proposed by
Horwitz et al., (1986) with relation to three performance related anxieties:
communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. These three
components have been further expanded with the help of relevant literature in order to
highlight some anxiety exasperating factors related to them. The chapter has also
discussed learners’ perceptions about their own sense of ‘self’, about language learning

31
and communication, students’ high performance expectations, and language instructors’
beliefs and overall classroom procedure with relation to L2/FL anxiety. In the later parts,
the chapter has looked at the three stages of language learning: input, processing, and
output, in order to explain the difficulties EFL/ESL learners may face in learning to
speak a second/foreign language. It has been found that lack of sufficient input for
learning FL/L2 in the environment where the target language is not the first language,
and lack of opportunities to frequently process the limited (sometimes filled with errors)
input, can cause language anxiety at the output (speaking) stage for ESL/EFL learners.
The chapter has also explored the literature on socio-cultural aspects of language
learning and has discussed social status, power relations and sense of identity, L1 and
L2/FL speakers’ interaction, attitudes towards target language and its culture,
intercultural communication, and gender as some of the factors linked with language
anxiety. In addition, the literature on how anxiety is manifested in the learners and how
it can be aptly allayed has also been reviewed in the final section of this chapter.

32
 CHAPETR 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Qualitative Study

Feelings of tension or nervousness - as Horwitz et al. (1986) define ‘language
anxiety’ while learning and speaking a second/foreign language - is a subjective
experience, which varies from individual to individual. In order to capture the diverse
range of subjects’ experiences, a qualitative approach was considered an appropriate
strategy as “it begins with individuals and sets out to understand and interpret their
experiences of a particular phenomenon” (Cohen et al., 2000: 23). How students
experience language anxiety, what they think are the causes of such an experience, and
how teachers perceive this phenomenon was investigated using qualitative research
strategy. This allows the researcher to understand the subjective world of human
experience by making an effort to get inside the person and to understand from within
(2000: 22).

3.2 Rationale of choosing Qualitative Strategy

Investigations of second/foreign language anxiety have been, for the most part,
quantitative studies, primarily correlational studies (Price, 1991: 101). In a series of
these correlational studies, the researchers have been unable to draw a clear picture of
the relationship between anxiety and overall language acquisition, performance and
proficiency (see Horwitz, 1986; Scovel, 1991; Ellis, 1994; Tittle, 1997; Horwitz, 2001).

A different approach to studying the construct of language anxiety is needed in

order to gain deeper insight into the issue. One such approach is the qualitative research
that was used in this study, as it allows the researchers to obtain descriptive information
on variables not easily assessed through empirical research and can provide a way to
view phenomena from the point of view of the subject (Price, 1991: 101).

3.3 Participants
The twenty subjects in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) Unit and
Department of Education at the University of Glasgow, who participated in this research

33
can be divided into three categories: 1) ESL/EFL learners; 2) highly experienced
ESL/EFL teachers; 3) ESL/EFL practitioners (they were also experienced teachers, as
mentioned in chapter 1, who had been practicing teaching English in their home
countries). Of the twenty subjects, nine were males and eleven were females. Their age
ranged between twenty two to sixty. The teaching experience of both teachers and
practitioners ranged between one to thirty seven years in various contexts. (see appendix
(9), category (1), (2), and (3) for details about participants).

The six ESL/EFL learners (one female, five males) were enrolled in the pre-
entry programme in the EFL Unit at intermediate/upper intermediate (IELTS 5.5), upper
intermediate/lower advanced (IELTS 6), and advanced (IELTS 6 +) levels. They had
completed approximately eight months of this English language programme and had
been learning English in their home countries for approximately six to nine years. Two
students from each level were selected in order to get a range of experiences related to
language anxiety at different levels of language learning.

The eleven ESL/EFL practitioners (eight females and three males) were enrolled
in M.Ed English Language Teaching (ELT) programme in the Department of
Educational Studies at Glasgow University. The three experienced ESL/EFL teachers
(two females and one male) were currently teaching in the EFL Unit. The rationale of
including them in this study was two fold; first, to gain more relevant and in-depth data
because of their wealth of teaching experience across the globe and, second, to gain
additional guidance in order to ensure that the research was being conducted
appropriately.

3.4 Instruments
Considering the constraints, like limited time period and the fact that only one
researcher was undertaking this study, it was considered most appropriate and beneficial
to carryout semi-structured and focus-group interviews in order to reach the core of the
matter rather than administrating questionnaires. Furthermore, written questions are
somewhat rigid in nature and the complete lack of personal contact prohibits
verifications of views and knowledge.

34
3.5 Interviews
Similar to the interview studies by Price (1991), Young (1992) and Ohata (2005)
concerning the perspectives of students, language specialists and language teachers on
language anxiety respectively, this study also used a qualitative semi-structured
interview format to investigate the factors that cause language anxiety from students’,
ESL/EFL teachers’ and practitioners’ perspectives.

The rationale behind the use of interview as a data collection tool was that it can
provide access to things that cannot be directly observed, such as feelings, thoughts,
intentions, or beliefs (Merriam, 1998: cited in Ohata, 2005: 140). It also provides
participants with opportunities to select, reconstruct, and reflect upon details of their
experience within the specific context of their lives (2005: 141).

Given that the primary goal of this study was to explore the sources of language
anxiety, interviews seemed appropriate as a means to understand the experiences of the
subjects about language anxiety because they allow for given points to be clarified and
elaborated upon where required. Two types of interviews were conducted: individual,
and group interviews.

3.5.1 Individual Interviews

A semi-structured face-to-face interview technique was preferred as it was
essential to ensure that the researcher was “in a position of being able to access the
degree of the interviewee’s interest and involvement” (Robson, 2000: 90). It was also
appropriate because of “its flexibility balanced by structure and the quality of the data
so obtained” (Gillham 2005: 70).

Initially nine subjects, including six language learners and three teachers, were
individually interviewed within the period of two weeks. Later the four ESL/EFL
practitioners who could not participate in the focus group discussion were also
individually interviewed. The interview lasted approximately 15-20 minutes. All the
interviews were conducted in English and were tape-recorded with the subject’s
permission. Initially, the subjects were asked open-ended questions to establish a

35
rapport with the subjects. Later, a semi-structured question format was used as a
guideline to ask questions and to encourage the interviewees to talk in their own way.
The interviews contained a balance of open and closed questions, the latter asserting the
control of the interviewer, the former offering the interviewees a wide range of choice
within a question. (see Appendix (10) and (11) for interview questions.)

3.5.2 Focus Group Interviews

The group interview technique in the form of focus group discussion was also
utilized to lend breadth and richness to the data. Its implication was that “group
interviews can provide different kinds of data from individual interviews” (Gillham,
2005: 61). Instead of asking questions to each person in turn, “participants are
encouraged to talk to one another: asking questions, exchanging anecdotes, and
commenting on each others’ experiences and views, and thus generating data through
interaction” (Barbour & Kitzinger, 1999: 4). To keep the discussion on track, a group
leader moderates the discussion.

The eleven ESL/EFL practitioners were invited for focus group discussion.
Seven of them participated in the discussion and the rest, as mentioned above, were
individually interviewed. The discussion lasted about 40-50 minutes on questions
provided beforehand (see appendix (12) for focus group questions). These questions
were generated following the informal discussion with ESL/EFL students, teachers and
practitioners. The discussion proved very fruitful as the participants, being experienced
teachers (referred to as practitioners here), were themselves undergoing the process of
learning and teaching English both in L1 and L2/FL contexts and were well aware of
the phenomenon under discussion (some of them were teaching part-time in the UK).
The discussion was moderated by the researcher himself as a co-participant and an
attempt was made to ensure “an even participation” by encouraging the hesitant
participants “to make contribution, as well as managing those who seek to dominate the
proceedings” (Gillham, 2005: 66).

3.6 Procedure
Access to the potential subjects was made via course convenor of M.Ed. E.L.T.
and the relevant class teachers. During the initial contact with the participants, the

36
nature of the study was explained: that it was voluntary, and that all interviews would be
conducted in English and would be tape-recorded for accuracy and transcription
purposes. They were ensured that all the recordings would be deleted and the
information gained through them would be kept strictly confidential. For their
satisfaction, they were also informed that permission had been sought to contact them
from the Faculty of Education Ethics Committee of the Glasgow University. The
volunteer students were also scheduled for interviews. Afterwards, they were contacted
through mobile text messages, e.mails, and phone calls.

Access to the native and non-native teachers (M.Ed. E.L.T students) was
comparatively easier. They were contacted personally as well as through e-mails. In
order to ensure the participation, M.Ed. E.L.T students were also invited to a small
refreshment party after the focus group discussion. All the participants were given a
‘Plain Language Statement’ sheet, a ‘Consent Form’ (see Appendix (13) & (14)), and
the research and interview questions with some helping points to trigger their thoughts
about the topic. The signed consent forms were received prior to the interviews.

As a research procedure, the main areas to be covered were worked out in

advance and a presentation was given to an informed audience including M.Ed. E.L.T.
students, the supervisor of this study, and two teachers who were also supervising some
other students. Furthermore, prior to contacting research subjects, research, focus-group
and interview questions, were piloted in informal interviews and focus group discussion
and by sending them abroad electronically to some of the supervisor’s colleagues. The
purpose was to give the interviews a trial run and to glean information from the piloted
interviewees about how they interpreted and reacted to the questions posed. Then
refinements to the questions and interview schedule were made accordingly.

3.7 Data Analysis

The interview data was analysed and interpreted following the grounded theory
data analysis techniques and procedures. The grounded theory approach is a qualitative
research method that “uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively
derived grounded theory about a phenomenon” (Davidson, 2002: 1, accessed from
http://az.essortment.com/groundedtheory_rmnf.htm, 17/08/07). Its primary objective is

37
“to expand upon an explanation of a phenomenon (language anxiety) by identifying the
key elements of that phenomenon, and then categorizing the relationships of those
elements to the context and process of the experiment” (2002: 1). The audio-recorded
interviews, both individual and group, were listened and transcribed, which itself is a
process of data analysis and interpretation” (Gillham 2005: 121). The data was
transcribed comprehensively and the comments of the subjects were written down in the
relevant section; sections were divided on the basis of the three subject categories for
identification purposes (ESL/EFL learners, teachers and practitioners).

