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ETHICS
Index
S.No. Titles Page No.
1. MEANING OF ETHICS & WHY ETHICS MATTER? ...........................1
2. DETERMINANTS OF ETHICS / ETHICAL THEORIES........................7
3. HUMAN VALUES........................................................................14
4. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE .......................................................19
5. ATTITUDE.................................................................................30
6. THINKERS................................................................................34
7. CIVIL/PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES..................................................74
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CHAPTER 1
Meaning of Ethics & Why

Ethics Matter?
Introduction Whenever you think about the behaviour

you expect of yourself in your personal life
Each of us makes innumerable decisions and as a professional, you are engaging in
every day. In our everyday lives, these choices a philosophical dialogue with yourself to
have consequences for ourselves and others establish the standards of behaviour you
whom we must take into account in our choose to uphold, that is, your ethics.
decision-making process. Ethics consists of
the standards of behavior to which we hold What is Ethics?
ourselves in our personal and professional
Ethics has sometimes been viewed by
lives.
individuals as a somewhat vague theoretical
It establishes the levels of honesty aspect of philosophy having little relevance to
and trustworthiness by which we hope to their practical activities in the world. Ethics
identify our personal behavior and our public certainly involves philosophical activities such
reputation. In our personal lives, our ethics as careful conceptual analysis and reflection.
sets norms for the ways in which we interact However, ethics is in essence practical, for
with family and friends. In our professional the way in which we choose to act and live,
lives, ethics guides our interactions with is the primary objective of such analysis
customers, clients, colleagues, employees, and reflection. Ethics at its core is about how
and shareholders affected by our professional we relate to others.
practices.
In everyday use, “ethics” often refers to
Should we care about ethics in our lives? principles of action that implement or promote
That is the central question we will examine moral or ethical values. Morals (derived
in this lesson and our goal is to understand from the Latin mores, or customs) refers to
why the answer is yes. standards of right conduct. For the purpose of
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SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY Ethics
the exam, we will be using ethics and morals “Ethics may be styled as the art of self-
interchangeably, though some philosophers government.”
distinguish between them. We hold that “an
“The standards of conduct derived from
ethical person” conveys the same sense as “a
the philosophical and religious traditions
moral person.”
of society”
Definitions of Ethics “Ethics is concerned about what is right,
“A body of prescriptions and prohibitions, fair, just, or good; about what we ought
do’s and don’ts” to do, not just about what is the case or
what is most acceptable or expedient”
Meaning of Ethics (Peter Singer)
Ethics, also called moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally
good and bad, right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of
moral values or principles.
How should we live? Shall we aim at happiness or at knowledge, virtue, or the

creation of beautiful objects? If we choose happiness, will it be our own or the happiness
of all? And what of the more particular questions that face us: is it right to be dishonest
in a good cause? Can we justify living in opulence while elsewhere in the world people
are starving? Is going to war justified in cases where it is likely that innocent people
will be killed? Is it wrong to clone a human being or to destroy human embryos in
medical research? What are our obligations, if any, to the generations of humans who
will come after us and to the non-human animals with whom we share the planet?
Ethics deals with such questions at all levels. Its subject consists of the
fundamental issues of practical decision making, and its major concerns include the
nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be judged
right or wrong.
The terms ethics and morality are closely related. It is now common to refer to
ethical judgments or to ethical principles where it once would have been more accurate
to speak of moral judgments or moral principles. These applications are an extension
of the meaning of ethics. In earlier usage, the term referred not to morality itself but
to the field of study, or branch of inquiry, that has morality as its subject matter. In
this sense, ethics is equivalent to moral philosophy.
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Professional Ethics Professional ethics is another example of
role morality. Role morality is the name given
Professional ethics is the set of standards
to moral obligations based on special roles and
adopted by professionals(Civil servants are
relationships. One example of role morality is
professionals) as they view themselves acting
the set of special obligations of parents to their
as professionals.
children. Parents have an obligation not only
Professional ethics is distinguished from not to harm their children but also to care for
common morality and personal ethics. them and promote their flourishing. Another
example of role morality is the obligation of
Common morality is the set of moral
political leaders to promote the well-being of
beliefs shared by almost everyone.
citizens.
Personal ethics or personal morality is the
Professionals have both an obligation not
set of moral beliefs that a person holds.
to harm their clients, patients, and employers,
There are several important characteristics and an obligation to contribute to their well-
of professional ethics: being.
Unlike common morality and personal
The negative aspect of professional ethics is
ethics, professional ethics is usually
oriented toward the prevention of professional
stated in a formal code.
malpractice and harm to the public. Let us
The professional codes of ethics of a given call this dimension of professional ethics as
profession focus on the issues that are preventive ethics because of its focus on
important in that profession. preventing professional misconduct and harm
to the public.
When one is in a professional relationship,
professional ethics is supposed to take Professionals also have an obligation
precedence over personal morality. to use their knowledge and expertise to
promote the public good. Let us call this more
Professional ethics, like ethics generally,
positive dimension of professional ethics as
has a negative and a positive dimension.
aspirational ethics because it encourages
Being ethical has two aspects: preventing and
aspirations or ideals in professionals to
avoiding evil, and doing or promoting good.
promote the welfare of the public.
On the one hand, we should not lie, cheat, or
steal, and in certain circumstances we may Dimensions of Ethics
have an obligation to see that others do not
do as well. On the other hand, we have some The four main branches of ethics are
general obligation to promote human well- applied ethics, normative ethics, meta-ethics,
being. This general obligation to avoid evil and descriptive ethics; each is a potential tool
and do good is intensified and made more for analysing ethical problems and making
specific roles and have special relationships ethical decisions.
with others.
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Applied ethics is the branch of ethics Meta-ethics differs remarkably from
that consists of the analysis of specific, applied and normative ethics. It does not
controversial moral issues such as genetic concern with determining what is right or
manipulation of foetuses, euthanasia, wrong but instead it asks questions about
whistle blowing, mandatory screening for the nature of morality, rather than the
HIV and so on. It helps professionals to specifics of right or wrong. For example,
identify relevant issues and ask what is meta-ethics questions whether morals as
right or wrong in the particular situation we know it exist in the world naturally or
and attempts to provide an objective are invention of men, and if so, can they
answer. be objective.
Normative ethics Normative ethics Descriptive ethics concerns what one