In grounded theory, data analysis and the later stages of data reduction like
coding, synthesis, etc. operate iteratively. Coding is a process of simultaneously
reducing the data by dividing it into units of analysis and coding each unit (Calloway et
al., 1995: 2. accessed from csis.pace.edu/~knapp/AIS95.htm, 17/08/07). The raw data
that emerged from subjects’ experience about language anxiety was reduced into ‘units
of analysis’ on the basis of common themes and by analysing the language patterns of
the participants. These units were codified by giving them suitable headings like ‘beliefs
about language learning’, ‘fear of making mistakes’, ‘cultural differences’, etc. For
further reduction, these categories were integrated and synthesized into four sets of core
categories (1995: 3): psycholinguistic, socio-cultural, manifestation of anxiety, and
alleviation strategies. These categories were used to explain the phenomenon under
investigation (language anxiety), which is the theory developed based on the data.

38
 CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
A number of studies on L2/FL anxiety have reported the enervating effect it can
cast on learning and particularly speaking a second/foreign language; this must be
overcome by students in order for them to take full advantage of L2/FL instructions
(Horwitz et al., 1986). Thus, the major purpose of this exploratory research was to find
out the factors that language anxiety can stem from for EFL/ESL learners while learning
to communicate in English and thus to suggest some strategies to cope with it
accordingly. The findings of this study based on the views and experiences of the
participants regarding language anxiety seem to be mostly corroborating the findings
offered by the previous research on language anxiety, though not agreeing with every
detail. No significant difference was found between students’, teachers’, and
practitioners’ perceptions on the anxiety-evoking factors, though they differ in their
interpretations of these factors according to their experience and level in ESL/EFL
learning and teaching process. In spite of high correspondence of the findings to the
existing research, the study also found some differences and discrepancies compared to
some previous studies on language anxiety.

The description, offered by Horwitz (1986), of communication apprehension,

test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation as useful conceptual building blocks in
defining the construct of second/foreign language anxiety have been replicated in this
investigation as many participants expressed them as potential sources of language
anxiety. These perceptions and the mostly negative responses of the research
participants, particularly of EFL/ESL learners who had their previous degrees in the
fields other than language study, seem to support the past research that anxiety is
intrinsic to language learning (Horwitz et al: 1986) and is to be rated significantly
higher than other class anxieties (e.g., mathematics, research methodology, etc.
Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 218).

39
 The subsequent part of this chapter has been divided into three sections to
discuss the anxiety-producing factors found in this study related to psycholinguistics
and socio-cultural aspects of language learning and its use. Psycholinguistic factors
refer to the learners’ cognition, that is to say their psychological or cognitive process of
learning and using a language and have been discussed in section (I). The socio-cultural
aspect of L2/FL learning refers to learners’ culture, social environment, status and
power relations, gender, etc. and form part of discussion in section (II). Learners’
manifestations of anxiety and the strategies to cope with language anxiety have been
discussed in the third (III) section.

4.2 Section I

Cognitive and Linguistic Factors Related to Classroom Procedure

How learners’ perceive the language learning process, their perceptions about
themselves and how they should be performing in any communicative event, and the
linguistic obstacles they encounter while communicating in English have been found to
be strongly linked with language anxiety. This section discusses the findings in relation
to some such psychological and linguistic factors that may cause language anxiety for
EFL/ESL learners.

4.2.1 Strict and Formal Classroom Environment

Consistent with the past research, the participants appeared to be blaming a strict
and formal classroom environment as a significant cause of their language anxiety.
They view the classroom a place where their mistakes are noticed and their deficiencies
are pointed out. With regard to this issue, a Saudi male EFL/ESL learner expressed, “In
the class if you say because I did not know much of a language, you will be blamed.
That means you are not hard to study”. Another Saudi male learner expressed, “I feel
more anxiety in the class because it is more formal but out of class I don’t feel stress,
talk to my friends, not afraid of mistakes”. Such expressions of the fear of being
negatively evaluated under formal classroom environment lend support to the previous
research that learners feel more anxious in highly evaluative situations, particularly in
the L2/FL classroom where their performance is constantly monitored by both their
teacher and peers (Daly, 1991: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 218). Thus, these

40
perceptions, can be considered a clear indication that the teachers should recognize that
the language classroom could become a highly anxiety-provoking environment for
students (Tsui, 1996: cited in Ohata, 2005: 148).

Considering the problems students feel in formal language classroom setting,

some teachers expressed that open-class-forum is more stressful for the learners because
of its demand to be more correct and clearer in using the target language. For instance, a
female EFL/ESL teacher asserted, “Stress level is always high when students are in
open-class-forum than in pair work”. Such perceptions oppose the previously reported
perceptions of some teachers who do not believe in promoting pair or group work (e.g.
see Young 1991: 428). One interpretation of this difference of perceptions could be the
large class size where the teachers may feel that they might face discipline problems and
hence lose authority as a teacher if they encourage pair or group work. However, the
participants asserted that the more friendly and informal the language classroom
environment, the less it is likely to be anxiety provoking.

These perceptions suggest that learners feel more anxious and under stress in the
classroom environments that follow the traditional behaviourist theories of learning; for
instance, the classrooms where the students as a whole class constantly drill or repeat
the learning tasks like machines (e.g. audio-lingual language teaching method) and thus
the power or status differentials between students and teachers is upheld. Contrarily,
students feel less anxious and stress in classroom environments that follow the
constructivist theories of learning; these emphasize collaborative activities by forming
learning communities including both teachers and students. (see appendix (2) & (15) for
more detail about behaviourist and constructivist learning theories respectively.)

4.2.2 Presentation in the Classroom

Like discussion in open-class-forum, giving a short talk or presentation in the
class has also been reported to be highly anxiety inducing, one which makes the
classroom environment more formal and stressful for the learners. All the participants
agreed that speaking in front of the whole class or in public caused anxiety for most of
the learners. A Chinese female EFL/ESL student expressed, “In class maybe I stand up
and do the presentation, I usually feel nervous. I don’t know when I talk to other

41
students in normal class, I think it is ok. Maybe I lose the confidence”. Thus, the study
reinforced the findings of the earlier studies by Koch and Terrell (1991), Young (1990,
cited in Young, 1991: 429), and Price (1991), who found that a large number of their
subjects considered oral presentation as the most anxiety-provoking activity in the class.
Interestingly, the same female EFL/ESL teacher further stated, “Students try to
overcome their anxiety by trying to remember the presentation stuff and by rehearsing it,
and then they bring another pressure on themselves by trying to remember what they
have rehearsed and feel probably stressed because they cannot remember everything”.
This anxiety seems to stem from learners’ perceived inability to make themselves
understood or in Price’s (1991: 105) words, from their “frustration of not being able to
communicate effectively”. For instance, a Chinese female EFL/ESL practitioner said, “I
am afraid that audience may misunderstand my speech”.

4.2.3 Fear of Making Mistakes and Apprehension about Others’ Evaluation

The evidence gained through past research, “both ethnographic and empirical,
supports the notion that language anxiety, for untold number of learners, has its origin in
the fear of making mistakes and attracting the derision of classmates” (Jones, 2004: 33).
The findings of this study were in agreement in this respect too. The participants
frequently expressed that learners feel afraid, and even panic because of the fear of
committing mistakes or errors in front of others, or in Jones’ words (2004: 31) because
of “a fear of appearing awkward, foolish and incompetent in the eyes of learners’ peers
or others”. As a result of the fear of making mistakes, some learners expressed that
learning and speaking a foreign language in the classroom is “always a problem”. One
Saudi male EFL/ESL learner expressed, “Classroom is always a problem …you find
many people watching you and try to correct you, laugh at you, you will be blamed for
any mistakes, and you have to be correct because it is a class. 1+1=2, you have to say 2,
if not say 2, of course, it’ll be wrong”. Similarly, a Chinese female EFL/ESL
practitioner expressed “I am afraid I may make mistake in the class…for me I don’t
want to make any mistake”.

In line with the study of Gregersen and Horwitz (2002) on ‘perfectionism’, fear
of making mistakes has been found to be strongly linked with the learners’ concern to
save their positive image or impression in the mind of their teacher and peers. Another

42
Saudi male ESL/EFL learner said, “I learn words, next day I forget. Teacher may think I
am a lazy guy, have bad memory, don’t work hard”. Similarly, a Polish female
EFL/ESL practitioner said, “I feel more anxiety while speaking English to Polish people
because they expect me to speak perfectly with native-like proficiency after studying in
the UK”. This suggests, as an experienced teacher elaborated, “It is not anxiety just
about language but different expectations about what is going to happen in an oral
interaction”; in other words, how one is going to be evaluated by one’s interlocutors.
Not surprisingly, students get more apprehensive about making mistakes in front of
teachers because they think it is more likely to influence their end-of-course results. A
Saudi male EFL/ESL learner said, “I get nervous because teacher always scores”.
Another Saudi male EFL/ESL learner offered, “I get conscious, don’t want to make
mistakes in the class, teacher will put this in the mind and will give grades at the end…I
may feel better if no grades at the end. Teacher will not collect mistakes”. This seems to
indicate, as found by Tobias (1986: cited in MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991: 296), that
language anxiety is negatively correlated with language course grades. These findings
suggest that assessment type and teachers’ attitude towards assessment can significantly
contribute to learners’ anxiety. It might be beneficial if future research explores this
issue in depth, particularly in L2/FL classroom.

Students, in spite of reporting feelings of anxiety over error correction, also

expressed their desire to be corrected in order to overcome their language imperfections,
which a seasoned teacher stated was a “tricky job”. Consistent with the literature on
language anxiety (e.g. see Horwitz et al. 1986; Young, 1991), he remarked:

Teacher has several different possibilities at his disposal for giving

feedback with respect to errors, it’s very tricky. Students expect and say
to correct their mistakes but, when you correct, especially in front of the
whole class, then it is stressful for them. But, sometimes, if you try to do
so in a tactful way that really does not help. They know you are being
tactful and they feel that they must have made a terrible mistake if you
are being so tactful.