studies the issue of how we ought to live believes to be right or wrong, and holds,
and act. A normative ethics theory of the condemns or punishes in law or custom.
good life investigates the requirements for It is sometimes referred as comparative
a human to live well. A normative theory ethics because it involves comparing
of right action attempts to find what it is ethical systems, comparing the ethics
for an action to be morally acceptable. In of the past and present, comparing the
other words, normative ethics attempts ethics of one society against another,
to provide a system of principles, rules and comparing the ethics which people
and procedures for determining what claim to follow with the actual rules of
(morally speaking) a person should do behaviour that explain their conducts.
and should not do.
WHAT SHOULD I DO? WHAT IS GOOD? WHAT IS RIGHT?

What’s your definition of ethics? A lot of people struggle to put it in words despite
considering ethics a crucial part of our careers, personal lives, identities and society. This
is probably because the word ethics is used in a lot of different contexts. These range
from professional codes of conduct, social practices and the law to personal conscience,
customs we inherit from our culture and family or religious beliefs.
Most of us are comfortable labelling products, people and businesses ‘ethical’ and
‘unethical’. So, let’s get a clear understanding of what the term means.
Here’s an easy way of breaking ethics down into THREE areas.
Ethics is a process of reflection. We ‘do ethics’ every time we try to answer the
question, “What should I do?”
Ethics doesn’t discount emotional responses but it does require us to be thoughtful
when weighing up a decision. So rather than acting on instinct alone, ethics asks us to
reasonably consider our options, what we know, what we assume and what we believe so
we choose a course of action most consistent with what we think is good and right.
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While ethics is a branch of philosophy concerned with what’s right and wrong, it
doesn’t seek to produce a list of rules to apply to all people at all times. Two people can
both think ‘ethically’ about a situation and come up with very different decisions about
what they should do.
VALUES – ‘WHAT’S GOOD’

When faced with a decision every person is going to choose the option, they believe is
best. It might still be self-destructive, mean or foolish, but the decision maker will always
see a better benefit (good) in their chosen action than in any other option.
Values are what help us define what’s good. Some of these will be unique to the
individual but many values are held in common by cultures all around the world because
they speak to the basic needs of human beings.
For example, freedom, safety, community, education and health are all valued by people
from very different walks of life. Each culture might express their values differently – norms
of friendship will differ between cultures – but the basic value is still the same.
We tend to value lots of different things and prioritise them differently depending on
our circumstances. In our youth we might rank excitement and fun over safety but later in
life those values may shift in the other direction. This reflects changing beliefs about how
much good is preserved by each value and how much they matter to us.
PRINCIPLES – ‘WHAT’S RIGHT’

Knowing what’s ‘good’ is an important step to making an ethical decision but most of
us believe there are better and worse ways of getting the things we value. We might value
honesty but still be careful with how we give criticism to colleagues – even if it would be
more honest to be blunt. This is the role of principles – they help us identify the right or
wrong way to achieve the things we value.
WHY CIVIL SERVANTS NEED ETHICS? interpretation of a rule is best, but in others
it is not so easy. No set of rules or policies
First, many of the ethical decisions that can anticipate every ethical problem that may
individual administrators must make are arise, and even the sincerest public servant
not settled by rules. After all, rules do not may need help in understanding the ethical
encompass every situation: often the rules aspects of some situations. So, only ethically
only set limits within which decisions must be aware administrators can correctly apply
made, and some situations are not covered at ethical rules to complex situations, keeping to
all. In addition, rules require interpretation.
the spirit as well as the letter of ethical rules.
In some cases, it may be easy to see which
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Second, good ethical behaviour usually When important and complex questions of
leads to good consequences, both for ourselves right and wrong confront public servants in
and for society. their professional work, they sometimes find
themselves inadequately prepared about how
Third, administrators make decisions
to approach the issues or to communicate
crucial to society at large, and therefore
their advice clearly. Formal study of ethics
shoulder an enormous burden of public trust.
can help to overcome these problems.
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CHAPTER 2
Determinants of Ethics /
Ethical Theories
INTRODUCTION individual, but rather on maximizing the

well-being of society as a whole, and as such
Sometimes the world of public services it is somewhat of a collectivist approach.
is complex, circumstances are ambiguous, An example of this theory that has been
and the situation is new; for that thoughtful played out in India many times over the past
reflection is needed for ethically sound century is the building of dams (Multi-purpose
decision making in these situations. In this Projects). Dams often lead to great benefit
case, while reflecting on an actual dilemma, to society by providing stable supplies of
we need expert advice. drinking water, flood control, and economic
opportunities. However, these benefits often
Our thinking about ethics rests on three
come at the expense of people who live in
broad philosophical traditions:
areas that will be flooded by the dam and are
Virtue ethics: ethics grounded in virtue required to find new homes, or lose the use
and moral character. of their land. Utilitarianism tries to balance
the needs of society with the needs of the
Deontology: duty or principle behind the individual, with an emphasis on what will
action. provide the most benefit to the most people.
Teleology/Utilitarianism: the However, as good as the utilitarian
consequences of action. principle sounds, there are some problems
UTILITARIANISM with it.
Utilitarianism holds that those actions First, as seen in the example of the
are good that serve to maximize human building of a dam, sometimes what is best
well-being. The emphasis in utilitarianism for everyone may be bad for a particular
is not on maximizing the well-being of the individual or a group of individuals?
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An example of this problem is the Waste what the consequences of an action are. It
Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Carlsbad, is often impossible to do a complete set of
New Mexico (US). WIPP is designed to be experiments to determine all of the potential
a permanent repository for nuclear waste outcomes, especially when humans are
generated in the United States. involved as subjects of the experiments. So,
maximizing the benefit to society involves
It consists of a system of tunnels bored into guesswork and the risk that the best guess
underground salt formations. These salt beds might be wrong.
are considered by geologists to be extremely
stable, especially to incursion of water It should be noted that there are many
which could lead to seepage of the nuclear flavours of the basic tenets of utilitarianism.
wastes into groundwater. However, there are Two of these are act utilitarianism and rule
many who oppose this facility, principally utilitarianism.
on the grounds that transportation of the
Act utilitarianism focuses on individual
wastes across highways has the potential for
actions rather than on rules. The best-
accidents that might cause health problems
known proponent of act utilitarianism
for people living near these routes.
was John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), who
An analysis of WIPP using utilitarianism felt that most of the common rules of
might indicate that the disposal of nuclear morality (e.g., don’t steal, be honest, don’t
wastes is a major problem hindering the harm others) are good guidelines derived
implementation of many useful technologies, from centuries of human experience.
including medicinal uses of radioisotopes and However, Mill felt that individual actions
nuclear generation of electricity. should be judged based on whether
the most good was produced in a given
Solution of this waste disposal problem situation, and rules should be broken if
will benefit society by providing improved doing so will lead to the most good.
health care and more plentiful electricity.
The slight potential for adverse health effects Rule utilitarianism differs from act
for individuals living near the transportation utilitarianism in holding that moral
routes is far outweighed by the overall benefits rules are most important. As mentioned
to society. So, WIPP should be allowed to open. previously, these rules include “do not
As this example demonstrates, the utilitarian harm others” and “do not steal.” Rule
approach can seem to ignore the needs of utilitarian’s hold that although adhering
individuals, especially if these needs seem to these rules might not always maximize
relatively insignificant. good in a particular situation, overall,
adhering to moral rules will ultimately
Another objection to utilitarianism is lead to the most good. Although these
that its implementation depends greatly on two different types of utilitarianism can
knowing what will lead to the most good. lead to slightly different results when
Frequently, it is impossible to know exactly applied in specific situations, in this text,
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we will consider these ideas together and actions are ethical that maintain this respect
not worry about the distinctions between for the individual. In duty ethics, people have
the two. duties, an important one of which is to protect
the rights of others. And in rights ethics,
DUTY ETHICS AND RIGHTS ETHICS
people have fundamental rights that others
Two other ethical theories—duty ethics have duties to protect.
and rights ethics—are similar to each other
Criticism of Duty based Approach
and will be considered together. These theories
hold that those actions are good that respect As with utilitarianism, there are problems
the rights of the individual. Here, good with the duty and rights ethics theories that
consequences for society as a whole are not must be considered.
the only moral consideration.
First, the basic rights of one person (or
A major proponent of duty ethics was group) may conflict with the basic rights
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who held that of another group. How do we decide
moral duties are fundamental. Ethical actions whose rights have priority? Using our
are those actions that could be written down previous example of the building of a
on a list of duties: be honest, don’t cause dam, people have the right to use their
suffering to other people, be fair to others, property. If their land happens to be in
etc. These actions are our duties because the way of a proposed dam, then rights
they express respect for persons, express an ethics would hold that this property right
unqualified regard for autonomous moral is paramount and is sufficient to stop the
agents, and are universal principles. Once dam project. A single property holder’s
one’s duties are recognized, the ethically objection would require that the project
correct moral actions are obvious. In this be terminated. However, there is a need
formulation, ethical acts are a result of proper for others living in nearby communities
performance of one’s duties. to have a reliable water supply and to
be safe from continual flooding. Whose
Rights ethics was largely formulated by rights are paramount here? Rights and