43
 This view suggests that sometimes even not correcting errors, as a technique to
lower anxiety levels, makes some students anxious because many students believe that
speech correction is necessary in order to learn to speak a language well. Even if
teachers do not correct their errors, they find it difficult, particularly adults, to endure a
perceived high degree of inaccuracy in their speech. Resulting from a fear of negative
evaluation, the apprehensive students reported that whenever they anticipate that
complete communication is not possible and that they are unable to express a particular
point fully, they either try to escape or “end up being quiet and reticent, contrary to their
initial intention to participate” (Ohata, 2005: 135, Jones, 2004: 31). “I try to be silent,
keep quiet…so that no body should notice me, I try to escape…try to keep my
conversation short as much as I can”, one Saudi male ESL/EFL learner said. Thus, it
appears, as Horwitz et al. (1986: 127) believe, that frustration experienced when a
learner is unable to communicate a message can lead to apprehension about future
attempts to communicate. This would explain why anxious learners tend to avoid
classroom participation (Ely, 1986: cited in MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991: 297), because
they are either unsure of what they are saying or lose confidence when giving an answer
to a question in the classroom. For example, a Libyan male ESL/EFL student expressed,
“Sometimes I know the answer….but I try to hesitated….I may be, I’ll predict this
answer may be wrong”.

4.2.4 Role of Language Instructors

In accord with the results of the studies previously cited, this study also found
that students’ embarrassment may be aggravated by the role played by language
instructors in the class (Horwitz et al., 1986; Price, 1991; Young, 1991; Brandl, 1987;
Young, 1990: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 220). The teachers’ attitude towards
and beliefs about language learning and teaching, their reaction to the learners’ errors,
and the way they create stressful environment in the class have been reported to be
significantly related to second/foreign language anxiety. It emerged during focus group
discussion that the authoritative, embarrassing and humiliating attitude of the teachers
towards students, particularly when they make mistakes, can have severe consequences
on learners’ cognition and their willingness to communicate in the class. A learner’s
mistake, as Jones (2004: 32) views, “may bring about humiliating punishment from the
teacher under the concentrated gaze of one’s peers”. For example, a Chinese female

44
ESL/EFL practitioner stated, “My English was so bad in the class because I did not like
the teacher. She was soooo… strict”. Similarly, a Sri Lankan female ESL/EFL
practitioner narrated the expressions of her language teacher when she mispronounced
the word “crow” as “grow”, which left her feel embarrassed for the whole day. She
stated:
She was like…what… “grow”…and there she started (participant
smiles) Oh my God!...she was like…she was pissed
off…right…what you are calling a “crow” a “grow”.

Similar painful and vivid past memories were also reported in Price’s (1991: 106)
interview study. The most common complaint about instructors he found was that many
of them made classroom time a performance rather than a learning time. As one of his
participants put it, “It was never a learning experience. You either did it right or you did
not”. Thus, it can be suggested that teachers’ views or perceptions about learning a
language and their ways of error correction are crucial factors to be considered in order
to alleviate language anxiety.

4.2.5 Self-related Cognition; Variations in Individual’s “self-perceptions”

Past researchers have posited that anxiety in learners is produced by their
cognitive interferences based on self-related cognitions, e.g. their self-perceptions, self-
esteem, perceived scholastic competence, beliefs about language learning, etc. (see
Krashen, 1985; Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 228; Horwitz et al., 1986: 128-129). Some
self-related cognitions found in this study correspond to previously cited cognition and
appeared to be varying in individuals based upon their personality traits and earlier
experience of L2/FL learning. Effective evaluation and treatment of these thoughts is
essential for anxiety-reduction as they act as psychological barriers to learning. The
highly anxious learners seem to hold negative thoughts about themselves, low perceived
self-worth and erroneous beliefs based upon their self-degradation (Tobias, 1986: cited
in MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991: 297). For example, a Chinese female ESL/EFL learner
revealed, “I don’t really believe my English language is good, I think learning grammar
and language skills are hard to me”. This rumination, according to Bailey (1983: cited in
Onwuegbuzie et al. 1999: 220), may come from the competitive nature of students, as a
Chinese female ESL/EFL practitioner expressed about her learning experience, “I was

45
a little upset when I thought many students were better than me”. Such negative
cognitions put serious impediments in their language development; this lead to
heightened awareness of their deficiencies and consequently to reticence when are
called upon to exhibit their competence in the target language.

Contrarily, less anxious persons do not have such exaggerated self-awareness

and can therefore concentrate more fully on the task at hand (Tobias, 1986: cited in
MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991: 297). A Chinese male ESL/EFL learner who perceives
himself to be less anxious because he thinks he has ‘a big heart’ asserted, “I can say
what I want to say, though sometimes it is not right, not too much nervous. I think it is
more easy to make more mistakes because you think a lot, you can not pay all attention
to something you want to prepare, want to say”. The disturbing cognition in anxious
learners appears to originate, according to Gregersen and Horwitz (2002: 563), from
learners’ high self-expectations and unrealistic self-set standards, as an Omani female
ESL/EFL practitioner said, “I think it is necessary if we learn a foreign language we
need to speak it like a native speaker”. Another important belief, consistent with the
findings of Horwitz et al., (1986), is that language learning is a special gift not
possessed by all. The same less anxious Chinese student maintained, “You may be good
at Mathematics, you have a gift to learn it because some are sensitive about numbers
because they have a gift about it, but for a language, I think, it is hard to use some gift”.
This is another argument that leads to the differentiation of language anxiety from other
forms of anxiety, which poses an additional challenge to language teachers for its
effective treatment.

In spite of high correspondence, some beliefs appeared to be in marked contrast

to what has been previously reported. For example, Horwitz (1988: cited in Ohata, 2005:
138) reported that some learners believe that language learning is basically an act of
translating from English or any foreign language, but conversely, a Saudi male
ESL/EFL student expressed, “Sometimes I want to speak quickly and translate word-by-
word in my mind but feel it does not work, make me afraid, stop me when I talk”.
Similarly, another Saudi male learner stated, “big problem is time, need long time, one
or two years are not enough”, which clearly contradicts the reported belief that two
years are sufficient in order to gain fluency in the target language (Ohata, 2005: 138). In

46
spite of these discrepancies, the findings of this study replicate much of what earlier
studies have reported about the existence of learners’ self-related cognitions – findings
with major implications for language pedagogy.

4.2.6 Linguistic Difficulties

In addition to the fears regarding committing mistakes and being negatively
evaluated by one’s teacher or peers in the formal setting of a language classroom, the
participants reiterated some of the most common linguistic difficulties, which cause
these fears in the first place. The SLA researchers have frequently reported students
complaining that English pronunciation is too hard to adopt, and that the English
language system is so complicated, so irregular, and with so many exceptions in
spellings and meanings of vocabulary items. In spite of awareness of these difficulties,
the results indicate that anxiety still continues to flourish in the learners. This suggests
that a series of more in-depth research studies need to be undertaken regarding solutions,
rather than just the identification of these inherent difficulties in learning English
language as a means to enhance students’ proficiency and to reduce their language
anxiety.

4.2.7 Pronunciation
In line with the past research, pronunciation appeared to be a big cause of stress
for ESL/EFL learners in this study. An experienced female ESL/EFL teacher stated with
respect to this, “Pronunciation is an important issue across language groups because of
its immediate effect on interaction. When you feel somebody does not understand you,
you need to improve your pronunciation within a second, which is often hard and
stressful”. The issue of pronunciation anxiety has been found to be at higher level
among Chinese ESL/EFL learners in this study. One Chinese female ESL/EFL
practitioner remarked, “I am really afraid of some… we [Chinese] are really confused
what we are talking about. We can not pronounce like Western [mean whose mother
tongue is English] people. I am worried about my pronunciation when I talk to
foreigners”. Consistent with Chen’s (2005) study on “barriers to acquiring listening
strategies for EFL learners”, the participants mentioned the difficulties pertaining to
immediately linking the word they hear to its meaning. “During listening, I can not find

47
to get the word meaning in time. I can note the word but I cannot find the meaning”,
said a Chinese female ESL/ EFL learner.

The participants offered three different possible interpretations of the causes of

pronunciation anxiety. Firstly, learning good speaking skills depends upon both the
quantity and quality of listening in the target language. The learners in the contexts
where English is not spoken as a first language in the community listen to the spoken
words only in the class from the teachers or classmates who, according to Krashen
(1985: 46), do not speak L2 well”. The second interpretation deals with the fact of how
different particular aspects of L2/FL (pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary items, etc.)
are related to learners’ L1. While comparing L1 and L2/FL sound structure, the
participants explained that some English sounds do not exist in their L1. They feel
difficulty, particularly when pronouncing those sounds that they never have produced or
even heard in their own language. An ESL/EFL teacher captured it as follows:

Some students don’t have some consonant clusters in their L1 which

exist in English…then the students can’t hear the cluster in English
because it is not in their vocabulary of sounds…so even if I say “phura,
phura” hundred times, if they don’t have this sound in their L1, they
don’t even hear it. You have to do a lot of articulation work for them…

Thirdly, the high demand of language teachers and their efforts to bring students
closer to the native pronunciation model can also enhance students’ accent anxiety. A
male EFL teacher further clarified the point, “I suppose, guess, it must come from
teachers’ insisting on people attempting a native-like pronunciation. It may also be
because English is so pervasive in most cultures, in other words, heard quite often, that
heightens their awareness of the differences between their and native pronunciation.”
Although these interpretations offer an insight when attempting to understand the causes
of learners’ pronunciation anxiety, they also call for teachers due attention when dealing
with the problem in the classroom. In order to alleviate learners’ pronunciation anxiety,
the same teacher expressed the possibility that, in near future, teachers may opt to use
material, which does not present native-like pronunciation as a model. This suggestion
leads to another issue; which pronunciation model should be considered a native model?