John Locke (1632–1704), whose statement duty ethics don’t resolve this conflict very
that humans have the right to life, liberty, well; hence, the utilitarian approach of
and property was paraphrased in the trying to determine the most good is more
Declaration of Independence of the soon-to- useful in this case.
be United States of America in 1776. Rights
ethics holds that people have fundamental The second problem with duty and rights
rights that other people have a duty to respect. ethics is that these theories don’t always
account for the overall good of society
Duty ethics and rights ethics are really very well. Since, the emphasis is on the
just two different sides of the same coin. individual, the good of a single individual
Both of these theories achieve the same end: can be paramount compared to what is
Individual persons must be respected, and
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good for society as a whole. The WIPP dishonesty, disloyalty, irresponsibility, or
case discussed earlier in this chapter incompetence. As you can see, virtue ethics
illustrates this problem. Certainly, is closely tied to personal character. We do
people who live along the route where good things because we are virtuous people
the radioactive wastes will be transported and seek to enhance these character traits in
have the right to live without fear of harm ourselves and in others.
due to accidental spills of hazardous
Classification of Virtues
waste. But the nation as a whole will
benefit from the safe disposal of these Virtues may be classified according to
wastes. Rights ethics would come down the different springs of action viz., (a) Self-
clearly on the side of the individuals regarding Virtues (b) Other-regarding or
living along the route despite the overall altruistic Virtues. (c) Ideal-regarding Virtues.
advantage to society.
(a) Self-regarding Virtues:
Already it is clear why we will be
considering more than one ethical theory Virtues of this class are conducive to the
in our discussion of engineering cases. agent’s own good. The fundamental Virtue is
The theories already presented clearly prudence or rational self-love ( withself control
represent different ways of looking at ). It consists in a proper regard for the interests
ethical problems and can frequently of the self- a regard for the good of the self
arrive at different solutions. in abstraction from the good of others. This
fundamental virtue expresses itself in and
Thus, any complete analysis of an ethical
comprises the following subordinate virtues.
problem must incorporate multiple theories if
valid conclusions are to be drawn. i) Courage - Courage is the power of
resisting the fear of pain. It is this
VIRTUE ETHICS which enables the self to undergo
present pains and dangers for the
Fundamentally, virtue ethics is interested attainment of greater future benefits
in determining what kind of people we should and realisation of higher and more
be. Virtue is often defined as moral distinction permanent ends.
and goodness. A virtuous person exhibits
ii) Temperance -Temperance is the
good and beneficial qualities. In virtue ethics,
power of resisting the allurement of
actions are considered right if they support pleasure. It consists in the power of
good character traits (virtues) and wrong if resisting the impulses of pleasure,
they support bad character traits (vices). especially of the lower kind which
would interfere with the well-being
Virtue ethics focuses on words such as of the self. Thus, temperance is
responsibility, honesty, competence, and self-discipline as well as single
loyalty, which are virtues. Other virtues might minded devotion to one purpose.
include trustworthiness, fairness, caring, ‘Self-control is the best control-’ So
citizenship, and respect. Vices could include goes the saying.
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iii) Perseverance - Perseverance is naturally and necessarily connected
the power of carrying on a task by birth and circumstances viz,
under the persecution of pains family, community, nation and
and obstructions. It is the power of human race. Secondly, there is
resisting the present desires of ease fellow feeling towards those with
and happiness in order to obtain whom one entered into voluntary
higher and more permanent good relations. Here it shows itself in
by the exercise of one’s own physical honour, politeness, loyalty towards
and mental powers.
the members of one’s own party,
(b) Other-regarding or Altruistic Virtues and toleration towards the members
of other parties.
The other-regarding virtues mean the
tendencies of the self to regulate its conduct (c) Ideal - regarding Virtues -
so as to promote the good of others. They
The ideal regarding virtues include-
include -
i) The aspirations towards the
i) Justice or the willingness of giving
intellectual ideal expressing
each man his due. Justice consists themselves (a) In the pursuit of
in not hindering the personal life of truth i.e. sincerity, impartiality,
others. It is non-interference with the concentration and accuracy. (b)
free development of other persons. In the communication of truth i.e.
It is generally used in the sense of veracity and candour (c) In the
fairness, equity, impartiality. In a application of truth i.e. wisdom and
wide sense, it comprises all those prudence.
virtues which have their ground in
ii) Aspirations towards the aesthetic
the idea and feeling of fairness or
ideal.
justice, such as gratitude, veracity,
fidelity, honesty in the dealings iii) Aspirations towards the moral
with fellow-men, uprightness and ideal or ideal of the perfect self,
integrity. manifesting itself in the love of
goodness of nature for its own sake.
ii) Benevolence - Benevolence consists
This is the supreme Virtue.
in helping and furthering the
personal life of others. It means “How can virtue ethics be applied to
sympathy, fellow- feeling and ADMINISTRATIVE situations?”
love. Fellow-feeling has various
This type of ethical theory is somewhat
applications. In the first place,
trickier to apply to the types of problems
there is fellow-feeling arising out of
that we will consider, perhaps because
natural relations. In other words,
virtue ethics seems less concrete and less
fellow-feeling towards those to
susceptible to rigorous analysis and because
whom one is involuntarily related i.e.
it is harder to describe non-human entities
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such as a corporation or government in terms Often, the answer to these questions
of virtue. However, we can use virtue ethics in makes the proper course of action obvious. To
our engineering career by answering questions use virtue ethics in an analysis of an ethical
such as: problem, you should first identify the virtues
Is this action honest? or vices that are applicable to the situation.
Then, determine what course of action each
Will this action demonstrate loyalty to my
community and/or my employer? of these suggests.
Have I acted in a responsible fashion?
HUMAN FLOURISHING/ EUDAIMONIA