48
Future researchers might wish to explore learners’ views about the model they attempt
or should attempt to adopt.

4.2.8 Grammar
With regard to linguistic difficulties, grammar has been found to be the second
most important aspect that the ESL/EFL learners find difficult when learning to speak a
second/foreign language. “When I want to speak”, said a Chinese female ESL/EFL
practitioner, “I am not sure which tense to use”. Another Taiwani female ESL/EFL
practitioner expressed, “When I speak I am unsure which form of verb to use, I always
have to think before I say”. She further explained that verbs only have one form in
Chinese language and people use the words like ‘today, yesterday, tomorrow, last time,
etc.’ to indicate present, past and future time instead of changing the verb form. She
elaborated this point with an example, “I go to the supermarket today, I go to the
supermarket yesterday”. This difference in language patterns is a big trouble for
Chinese ESL/EFL learners. When asked about the most embarrassing grammatical
difficulties students encounter, a female teacher specifically mentioned Chinese
students’ difficulty with English ‘word classes’. She explained that the problem with the
English language is the adjectives, verbs, adverbs or nouns that are from the same root,
like confidence, confident, confidently, etc. The learners face difficulties with the word
endings or suffixes that are not the part of their L1 system.

Similarly, difficulties regarding prepositions, different uses of article systems in

different languages, use of English modal verbs, etc. were mentioned as significant
problems learners face. Pakistani and Sri Lankan ESL/EFL practitioners specifically
reported that the complex article and modal verb system of the English language cause
trouble for them and whenever they encounter this problem they attempt to, as reported
by Steinberg and Horwitz (1986: cited in MacIntyre and Gardner, 1991: 296), “be less
complex and less interpretative”. Such difficulties can lead to the impression that
anxious students are not capable communicator in the second language (1991: 296) as
they impede learners’ fluency in conveying the spoken messages. “It is because they
know that this is a problem and everytime they see this problem is coming while
speaking, they get frightened”, said the same teacher quoted above.

49
4.2.9 Vocabulary
The subjects’ responses regarding the difficulties of remembering and retrieving
vocabulary items are also consistent with past research. The responses lend support to
MacIntyre and Gardner’s (1991b, cited in MacIntyre, 1995: 93) research, which found a
significant negative correlation between language anxiety and the ability to recall
vocabulary items. “I don’t have exact words to express my ideas”, “sometimes I am
conscious I am not using the right word”, “I always feel nervous speaking English
because I do not have enough vocabulary”, are some of the utterances participants made
to show their difficulties regarding vocabulary. As learners can process only a limited
amount of information at one time (Lightbown and Spada: 2006: 39), the subjects
reported that many words do not come out when required to speak in hurry. A Chinese
female ESL/EFL learner remarked, “Sometimes I want to speak faster and faster, I try to
talk too much in short time, so irrrrrrrrrrr.” (She smiled and made a noise in the throat to
show that everything is mixed up and the mouth just produces sounds without meaning).

This section has discussed the findings of the study in relation to cognitive and
linguistic factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners. Most of the
findings related to these factors, seem to corroborate the existing literature on language
anxiety though there are some anomalies. The responses of the subjects, particularly
regarding linguistic difficulties, were found to be more comprehensive when compared
to the previous interview studies on language anxiety (e.g Horwitz, 1986; Price, 1991;
Young, 1990; Ohata, 2005; etc.). Although these difficulties have been addressed by
SLA theorists, no study on language anxiety has been found to be as comprehensive in
this respect as this study.
4.3 Section II
Socio-Cultural Factors

The findings discussed in the previous section in relation to learners’ cognition

and linguistic difficulties in the classroom setting contribute greatly to causing learners’
anxiety while communicating in the target language out of the class in broader social
contexts. The social context learners belong to, their cultures, social status, their own
sense of foreignness while speaking a language other than L1, gender, etc. have also

50
been found to be linked with L2/FL anxiety. Some participants of this study even
remarked that social factors are a more important cause of language anxiety than
linguistic factors. This section discusses some socio-cultural factors that can help
explaining the sources of L2/FL anxiety for ESL/EFL students.

4.3.1 Social Environment and Limited Exposure to the Target Language

In accord with the previous research, the subjects expressed that limited
exposure to English in their home countries is a serious obstacle in the development of
their communicative competency, which is troubling for L2/FL learners when they are
required to speak (see e.g. Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 30). A Saudi male learner said
in this regard, “We could practice English only in the class, out of the class, no practice;
lack of chances or practice … trouble when you find a chance to speak”. This could
explain why ESL/EFL learners feel anxious while speaking English even when learning
the language in an English-speaking environment. The use of communicative language
teaching approaches demand students to speak English who may not be used to it in
their previous learning experience and therefore feel stress when they are called upon to
answer a question. A male ESL/EFL teacher explained, “In L2 environment teachers
expect students to speak fluently and spontaneously. Students from other cultures may
not have this experience; their experience may be to speak only when teacher asks to
speak but not any other time… these different practices in the classroom, I know, are
very upsetting for the students”. It indicates that language teachers should consider the
norms, practices and the previous language learning experiences of the students as an
attempt to reduce their language anxiety.

With regard to errors in the social settings, participants’ responses were mostly
positive. They feel satisfied with the way their errors are treated in the society, which-
in-turn encourages them to speak. It is only occasionally that they feel a bit nervous if
people say, as remarked by a Brazilian female ESL/EFL practitioner, “Oh, you mean
this, and then you feel… oh… because you just feel horrible that you could not manage
to say what you want to say”. Generally, the subjects expressed that people do not
interfere because they think it “rude and impolite to correct someone who is having
conversation with them” (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 32).

51
4.3.2 Cultural Differences
The differences of cultures between that of the learners and target language
appeared to be an important anxiety-producing factor. The more uncertainty or
unfamiliarity with the target language culture, the more it is likely to be anxiety-
provoking because, as a Pakistani male ESL/EFL practitioner explained, “You don’t
know how others are going to interpret what you say; you say with reference to your
own culture and background which could be altogether different”. Furthermore, an
Omani female ESL/EFL practitioner stated, “It is a cultural aspect that you ‘lose face’ if
you say the wrong things”. The use of the term ‘losing face’, by the participant supports
Jones’ (2004: 34) view that language anxiety is a concern of face in different cultures.
Similar to Jones’ (2004) findings about culture as a causal factor in Asian context, an
experienced female teacher stated, “It is not anxiety just about language but differences
in cultural practices. Even in one-to-one interaction, it is not clear to me how much I
should talk and how much they [people from different cultures] should talk”. Her
further comments in relation to Japanese students correspond to Jones’ (2004: 35)
research that a specific culture-bound syndrome, i.e., one set of culturally distinguished
features, is a disorder apparently unique to Japan: it is called taijin Kyofusho (TKS),
literally ‘fear of social relations’. She maintained, "Even sometimes if you do manage to
encourage Japanese students to speak, they have a very good grasp of patterns, grammar,
vocabulary, but they are not confident to use it because they are not sure of the cultural
rules”.

4.3.3 Social Status and self-identity

Consistent with the previous research regarding the impact of social status on
speakers’ language and his behaviour (Giles, Bourhis, & Taylor, 1977: cited in Carrier,
1999: 70), the study also found that social status or social distance between interlocutors
can have a considerable influence on communication. Speakers’ sense of inferiority
complex while talking to someone higher in status may cause stress or anxiety for them.
“I feel I am not talking according to the man”, said a Brazilian female ESL/EFL
practitioner.

In accordance with the research on classroom interaction by Pica (1987: 4), the
study found that unequal status between students and teachers can also be a source of

52
anxiety for the students. A Taiwani female ESL/EFL practitioner remarked,
“Absolutely, every time I have a meeting with my tutor, I try to speak perfect English,
because I am very nervous to talk to somebody higher in status. Their English is
perfect”. This indicates that lack of confidence on one’s linguistic competence makes
one feel inferior and apprehensive to communicate with someone having full command
on language, e.g. native speakers (Peirce, 1995: 21). It can also explain the source of
intercultural communication apprehension where unequal linguistic competencies of L1
and FL/SL speakers can make the communication event stressful for L2/FL speakers.

Speaking in a foreign language was found to be disturbing because of the fear

that it might lead to the loss of one’s positive self-image or self-identity. The findings of
this study in this regard suggest obvious similarity with the previous research on ‘social
anxiety’ (e.g. Peirce, 1995: 18; Guiora, 1972; 1984; Rardin, 1988; and Leary, 1982:
cited in Ohata, 2005: 149). These researchers assume social anxiety as a feeling of
losing one’s self-identity which is deeply rooted in the first language. Rardin (1988
cited in 2005: 149) posits, “If I learn another language, I will somehow lose myself; as I
know myself to be, will cease to exist”. This apprehension was uttered by a teacher
participant who remarked, “People are very surprised to hear the sounds of their own
voice, especially if they listen to their own voice in another language, it sounds like
another person. I think they find that disturbing because it is another identity they did
not know they had”. This finding is quite different to Ohata’s (2005) interview study of
ESL teachers where none of the participants referred to such theoretical perspectives.
However, in general, most of the basic theoretical perspectives related to social status
and self-identity have been replicated in this study.

4.3.4 Gender
The study yielded conflicting findings as was the case with the earlier studies
regarding gender-related anxiety while communicating in a foreign language (e.g.,
Carrier, 1999: 70; Kitano, 2001: cited in Gobel and Matsuda, 2003: 23). The subjects
appeared to have different experiences of feeling anxious or comfortable while talking
to the opposite sex. Some male participants stated that it was only in the initial stage
when they started studying in co-education at university level that they felt a bit anxious.
However, this was not the case in environments where both male and female students

53
study together; as a Chinese female ESL/EFL learner said, “I don’t worry about guys
and girls because in China we study together”. This could suggest that only in those
cultures where males and females students study in segregation, people are more likely
to feel communication anxiety when talking to the opposite sex. Conversely, some
participants from the same cultures (e.g. Pakistani, Omani, Libyan, etc.) stated that they
do not feel any such anxiety. This suggests that gender-related communication
apprehension is entirely based upon one’s own personal view.

This section has discussed the findings related to socio-cultural aspects of

language learning and communication, which may cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL
learners both within and out of the language classroom. Similar to the psycholinguistic
factors discussed in the first section, findings regarding socio-cultural factors also
appear to be matching the findings cited in earlier studies, though certain contradictions
were also found.
4.4 Section III
Manifestation of Language Anxiety and Its Effective Alleviation

4.4.1 Manifestation
Learners’ anxiety while speaking an L2/FL is manifested in a variety of different
ways, which sends some signals for the interlocutors to identify the anxiety-related
behaviours. Language instructors can recognize these behaviours and then can begin to
explore their instructional strategies to alleviate learners’ anxiety.

The various manifestations of anxiety that the participants mentioned seem to be

similar to what has been reported in the past research on language anxiety. No essential
difference of opinions or details has been found regarding the symptoms of students’
anxiety. The obvious signs of anxious students described by the participants were
blushing, rubbing the palms, perspiration, staggered voice, reluctance, poor performance
in spoken activities, less enthusiasm or willingness to speak, less interpretativeness, less
eye-contact, reading from the script while giving presentation, either too fast or too slow
speed of speech, etc. Furthermore, some learners stated that they try to avoid the
situation that appears to be anxiety evoking. For example, a Saudi male ESL/EFL
learner said, “I try to skip…. skip away from the situation. I won’t go into much detail

54
because I know my weakness.” Similarly, another Saudi male student said, “I’ll stop
speaking, stop conversation about this point, I don’t want to show to my class that I am
nervous”.

These results seem to indicate that language teachers can accurately and credibly
decode the symptoms of anxious behaviour in the language class and can deal with them
accordingly. Young (1992, 169: cited in Ohata, 2005: 150) presented a few suggestion
to language teachers in this respect: “ a) be sensitive to the signals students’ provide, b)
recognize the behaviours for what they are, c) trust your perceptions, and d) work to
reduce language anxiety”.

4.4.2 Strategies to Cope with Language Anxiety

Language anxiety, being an unsettling psychological construct, has been found
to make a huge difference in learning to speak a foreign language. Many studies on
language anxiety have suggested a variety of strategies to successfully cope with this
multifaceted dilemma and this study follows the same pattern. Interestingly, all the
subjects who have been involved in the process of English language learning and
teaching for many years seemed to have given adequate thought to the ways of reducing
language anxiety.

The most frequent suggestion participants made was to make the language
classroom environment less formal and more friendly, one where students can make
mistakes without looking or sounding inept (Constructivist theory of learning, also see P.
43 and appendix (15)). A way forward to create less stressful classroom environment, as
suggested by a male ESL/EFL teacher, is that the “instructors should create situations
where students can feel successful in using English and avoid setting up the activities
that increase the chances for the students to fail”. He suggested a truly communicative
approach where students are given chances to succeed even with imperfect language
competence. Another female teacher laid emphasis on the use of drama-like and role-
play activities, so that learners may feel safe in a pretended situation with a pretended
identity (suggestopedia). In setting up an activity, a third ESL/EFL female teacher stated
that instructions should be made clear and it should also be ensured that the students
have sufficient ideas and lexis to fulfil the task. In order to make the classroom a safe

55
and less anxiety-provoking place, the friendly and encouraging role of the teachers was
stated as crucial. Earlier studies have reported similar perceptions of their research
subjects regarding the role of language instructors. In Price’s (1991: 107) interview
study, the most frequent observation of the subjects was that, “they would feel more
comfortable if the instructor were more like a friend helping them to learn and less like
an authority figure making them to perform” (also see Young, 1990).

The subjects offered some very concrete and practical suggestions to lessen the
enervating impact of language anxiety in the learners. A general feeling among the
participants was that the students’ confidence should be developed to make mistakes
while using the language. Teachers should talk about the role of mistakes in the class, as
a male ESL/EFL teacher remarked, “Man who never made a mistake never made
anything, if you are not making mistakes you are not learning anything but you are
doing old stuff”. In the same way, teachers’ positive way of providing corrective and
constructive feedback on errors rather than interrupting and correcting students when
they are communicating was recommended. The same teacher opined, “Teachers should
make private notes of the errors and then later address the whole class without saying
that this is the error X made and this is the error Y made”. This suggests the use of
formative2 assessment and feedback method as away to reduce language anxiety.

It was also asserted that students’ self-related cognitions and beliefs should be
taken into account in order to successfully cope with language anxiety. As a first step, it
was generally maintained that teachers should take time to discuss or initiate discussion
in the class by pointing out that it is very common for students to feel uncomfortable,
uneasy and anxious while speaking English, thus inviting their thoughts about its
possible reasons as well as solutions. The discussion, it was assumed, would heighten
their awareness that the feelings of anxiety are common in most of the learners and are
not associated with any particular individual. Thus, it would also help them to take away
the feeling of competition or comparison that others are all smarter and more confident
(Price, 1991: 107). Instead of engaging in negative self-talk, as commented by a

2
An interactive pedagogy accomplished jointly by the teacher and the student and oriented more to
future development rather than measurement of the past or current achievement (Pryor & Torrance,
2001:615).

56
Pakistani male ESL/EFL practitioner, “Students should be encouraged to think about
their positive personality traits and thus gather their own strengths and build upon them”.
This way, instructors can “build students’ confidence and self-esteem in their
second/foreign language ability via encouragement, reassurance, positive reinforcement,
and empathy” (Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 232). Furthermore, the teachers should
identify the signs of perfectionism in the learners and should work to explore their
earlier belief systems in order to help them “to step down from the set standards at the
early stages and then work patiently to achieve the desired standards gradually”, stated
the same Pakistani participant.

Though many of the accounts from the participants bear much similarity with
the strategies to cope with language anxiety reported in the previous research, a unique
and altogether different strategy was also found, one which has not been offered in
earlier studies. A male ESL/EFL teacher, considering native-like pronunciation as one
of the biggest sources of anxiety for a majority of ESL/EFL learners, suggested,
“Ceasing to make English native-speaker pronunciation as a model to alleviate language
anxiety”. Irrespective of its practical implications, the strategy seems a reasonable step
towards reducing anxiety in the modern communicative language classes. Yet another
strategy, which is less unique but has not been clearly articulated or reported in any
study on language anxiety, was to abandon the practice of giving summative3 feedback
in the form of grades and marks. “I may feel better if I know I would not be given
grades at the end of the term”, expressed a Saudi student, as mentioned in section (I) of
this chapter. A third strategy, according to an Omani ESL/EFL Practitioner, was to
promote single sex classes, which is also a comparatively less cited strategy in literature
on language anxiety.

In spite of the variety of techniques found in this study, as well as those reported
in previous studies, language anxiety seems to continue to flourish in the language
classrooms. It suggests that these strategies are just a guideline for the teachers, as well
as for the ESL/EFL learners, rather than a treatment of language anxiety. This also
confirms the view that language anxiety is a complex psychological phenomenon, one

3
Summative assessment provides, as the term suggests, “a summary of achievement at the end of the
course” (Harlen cited in Gardner, 2006: 104).

57
which requires special attention by the language instructors if it is to be adequately dealt
with. However, it can be postulated that apt implication of these strategies can reduce
language anxiety to a considerable extent, even if they cannot completely alleviate it.

4.5 Summary of the Chapter

The chapter discusses a variety of causal factors found in this interview study,
concluding that language anxiety most possibly can originate from within and outside of
the language classroom environment. In the first two sections of this chapter, the factors
have been discussed from psycholinguistic and socio-cultural perspectives. Section (I)
deals with the psycholinguistic factors that are related to learners’ cognition and
language learning difficulties, and have been discussed under various headings like
classroom environment, fear of making mistakes, linguistic difficulties, etc. The socio-
cultural factors like cultural differences, social status and self-identity, gender, etc. have
been discussed in section (II). In the last section (III), along with the discussion of some
behavioural symptoms of anxious students, a variety of strategies have been offered to
successfully cope with the language anxiety.

In brief, the findings discussed in this chapter suggest why a significant number
of second/foreign language students feel anxious and embarrassed when learning and
particularly speaking a second/foreign language. The findings also suggest the
importance of identification and knowledge of these factors by language instructors in
order to assist students to make progress in their language development.

58
 CHAPTER 5

ISSUES, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Issues
Many issues seem to emerge from the responses and views of the subjects on
language anxiety for future investigation. These emerging issues should provide a
framework for future researchers in the area of language anxiety for further in-depth and
detailed studies to fill the gaps that this study points out.

The results of this study clearly indicate the existence of high levels of language
anxiety in most of the learners who are learning English, even through the use of
modern communicative language teaching techniques from highly experienced language
teachers. The persistence of the problem, in spite of being addressed by a large body of
research, suggests that the issue of language anxiety still needs to be researched in more
detail regarding its nature, causes, impact and treatment. In addition, the following
issues emerged which require due attention of the future researchers.

1) Though the study did not aim to compare the participants’ responses on
language anxiety on the basis of their cultures, but through a critical evaluation
of their responses, it emerges that the more negative responses came from
Chinese and Saudi participants as compared to those of the participants from
other cultures. It suggests that there may be some cultural reasons behind the
anxiety reactions of some learners. In a language class with students from
different cultures, it needs to be considered whether language anxiety is a
cultural-bound phenomenon for some learners as is the case with the Japanese
students (Jones, 2004) (see section II, chapter five, cultural differences).

2) In addition to cultural phenomenon, participants’ explanations of anxiety-related

factors differ on the basis of their previous language learning experiences.
Future researchers might need to study ESL/EFL learners’ previous language
learning experiences, their language learning norms, values and practices in

59
 order to effectively utilize modern language teaching techniques in multi-
cultural and multi-lingual language classes and to reduce language anxiety.

3) SLA researchers have identified many linguistic difficulties, which have been
found in this research as anxiety provoking, but there seems to be a shortage of
solutions available to instructors and students who face this problem.