The closest English word for the Ancient Greek term eudaimonia (yu-day-moh-nee-
ah) is probably “flourishing”. The philosopher Aristotle used it as a broad concept to
describe the highest good humans could strive toward – or a life ‘well lived’.
For many years scholars translated eudaimonia as ‘happiness’ but there are clear
differences. For Aristotle, eudaimonia was achieved through living virtuously – which
you might describe as being good. But this is not guaranteed to make us ‘happy’ in
the modern sense of the word. In fact, it might sometimes mean doing something that
makes us unhappy, like telling an upsetting truth to a friend.
Virtue is an excellence allowing something to act in harmony with its purpose – so

a virtuous carpenter is one with excellences of artistic eye, steady hand, patience and
so on. The eudaimon [yu-day-mon] carpenter is one who possess and practices the
virtues of his trade.
By extension, the eudaimon life is one where a person develops the excellences of
being human. For Aristotle, this meant developing virtues like courage, practical reason,
good humour, moderation, kindness and more.
Today, when we think about a flourishing person we don’t only think of a virtuous
person, we think about someone who is relatively successful, healthy and who has
access to a range of the good things in life. We tend to think flourishing equals good
qualities plus good fortune.
This isn’t far from what Aristotle himself thought. Although he did believe the
virtuous life was the eudaimon life, he argued that our ability to practice the virtues
was dependent on other things falling in our favour. For example, Aristotle thought
philosophical contemplation was an intellectual virtue – but to have the time necessary
for contemplation you would need to be wealthy, and wealth (as we all know) is not
always a product of virtue.
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In acknowledging our ability to practice virtue might be somewhat outside our

control, Aristotle acknowledges our flourishing is vulnerable to misfortune. The things
that happen to us can not only hurt us temporarily, they can put us in a condition where
our flourishing – the highest possible good we can achieve – is irrevocably damaged.
For ethics, this is important for three reasons. First, because when we’re thinking
about the consequences of an action we should take into account their impact on the
flourishing of others. Second, it suggests we should do our best to eliminate as many
barriers to flourishing as we possibly can. And thirdly, it reminds us that living virtuously
needs to be its own reward. It is no guarantee of success, happiness or flourishing – but
it is still a central part of what gives our lives meaning.
Criticism of Virtue based Approach The virtue-based theory has also been
criticised for not considering the sort of
One of the criticisms of ethical theory actions that are morally allowed and those
of virtue is the following question of what is that are not allowed, but rather focuses on
the right sort of character a person should the sort of qualities one is expected to foster
have? Majority of virtue theorists have treated
in order to become a virtuous person.
the answer to this question as self-evident.
However, one scholar suggested that one
Virtue ethicists are not chiefly concerned
man’s virtue may be another man’s vice and
with what rule one follows or what penalty
vice-versa.
one incurs, but what kind of person one is,
for example, generous or stingy, courageous
Another criticism is the difficulties involved
or cowardly, moderate or weak-willed, or self-
with establishing the nature of the virtues.
indulgent.
What constitutes virtue depends on different
people, cultures, and societies. Different
Lastly, virtue ethics does offer action
cultures seem to provide different models of
guidance that individuals must follow in order
moral virtue, and there may be several, some
to be moral.
conflicting, within a given culture.
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CHAPTER 3
Human Values
Human Values prescriptive (“I believe experiments to