4) Adopting or achieving native (L1)-like pronunciation emerged as a big source of

anxiety for ESL/EFL learners, but which English pronunciation is a standard
pronunciation or which pronunciation model do learners perceive as a standard
model? Furthermore, if native (L1) English pronunciation ceases to be a
standard pronunciation, as suggested by an experienced ESL/EFL teacher, which
model of pronunciation will be followed in the language classrooms and what
implications it will have for ESL/EFL teachers as well as learners?

5.2 Limitations of the Study

Several limitations to this study must be noted. The sample of the subjects who
represented each of the three categories of the subjects (ESL/EFL learners, ESL/EFL
practitioners and ESL/EFL teachers) was fairly small in size. In order to investigate the
complex issue of language anxiety, only a limited time was available for interviews (15-
20minutes/participant) and focus group discussion (40-50 minutes). Furthermore, the
role played by individual experiences was difficult to evaluate from these interviews, as
the participants belonged to a wide range of cultural and ethnic backgrounds, with
varied language learning and teaching experiences. It is also equally possible that the
subjects might not have touched on some of the anxiety-producing factors. Conversely,
the participants, perhaps considering the fact that the researcher is looking for the
factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners, might have tried to relate
some of their experiences with anxiety, which they may not otherwise have felt to be
contributing to anxiety.

5.3 Conclusions
Although the existing research has provided a valuable insight into language
anxiety from both statistical and descriptive aspects, the phenomenon, because of its

60
complicated and multi-faceted nature, requires further exploration from a variety of
perspectives and approaches. This study, conducted through individual and focus group
interviews, was an attempt to apprehend the true nature of the phenomenon from a
different perspective.

The results of this interview study clearly indicate that the most anxiety
provoking skill in L2/FL (English) learning is speaking skill. Almost all research
subjects acknowledged that people feel anxious and nervous while speaking English in
front of others. Some ESL/EFL learners even expressed that they feel ‘stupid’ when
they cannot speak English well and others maintained that they try to skip or escape the
situations, which demand speaking in front of others, either in the classroom or outside
of the classroom. What seems to distinguish speaking is the public nature of the skill;
this poses a threat to peoples’ self-concept, self-identity, and ego, which they have
formed in their first language as reasonable and intelligent individuals (Horwitz et al.,
1986: 128). Every factor or situation that creates possibilities or enhances the chances of
exposing their deficiencies and language imperfections in front of others is likely to
cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners. This situation could be either classroom
interaction in the form of open class forum, group participation or class presentation, or
giving a short talk in any public event is likely to challenge learners’ communicative
abilities.

What makes a foreign language classroom a highly anxiety-evoking place is its

evaluative nature: evaluation by the teachers, peers, and by a learners’ own ‘self’,
accompanied by high expectations and beliefs about L2/FL learning. It was found that
the feelings of anxiety become more threatening when the language instructors’ manner
of error correction is rigid and humiliating and when they consider language class a
performance rather than a learning place. Anxiety has also been found to be exacerbated
by students’ feeling of low proficiency or lack of confidence in general linguistic
knowledge, the evidence of which students do not want to display. The subjects
expressed many problems and difficulties in learning English language, like grammar,
pronunciation, English word-class system, modal verbs etc., which were commonly
thought to impede the fluency of the ESL/EFL learners and hence, were perceived to be
major obstacles in achieving the desired performance goals in English language.

61
Whenever the learners anticipate these problems while speaking English, as elaborated
by an ESL/EFL teacher, they get frightened. This lack of success when trying to achieve
the expected performance reinforces learners’ lack of confidence in their general
linguistic knowledge and results into debilitating level of anxiety in them when they are
called upon to fulfil the demand of any communicative situation. A major cause of
facing these L2/FL difficulties was found to be the lack of sufficient input and chances
of practicing speaking skill (output) in the social contexts where English is not used as
an L1. Many times students reported that they know certain vocabulary items and
sentence structures but they do not come out right when needed in any communicative
situation. This indicates, from psycholinguistic perspective, that when learners’
cognitive processes of using a language (speaking) are not regularized due to lack of
practice, either in the classroom or in the society, these difficulties are likely to continue
causing trouble for the L2/FL learners.

In addition to these psycholinguistic factors, some cultural aspects of English

language learning can also contribute to language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners. In their
interaction with the English-speaking interlocutors, the learners may have a good
command of linguistic knowledge (patterns of language, grammar, vocabulary, etc.) but
may feel apprehensive to use it because they are not sure of the cultural rules. This
uncertainty of the ESL/EFL learners as to when and how much they should talk in an
interaction with English speaking people, creates an unequal social or status relationship
between them which “disfavours attempts at negotiation” (Wolfson, 1989: 131). This
explains why ESL/EFL learners feel anxiousness or stress in intercultural
communication, in situations where they feel inferior to the target language speakers,
both in terms of cultural awareness and linguistic competencies. Furthermore, they may
feel anxiety in speaking English because of the fear that they may lose their positive
self-image or self-identity they have formed in their first language.

However, for effective alleviation of language anxiety, the comparison of the

results obtained in this study with those of the past studies suggests that there do not
seem to be any specific remedies for language anxiety. The strategies found in this
study, as well as recommended by the researchers and theorists, could “certainly work
as prescription for anxiety but it might as easily be advice on ‘what good teachers’

62
should routinely do” (Oxford, 1999: cited in Jones, 2004: 37). All such advice is
excellent but also applicable to students who do not show signs of anxiety; therefore,
the advice cannot be other than general (2004: 37).

Language anxiety, it can be postulated, may not require any ‘special treatment’
but what it does demand is the careful attitude of the language teachers in order to
understand and to effectively diagnose this phenomenon in the learners. Then, it
requires the application of modern approaches that lay emphasis on enhancing learning
opportunities in an environment that is conducive to learning.

5.4 Recommendations
Given that language anxiety can exercise detrimental influence on second/foreign
language learning and communication in the target language, it is important that
language instructors not only recognize that anxiety is a major cause of students’ lack of
success in L2/FL communication but also assist them to overcome their feelings of
unease and discomfort. Based on the findings of this study, the following
recommendations can be made.

1) First and foremost, ESL/EFL instructors should acknowledge the existence

of the feeling of anxiety in learning and particularly speaking English
language and then should take initiatives for its effective reduction. They
should identify individuals with signs of stress and anxiety and should apply
appropriate strategies to help them counteract these feelings. Three
approaches (cognitive, affective, and behavioural) presented by Hembree
(1988: cited in Ying-Ling & Kondo: 2004: 259) can be recommended in
order to select a suitable strategy (see details in chapter III, section III).

2) As students reported lack of practice of speaking skills in their previous

language learning experiences a significant cause of their communication
apprehension, a truly communicative approach should be adopted to provide
students with more chances to practice their speaking skills.

63
3) For active participation in the classroom discussion, it should be ensured that
students are provided friendly, informal and learning-supportive
environments. This can be done by teachers’ friendly, helpful and co-
operative behaviour, making students feel comfortable when speaking in the
class. This can also reduce, although not eliminate altogether, the effect of
social and status difference between students and teachers to a considerable
extent.

4) As students appear to be acutely sensitive to fear of making mistakes,

teachers should encourage students to have the confidence to make mistakes
in order to acquire communication skills. Furthermore, as a positive response
to students’ concern over the harsh manner of teachers’ error correction,
teachers’ selection of error correction techniques as Horwitz et al. (1986: 131)
recommended, should be based upon instructional philosophy and on
reducing defensive reactions in students.

5) In order to allay students’ fear that their mistakes in front of the teachers will
influence their end of course grades, more emphasis should be given to
formative assessment (assessment for learning) and feedback rather than
summative assessment (assessment of learning) and feedback.

6) The teachers should initiate discussion in the class about the feelings of
anxiety and should take measures to reduce the sense of competition among
them.

7) To encouraging students to feel successful in using English, teachers should

avoid setting up activities that enhance the chances for them to fail. They
should also make sure whether the students are ready for the given activity
and have sufficient ideas and lexis to complete the task successfully.

8) It is also recommended that teachers should confront students’ erroneous and

irrational beliefs by cultivating in them “reasonable commitments for
successful language learning” (Horwitz, 1988: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al.,

64
 1999: 232). These beliefs can be confronted by instilling realistic
expectations and reasonable performance standards in the learners and by
raising their awareness regarding the speed with which fluency in the target
language can be achieved. More importantly, students should be guided as to
how to direct their attention away from self-centred worries when they are
speaking a second/foreign language (1999: 233).

9) Familiarity with the culture and ethnic background of the students and an
awareness of their previous language learning experiences can also assist
language teachers to understand and decode anxiety-related behaviours in
some students. In a class of mixed cultures, teachers should specifically
make the effort to create a sense of friendship and cooperation among the
students. This will help them to speak more confidently and with less anxiety
in the class.

10) Finally, there should be some specific teachers training courses on language
anxiety in order to make teachers aware of this complex issue and, hence,
alleviate it.

Recommendations on the basis of the finding of this study are not exhaustive
and every language teacher can offer different ways of reducing language anxiety based
upon his/her personal observation of the phenomenon. This study offers a number of
strategies to cope with the potentially pervasive and detrimental effect of language
anxiety. It is posited that an apt utilization of these strategies by language teachers can
help reduce second/foreign language anxiety and can potentially increase students’
confidence to learn and particularly to speak the target language. (For further
recommendations, see Horwitz and Young (1991) and Young (1999). Thus, during this
process, the role of language teachers is deemed highly crucial and their particular
beliefs, perceptions and attitudes towards language learning and teaching process have
the potential of both causing and reducing language anxiety in the learners. Future
researchers on language anxiety should attempt to explore teachers’ beliefs and
perceptions about language learning and teaching, in addition to those of learners, as a
mean to effectively address the multi-dimensional construct of language anxiety.

65
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 Appendices

Appendix: 1

Suggestopedia: (Chapter I)

In the late 70s, a Bulgarian psychologist by the name of Georgi Lozanov

introduced the contention that students naturally set up psychological barriers to
learning based on fears that they will be unable to perform and are limited in terms of
their ability to learn. Lozanov believed that learners may have been using only five to
ten percent of their mental capacity, and that the brain could process and retain much
more material if given ‘optimal’ conditions for learning. Based on psychological
research on extrasensory perception, Lozanov began to develop a language learning
method that focused on ‘desuggestion’ of the limitations learners think they have, and
providing the sort of relaxed state of mind that would facilitate the retention of material
to its maximum potential. This method became known as ‘suggestopedia’ - the name
reflecting the application of the power of ‘suggestion’ to the field of pedagogy.

Some characteristics of suggestopedia were the giving over of complete control

and authority to the teacher (who at times can appear to be some kind of ‘instructional
hypnotist’ using this method) and the encouragement of learners to act as ‘childishly’ as
possible, often even assuming names and characters in the target language. All of these
principles in combination were seen to make the students ‘suggestible’, and therefore
able to utilize their maximum mental potential to take in and retain new material.

Source:
http://esl.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.englishraven.com/method
%5Fsuggest.html (22/08/07)

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 Appendix: 2

Behaviourism: (Chapter 2, Section (1) & chapter 5, Section (I))

Behaviourism believes that learning takes place as the result of the response that
follows on a specific stimulus. By repeating the stimulus-response (S-R] cycle of an
organism (animal or human), it is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the
same stimulus is present. Behaviour can be modified and learning is measured by
observable change in behaviour.

A Behaviourist learning event is characterized by:

• Prescribed knowledge is transmitted to learners according to a preplanned program.
(Written performance objectives)
• Specific activities are carried out to achieve the objectives
• Learning is shaped by repetition and reinforcement as the learner responds to specific
stimuli.
• The learner has no control of learning or on the time span of the event.
• The educator is the authoritarian and centre of the event.
• Evaluation is done individually at the end of the learning event to determine if
objectives were met.
• Failure means the concept/learning content will be repeated until it is mastered.

Source: Black E, (1995), Accessed From

http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/2000/scheepers_md/projects/loo/theory/behavior.html
(24/08/07)

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 Appendix: 3

Perfectionism: (Chapter II, Section II)

The perfectionist nature of some individuals is a factor that leads them to

form some irrational beliefs and unrealistic performance standards, which ultimately
causes anxiety in cases where they feel failing to achieve their targets. The perfectionist
learners are those who set excessively high standards for performance accompanied by
overly critical self-evaluation (Frost, Marten, Lahart & Rosenblate, 1990: cited in
Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002: 563). They are not satisfied with merely doing well or
even with doing better than their peers. They are satisfied only if they have done a job
perfectly, so that the result reveals no blemishes or weaknesses (Brophy, 1999: 1).
Among these, their reaction to errors is overly emotional and they perceive even the
minor failures as ‘catastrophic’. In their study on anxious and non-anxious students’
responses to their own oral performance, Gregersen & Horwitz, (2002) found that the
anxious learners’ not only noticed their errors but also lamented them because of the
fear of negative evaluation.

I made so many mistakes talking, grammatically,

everything….I made a lot of mistakes. They make me nervous.” Even
the less anxious learners commented similarly: “I am bothered a little
[about my errors] because I get nervous, and I think that the other
person thinks that I don’t know how to speak. It happens a lot, I try to
pronounce the best I can, and when I try to pronounce better, my
pronunciation gets worse, because I get flustered….I have a classmate
he is very calm when he speaks. He gets mixed up sometimes, but he
untangles himself quickly. But not me. I get mixed up and then I get
even more mixed up. I get even into deeper trouble (p. 567)

This grave concern about errors indicates that highly anxious students see
their less than perfect performance as failure and ruminate over their errors,
which makes their future attempts to communicate even more stressful.
Brophy (1999, 1) lists a number of characteristics of perfectionist students,

75
based on Pacht’s (1984: cited in 1999: 1) conceptualization of perfectionism,
that seem to be counterproductive to learning of any kind, especially language
learning.

(1) Performance standards that are impossibly high and

unnecessarily rigid.
(2) Motivation more from fear of failure than from pursuit of
success.
(3) All-or-nothing evaluations that label anything other than
perfection as failure.
(4) Difficulty in taking credit or pleasure, even when success is
achieved, because such achievement is merely what is expected.

In contrast, non-anxious students set realistic personal standards, see lack of anxiety
as a kind of success, give credit for not getting anxious, and are relaxed in tense
situation. (2002: 567)

Note: For references see bibliography

76
 Appendix: 4

Anxiety in Interpersonal Relations: (Chapter II, Section II)

Language anxiety has also been found to stem from interpersonal relationships.
Young (1991) views that it is probably the most commonly cited and discussed source
of anxiety and considers low self-esteem and competitiveness – two significant sources
of anxiety – under the category of ‘interpersonal relations’. The competitive nature of
the learners can also lead to anxiety when they compare themselves to others and to an
idealized self-image (Bailey, 1983: cited in Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999: 220). Similarly,
Krashen (1980: 46) suggests, “ … some students feel personally or intellectually
overshadowed by peers. When the source of the shadow is removed…, other students’
fluency and accuracy suddenly blossoms”. More recently, Dörnyei and Kormos (2000:
296) have also found language anxiety to be linked to interpersonal relationships. They
argued that interlocutors’ degree of language anxiety might influence each other during
interaction; in cases where both are anxious, anxiety is more likely to have a significant
effect on L2 output, whereas, “if the interlocutor is sufficiently confident, h/she might
‘pull along’ the more anxious speaker and therefore the impact of anxiety may not reach
statistical significance”.

Note: For references see bibliography

77
 Appendix: 5

Listening Difficulties: (Chapter III, Section I)

Because of limited processing mental capacity, many learners may face

problems in understanding others and making themselves understood – a frequently
cited source of anxiety for EFL/ESL speakers (see MacIntyre, 1995; Horwitz et al.,
1986 etc.). The learners at the beginning stage utilize their cognitive ability to
comprehend the main words in a message, which may divide their attention between
words and the full comprehension of the message. Goh (2000: cited Chen 2005: 3),
focusing on EFL Chinese learners, investigated listening comprehension problems in
relation to the cognitive processing model; he noted that students 1) neglect the next
part when thinking about meaning, 2) quickly forget what is heard, 3) do not understand
the subsequent parts of input because of earlier problems, 4) understand the words but
not the intended message, 5) get confused about the key ideas in the message, etc.

Note: For references see bibliography

78
 Appendix: 6

Attitudes and Perceptions Towards Target Language Community and Culture:

(Chapter III, Section II)

L2/FL speakers’ perceptions about the target language, its community, ethnicity
and culture may also affect their language behaviour. According to Social
Accommodation Theory (Giles, Bourhis, & Taylor, 1977: cited in Carrier, 1999: 70),
perceived status of L2/FL learners’ ethnic, caste, social andsocioeconomic groups in
relation to other groups of L1 speakers can affect the L2/FL speakers’ language
behaviour. In accordance with this theory, Carrier further states:

It has been posited that if feelings towards target language (TL) group
are positive, non-native speakers (L2/FL) (NNSs) converge by using the
TL group’s speech markers in their interactions. Conversely, if the
feelings towards TL group are negative, NNSs (L2/FL) may choose to
diverge by maintaining their ethnic speech markers in interactions (1999:
70).

Interlocutors, according to MacIntyre et al., (1998: 555) evolve in a societal

context, which refers to inter-group climate. They assume that perceptions of language
learners determine “attitudes and values regarding the L2/FL community and the
motivation to adapt and reduce social distance between ethnic groups” (1998: 556).
Tense inter-group relations may affect L2/FL learning and communication. Similarly,
attitudes based on hostility and prejudice against the target language community and its
culture may demotivate L2/FL learners (Dewaele, 2002: 26).

Note: For references see bibliography

79
 Appendix: 7

Manifestation of Anxiety: (Chapter III, Section III)

Horwitz et al. (1986: 126-127) offer additional descriptions of anxiety-related

behaviours: that students with a high level of debilitating anxiety attempt different type
of grammatical constructions; are less interpretative of more concrete messages; ‘know’
a certain grammar point but ‘forget’ it during a test or an oral exercise; complain of
difficulties discriminating the sounds and structures of a foreign language message;
confess they know the correct answer on a test but put down the wrong one due to
nervousness; and over-study without any improvement in grades.
Leary’s (cited in Young, 1991: 429) three categories of behaviour arising from
social anxiety seem relevant to the discussion on manifestation of language anxiety.
These are (1) arousal-mediated responses; (2) disaffiliative behaviour; and (3) image-
protection behaviour. According to Leary, individuals have a sympathetic nervous
system; the arousal-mediated responses are the side-effects of their activation of this
system. Individuals manifest anxiety when they “squirm in their seats, fidget, play with
their hair, clothes, or other manipulable objects, stutter and stammer as they talk, and
generally appear jittery and nervous” (p. 110). Actions that reduce social interactions
are characterized by disaffiliative behaviour; these are manifested by a fewer initiations
of conversations, less participation in conversations, fewer instances of silence breakers,
and shorter speaking periods when in front of an audience. Image protection behaviour
is characterized by smiling and nodding frequently, by seldom interrupting others, and
by giving frequent communicative feedback such as ‘uh-huh’.