increase rainfall should be encouraged”)
It is said the most important thing in life
is to decide what is important, to decide how These beliefs, Rokeach explains, are
to live our lives. Values are what matter. They organized into attitudes as they become
determine who a person is and what gives oriented around types of situations. They
meaning to life. Everything that is done is are relatively enduring and tend to create
influenced by values. They are core beliefs within us Pres-dispositionst o respond in a
that shape one’s world view and impact the consistent fashion to particular situations—
character of individual and the community. another way of saying that they contribute
to the development of both character
Our external behaviours are manifestations (predispositions) and integrity (consistency
of values, attitudes, and beliefs we acquire from of conduct over time).
family, school, religious affiliation, friends,
professional training, and organizational Values are types of beliefs more basic than
involvement. Through these experiences we other beliefs we may hold; they are central to
begin to perceive patterns in physical nature our belief systems and thus to our attitudes.
and in the behaviour of others that become a They are beliefs about how we ought to
part of our cognitive system. behave and about the desirability of certain
end states.
According to Rokeach, these beliefs may
be: Values are powerful influences in human
experience. They have three components that
descriptive (“I believe rain is a form of affect the way we live:
water”)
• cognitive
evaluative (“I believe rain is good for the • affective
earth”) • behavioural
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Values not only emerge from our cognitive The moral values held by an individual are
interaction with our environment but also enduring or lasting beliefs. There are a small
shape our perceptions as we continue to number of general moral values the world
experience the world. Values also evoke over. These include honesty, fairness, respect,
emotional responses to what we perceive; compassion, and responsibility.
we have positive and negative feelings
associated with what we believe about what Trust
we perceive. The combination of cognitive and
Trust is defined by the Oxford English
affective responses to the physical and social
Dictionary as “confidence in or reliance on
environment creates predispositions within
some qualityor attribute of a person or thing,
us toward certain kinds of behaviour. In
or the truth of a statement.”
other words, what we believe and how we
feel about those beliefs affect our character, When trust is used in an organizational
which shapes our conduct. context, it almost always takes on the primary
meaning of trustworthiness—inspiring
A value functions as a powerful imperative customers, vendors, regulators, the media,
to action; it is “a standard or yardstick to and the public to feel confident in and rely on
guide actions.” For instance, as a public a person, a team, an organization, a product,
servant considering the hazardous highway, or a service. It is widely recognized, however,
you may previously have formed an attitude that one of the best ways to create trust
of support for any effort that proposes to alter worthiness is to act with trustfulness—first
highways for the increased safety for children. extending a sense of trust to others, so that
This attitude may be composed of a number they will trust you.
of beliefs about the accident rate on narrow
highways, the best means for reducing that Scholars have added different meanings to
rate, the vulnerability of pedestrians and what trust means in public service. For some:
bicycle riders, the special vulnerability of Trust refers to the public’s belief that
children traveling by these means, and the activity in the public sector will promote
desirability of walking and riding bicycles shared values and interests and respond
instead of being driven in motor vehicles. to public needs.
At a deeper and more determinative In another version, “Trust is the

level in your cognitive system, there may be expectation that arises within a community
some fundamental values about preserving of regular,honest, and cooperative
the dignity of human life and the particular behaviour, based on commonly shared
importance of protecting children. These norms, on the part of other members of
values motivate you to feel responsible for that community.”
expediting the widening of the highway. They
cause you to want to take action in that A third formulation takes a relational
direction. view founded on reciprocity and mutual-
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interdependence: “Trust exists when one reminded us that while fears and the acts to
party to the relation believes the other defeat them vary from society to society, the
party has incentive to act in his or her capacity to overcome fear “is always more
interest or to take his or her interests to valued than cowardice or faint heartedness”.
heart.”
Several elements of the definition warrant
All these different definitions have the emphasis:
common elements of belief, mutuality,
Courageous action must be voluntary,
and predictability. Trust involves thinking,
and coerced action cannot qualify.
emotion, and behaviour, and trust applies to
relationships among and expectations about Courage must also involve judgment—an
individuals and formal institutions. understanding of risk and an acceptance
of the consequences of action.
Honesty
Courage requires the presence of danger,
Honesty has the following dimensions:
loss, risk, or potential injury.
Honesty in acts including not stealing,
not engaging in bribes and kickbacks. Courage involves the mastery of fear
rather than fearlessness.
Honesty in speech means not deceiving,
that is, not intentionally misleading Moral Courage
others,whether by pretending,
It can be defined as the quality of mind
manipulating someone’s attention, lying,
and spirit that enables one to face up to ethical
or with holding information that someone
challenges firmly and confidently, without
has the right to know. More positively,
flinching or retreating.
honesty in speech means, willingly
revealing all pertinent information. It is a “quality of mind” as well as “spirit”
Honesty in beliefs (intellectual honesty) because, like all ethical endeavours,
means forming one’s beliefs without it involves of both the rational and
self deceptionor other forms of evading the institutional capacities, both the
unpleasant truths and accentuating processes of intellectual discourse and
evidence favourable to one’s self esteem the feelings of rightness and wrongness
and biases. inherent in each individual.
Discretion is sensitivity to the legitimate It enables us to “face up” to problems—not

concerns of privacy, especially with necessarily to resolve them, and certainly
regard to confidential information. not to promise that we will master them,
but to address them squarely, frontally,
Courage
and with determination.
French philosopher Comte-Sponville,
It requires action that is both “firmly”
arguing for the universality of courage,
persistent and “confidently” assured
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that its tools—the moral, mental, and public justification of moral convictions,
emotional elements of argumentation even if those convictions are not popular
and persuasion—are sound enough to
treatment of others with care, as evident
weather serious resistance.
by helping those in need; sensitivity to
It requires us to act “without flinching the needs of others
or retreating” in the face of persuasions,
Although they share a common thread
from the subtle to the violent, that make
of meaning, integrity, authenticity, and
us want to turn tail and run.
honesty,each has somewhat different
Integrity connotations. Honesty refers to factual
truthfulness and interpersonal sincerity.
Moral integrity is the unity of character Authenticity refers to emotional genuineness
and the unity is consistency among our and also psychological depth. Integrity refers
attitudes,emotions and conduct in relation to moral probity and self-unity; in terms of
to justified moral values. Integrity is a moral character.
bridge between responsibility in private and
professional life. Morality requires that our Kindness
lives be unified where fundamental values are
“The simplest acts of kindness are by far
at stake, not compartmentalized.
more powerful than a thousand heads
Integrity and authenticity, capture a bowing in prayer”Mahatma Gandhi.
character trait in which people are true to Kindness is the pervasive tendency to be
themselves,accurately representing—privately nice to other people—to be compassionate and
and publicly—their internal states, intentions, concerned about their welfare, to do favours
and commitments. Such persons accept for them, to perform good deeds, and to take
and take responsibility for their feelings and care of them. Kindness can be a fleeting act
behaviours,owning them, as it were, and directed toward strangers, as when we give up
reaping substantial benefits by so doing. our seat on a bus to a young mother holding
an infant, or it can be a profound gift within
The word integrity comes from the an established relationship, such as donating
Latin integritas, meaning wholeness, bone marrow or a kidney to a close relative.
soundness,untouched, whole, and entire.
Some researchers contend that the construct Forgiveness
remains vague and ill-defined after more than
Forgiveness represents thenumber of
50 years of research.
positive changes that occur within an
We suggest the following definition, individual who has been offended or damaged
phrased in terms of behavioural criteria: by a relationship partner. When people forgive,
their basic motivations or action tendencies
a regular pattern of behaviour that regarding the offender become more positive
is consistent with espoused values— (e.g.,benevolent, kind, generous) and less
practicing what one preaches negative (e.g., vengeful, avoid ant).
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Humility Gratitude
Humility is the most difficult of all Gratitude is a sense of thankfulness and

virtues to achieve; nothing dies harder joy in response to receiving a gift, whether
than the desire to think well of oneself. the gift be atangible benefit from a specific
(T. S. Eliot) other or a moment of peaceful bliss evoked
Humility implies people’s ability to by natural beauty.
transcend a focus on the self or to view
themselves from a broader perspective. J. P. The word gratitude is derived from the
Tangney, identified a number of humility’s Latin gratia, meaning “grace,” “graciousness,”
key features: or“gratefulness.” Literally, gratitude stems
from the perception that one has benefited
An accurate sense of one’s abilities and due to the actions of another person. There
achievements is an acknowledgment that one has received
The ability to acknowledge one’s mistakes, a gift and an appreciation of and recognition
imperfections, gaps in knowledge, and of the value of that gift.
limitations
Openness to new ideas, contradictory Hope
information, and advice
Hope, optimism, future-mindedness,
K e e p i n g o n e ’ s a b i l i t i e s and
accomplishments in perspective and future orientation represent a cognitive,
emotional,and motivational stance toward the
Relatively low focus on the self or an
future. Thinking about the future, expecting
ability to “forget the self”
that desired events and outcomes will occur,
Appreciation of the value of all things, acting in ways believed to make them more
as well as the many different ways that likely, and feeling confident that these will
people and things can contribute to our ensue given appropriate efforts.
world
iiiii
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CHAPTER 4
Emotional Intelligence
- Peter Salovey & John Mayer
Definition of Emotions to think rationally, and to deal effectively with

his environment”. Such a definition has the
We view emotions as organized responses, advantage of broadly encompassing what
crossing the boundaries of many people think of as intelligence, as opposed
psychological subsystems. including the to more restrictive definitions, such as
physiological, cognitive, motivational, and those proposed by Terman and others (e.g.,
experiential systems. the ability to carry on abstract thinking).
Emotions typically arise in response to It includes the broad areas historically
an event, either internal or external, that designated as involving intelligence, such
has a positively or negatively valanced as the distinction among Abstract (Verbal),
meaning for the individual. Emotions can Mechanical (Visual/Spatial), and Social
be distinguished from the closely related intelligences as well as those distinctions
concept of mood in that emotions are proposed by more con temporary theorists
shorter and generally more intense. such as Gardner and Sternberg et al.
Intelligence Defined Emotional Intelligence
Intelligence has been defined differently We define emotional intelligence as