Note: For references see bibliography

80
 Appendix: 8

Strategies to Cope with Language Anxiety (Chapter III, Section III)

Hauck and Hurd (2005) offered a list of eleven strategies to deal with language
anxiety to their research respondents (n=48). They were asked to tick strategies that
applied to them and then select the most important one. The strategies were:

1. Use positive self-talk (e.g. I can do it; it doesn't matter if I make mistakes; others
make mistakes)

2. Actively encourage myself to take risks in language learning, such as guessing

meanings or trying to speak, even though I might make some mistakes

3. Imagine that when I am speaking in front of others, it is just a friendly informal

chat

4. Tell myself when I speak that it won't take long

5. Give myself a reward or treat when I do well

6. Be aware of physical signs of stress that might affect my language learning

7. Write down my feelings in a day or notebook

8. Share my worries with other students

9. Let my tutor know that I am anxious

10. Use relaxation techniques e.g. deep breathing, consciously speaking more
slowly, etc.

11. Other

81
Figure: 3 Most Important Strategies
Source: Hauck and Hurd (2005), Accessed From,
http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2005/Mirjam_Hauck.htm (27/03/07-20/08/07)

82
 Appendix: 9 (a)

Research Subjects

Category I (ESL/EFL Learners)

No Country Qualification Gender Class/level

1 Saudi Arabia M.A. Medical Male Intermediate/Upper

Genetics Intermediate

2 Saudi Arabia B.A. English Male Upper Intermediate/ Lower

Language & Advanced
Literature

3 Saudi Arabia Degree in Male Advanced

Mathematics

4 China Degree in Female Upper Intermediate/ Lower

Law Advanced

5 China M.A. Male Intermediate/Upper

International Intermediate
Business

6 Libya M.A. Male Advanced

Mechanical
Engineering

83
 Appendix: 9 (b)
Research Subjects

Category II (ESL/EFL Practitioners)

Number Country Qualification Gender Teaching Level of

Experience Students
Taught
Researcher Pakistan M.A. English Male 2 Years College Level
(co- Language &
participant) Literature

1 Pakistan M.A. Male 3 Years Intermediate/

Education Advanced

2 Pakistan M.A. English Male 3 Years All Levels

Literature

3 Pakistan M.A. English Male 11 Years All Levels

Literature

4 China B.A. English Female 2 Years Beginners

5 China M.A. English Female 1 Year College

Students

6 Taiwan Degree in Female 2 Years Intermediate

Applied
Linguistics

7 Brazil B.A. English Female 19 Years All Levels

8 Sri Lanka B.A. English Female 2 Years Secondary

Students

9 Oman B.A. English Female 3 Years College

Language & Students
Literature

10 Oman B.A. English Female 2 Years College

Language & Students
Literature

11 Poland B.A. English Female 1 Year Beginners

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 Appendix: 9 (c)

Research Subjects

Category III (ESL/EFL Teachers)

Number Country Gender Teaching Where

Experience Teaching

1 United Kingdom Female 37 Years UK/Overseas

2 United Kingdom Female 21 Years UK/Overseas

3 United Kingdom Male 17 Years UK Only

85
 Appendix: 10

Interview Questions for ESL/EFL Learners

Questions Prompts

Positive, negative, good, pleasant,

Q 1: How long have you been learning
English and how do you feel about your stressful, anxiety-provoking, hard, etc.
experience of learning English?

Learning in the classroom, when required

Q 2: Please tell me what disturbs you the
to speak, giving presentation in the class,
most about learning and speaking English
etc.
and why?

Difficulties in learning and remembering

Q 3: Do you think learning and speaking
English as a foreign language is very vocabulary, grammar (which particular
difficult? What kind of difficulties or
aspects of grammar, like verbs,
problems do you feel when speaking
English? prepositions, conditional sentences, tense
etc,), accent, etc.

Speaking in front of people, teachers, in

Q 4: What kinds of situations cause stress
class, in oral tests, in front of
or anxiety for you?
males/females or the person superior in
status, etc.

Get nervous, lose confidence, start

Q 5: What happens to you when you are
blushing, my heartbeat becomes fast, use
in a stressful situation while speaking
English and what do you do in these short broken sentences, quickly finish the
kinds of situations?
conversation, quickly overcome my
anxiety, restore my confidence, etc.

86
 Psychological, personality traits, lack of
Q 6: What do you think are the reasons of
confidence, language difficulties, not
this nervousness or anxiety?
been taught properly, feel it is difficult to
learn, etc.

Q 7: In which kind of situations do you With friends, generally in the society,

not feel anxiety or feel less anxiety while
when only teachers speak, etc.
speaking English?

Q 8: Are you afraid of making errors

Not really, don’t bother, very much, feel
while speaking English and how do you
think people will react if you make ashamed, etc.
mistakes?

Q 9: How do you think your language

teacher plays a role in creating or If he/she is so serious, not friendly,
reducing the feeling of anxiety in the
correct mistakes all the time, etc.
classroom?

Q 10: What would you like to suggest in

Friendly classroom environment, students
order to reduce language anxiety in the
learners? should be encouraged to speak and not to
get worried about errors, positive
feedback should be given, etc.

87
 Appendix: 11

Interview Questions for ESL/EFL Teachers

• Q1: How do you view the role of language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners in
learning and particularly speaking English language?

• Q 2: What kinds of situations and language classroom activities have you found
to be anxiety- provoking for the students?

• Q 3: What do you think are the causes of students’ anxiety while speaking
English?

• Q 4: Have you noticed any particular kinds of beliefs or perceptions about

learning and speaking English in your students and do you think they play a role
in causing language anxiety for the learners? Please explain.

• Q 5: What signs of anxiety have you noticed in anxious learners during your
experience of teaching English to ESL/EFL learners?

• Q 6: How do you think language anxiety can be successfully controlled in the

learners?

88
 Appendix: 12

Focus Group Questions

• Q 1: What are the psychological factors that cause language anxiety for
ESL/EFL learners while learning and speaking English? (Students’ beliefs,
motivation, confidence, expectations, etc.)

• Q 2: What are the linguistic factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL
learners? (Difficulties in learning grammar, memorising and retrieving
vocabulary items while speaking, etc.)?

• Q 3: What are the differences between first and second language acquisition
environments that cause language anxiety for an ESL/EFL learner?

• Q 4: What are the socio-cultural factors that cause language anxiety for
ESL/EFL learners (social status, power relations, gender etc.)?

• Q 5: What are the situations that are anxiety producing for the ESL/EFL learners
both in the classroom procedure and outside of class in the social context?

• Q 6: How is anxiety manifested in the learner?

• Q 7: Which strategies can be used to successfully cope with language anxiety?

89
 Appendix: 13
Plain Language Statement
Study Title and Research Details:

Title: Investigating the factors that cause language anxiety for non-native
learners of English language while speaking English.

Research Details: The study is a student research project required for the
award of a postgraduate degree entitled M.Ed. E.L.T (English Language
Teaching) in the Department of Education and EFL Unit (English as a Foreign
Language) of Glasgow University, United Kingdom. The study is being conducted by
Mr. Muhammad Tanveer (an M.Ed. E.L.T student in the Glasgow University) under the
supervision of Julie McAdam (a lecturer in the Curricular Studies Department of
Glasgow University).

You are being invited to take part in a research study. Before you decide, it is
important for you to understand why the research is being done and what it will involve.
Please take time to read the following information carefully and discuss it with others if
you wish. Ask us if there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more
information. Take time to decide whether or not you wish to take part.

Your participation is not compulsory. It is up to you to decide whether or not to

take part. If you do decide to take part you will be given this information sheet to keep
and be asked to sign a consent form. If you decide to take part you are still free to
withdraw at any time and without giving a reason. Your decision not to take part will
not affect your results in any way. It is ensured that your withdrawal from the research
will not affect your relationship with the researcher or any one involved in research.

The study involves four to six students for individual interviews and six to nine
students for focus group discussion drawn from non-English speaking backgrounds and
will investigate the factors that cause language anxiety. You will be invited to
participate either in a focus group discussion lasting no more than forty to fifty minutes
or in individual interviews lasting only fifteen to twenty minutes per participant. Your
group discussion and interviews will be tape-recorded and transcribed for analysis.

All information, which is collected about you during the course of the research,
will be kept strictly confidential. You will be identified by an ID number and any
information about you will have your name and address removed so that you cannot be
recognised from it.

The data gathered through your participation will be deleted and you will be
provided written summary of the results of the research when it is completed. For your
satisfaction, the project has been reviewed by the Faculty of Education Ethics
Committee. Thank you for your time to read this information. For further detail or any
concern please contact the Faculty of Education Ethics Officer, Dr George Head at
G.Head@educ.gla.ac.uk.

90
 Appendix: 14

Faculty of Education

CONSENT FORM

Title of Project: Investigating the factors that cause language anxiety for
ESL/EFL learners in learning speaking skills and the influence it casts on
communication in the target language.

Name of Researcher: Muhammad Tanveer

1. I confirm that I have read and understand the Plain Language Statement for the
above study and have had the opportunity to ask questions.

2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any

time, without giving any reason.

3. I do not have any reservation if my interview is audio-taped and transcribed for

data analysis.

4. I understand that copies of transcripts will be returned to me for verification and my

real name will be kept in secret and I will be identified by a pseudonym in any
publications arising from the research.

5. I agree / do not agree (delete as applicable) to take part in the above study.

Name of Participant Date Signature

Muhammad Tanveer
Researcher Date Signature

91
 Appendix: 15

Constructivism: (Chapter 4, Section: 4.2.1 Strict and Formal Classroom

Environment, p 41)

“Basically, constructivism views that knowledge is not 'about' the world, but
rather 'constitutive' of the world (Sherman, 1995). Knowledge is not a fixed object; it is
constructed by an individual through her own experience of that object. Constructivist
approach to learning emphasizes authentic, challenging projects that include students,
teachers and experts in the learning community. Its goal is to create learning
communities that are more closely related to the collaborative practice of the real world.
This model of learning emphasizes meaning-making through active participation in
socially, culturally, historically, and politically situated contexts. A crucial element of
active participation is dialog in shared experiences, through which situated collaborative
activities, such as modelling, discourse and decision making, are necessary to support
the negotiation and creation of meaning and understanding.

Constructivists argue that it is impractical for teachers to make all the current
decisions and dump the information to students without involving students in the
decision process and assessing students' abilities to construct knowledge. In other words,
guided instruction is suggested that puts students at the centre of learning process, and
provides guidance and concrete teaching whenever necessary. This student-centred
guided learning environment is considered, however, more appropriate for ill-structured
domains or higher-level learning (CTGV, 1991)”.

Source: Accessed From:

http://www.edb.utexas.edu/csclstudent/Dhsiao/theories.html#top (24/08/07)

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