in different epochs. Definitions have ranged the subset of social intelligence that
from Pythagoras’s none-too-helpful depiction involves the ability to monitor one’s own
of intelligence as “winds” to Descartes’s and other’s feelings and emotions, to
definition that intelligence is the ability to discriminate among them and to use this
judge true from false. Perhaps the most information to guide one’s thinking and
often cited definition is Wechsler’s statement actions.
that “intelligence is the aggregate or global Emotional intelligence is also a part of
capacity of the individual to act purposefully, Gardner’s view of social intelligence,
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which he refers to as the personal Formally, we define emotional intelligence
intelligences. like social intelligence, as the ability to perceive and express
the personal intelligences (divided into emotion, assimilate emotion in thought,
inter- and intrap ersonal intelligence) understand and reason with emotion,
include knowledge about the self and and regulate emotion in the self and
about others. One aspect of the personal others.
intelligence relates to feelings and is
quite close to what we call emotional Ability Models of Emotional Intelligence
intelligence:
The domain of emotional intelligence
The core capacity at work here is access describes several discrete emotional
to one’s own feeling life-one’s range of abilities. As we now view it,’ these
affects or emotions: the capacity instantly emotional abilities can be divided into
to effect discriminations among these four classes or branches. The most basic
feelings and, eventually, to label them, to skills involve the perception and appraisal
enmesh them in symbolic codes, to draw of emotion. For example, early on, the
upon them as a means of understanding infant learns about facial expressions of
and guiding one’s behavior. emotion. The infant watches its cries of
distress, or joy, mirrored in the parent’s
Emotional intelligence does not include
face, as the parent empathically reflects
the general sense of self and appraisal
those feelings. As the child grows, he
of others. It focuses, rather, on the
or she discriminates more finely among
processes described specifically above,
that is, the recognition and use of one’s genuine versus merely polite smiles and
own and others’ emotional states to solve other gradations of expression.
problems and regulate behaviour. The second set of skills involves
Models of Emotional Intelligence assimilating basic emotional experiences
into mental life, including weighing
Studies of emotional intelligence initially emotions against one another and against
appeared in academic articles beginning other sensations and thoughts and
in the early 1990s. By mid-decade, the allowing emotions to direct attention.
concept had attracted considerable For example, we may hold an emotional
popular attention, and powerful claims
state in consciousness so as to compare it
were made concerning its importance for
with a similar sensation in sound, color,
predicting success.
or taste.
Emotional intelligence is the set of abilities
that accounts for how people’s emotional The third level involves understanding and
reports vary in their accuracy and how reasoning about emotions. The experience
the more accurate unders tanding of of specific emotions - happiness, anger,
emotion leads to better problem solving fear, and the like - is rule-governed.
in an individual’s emotional life. Anger generally rises when justice is
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denied; fear often changes to relief; Mixed Models of Emotional Intelligence
dejection may separate us from others.
Sadness and anger move according to Mixed models of emotional intelligence are
their own characteristic rules, just as substantially different than the mental ability
the knight and bishop on a chessboard models. These models expanded the meaning
move in different ways. Consider a of emotional intelligence by explicitly mixing
woman who is extremely angry and an in non-ability traits. For example, Bar-On’s
hour later ashamed. It is likely that only model of emotional intelligence was intended
certain events may have intervened. For to answer the question, “Why are some
example, she may have expressed her individuals more able to succeed in life than
anger inappropriately or discovered she others?” Bar-On reviewed the psychological
falsely believed that a friend betrayed her. literature for personality characteristics that
Emotional intelligence involves the ability appeared related to life success and identified
five broad areas of functioning relevant to
to recognize the emotions, to know how
success. These include
they unfold, and to reason about them
accordingly. • intrapersonal skills
• interpersonal skills
The fourth, highest level, of emotional • adaptability
intelligence involves the management
• stress management
and regulation of emotion in oneself and
others such as knowing how to calm • general mood.
down after feeling angry or being able to Bar-On’s theoretical work combines what
alleviate the anxiety of another person. may qualify as mental abilities (e.g., emotional
self-awareness) with other characteristics that
The mental ability model of emotional are considered separable from mental ability,
intelligence makes predictions about the such as personal independence, self-regard,
internal structure of the intelligence and also and mood; this makes it a mixed model.
its implications for a person’s life. The theory
predicts that emotional intelligence is, in
THIRD VIEW
fact, an intelligence like other intelligences A third view of emotional intelligence
in that it will meet three empirical criteria. was popularized by Goleman. Goleman
First, mental problems have right or wrong created a model that also was mixed and was
answers, as assessed by the convergence characterized by the five broad areas: depicted
of alternative scoring methods. Second, the in including
measured skills correlate with other measures • knowing one’s emotions
of mental ability (because mental abilities tend • managing emotions
to intercorrelate) as well as with self-reported
• motivating oneself
empathy. Third, the absolute ability level rises
• recognizing emotions in others
with age.
• handling relationships.
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Conclusion members of their respective organisations at all
hierarchical levels. EI enables Administrators
The mental ability model focuses on to resolve conflicts among the members of
emotions themselves and their interactions their respective organisations. Administrators
with thought. The mixed models treat mental with high EI make their organisations work
abilities and a variety of other characteristics with high synergy and efficiency. EI is
such as motivation, states of consciousness crucial for people management including self
(e.g., “flow”) and social activity as a single management.
entity.
EI and psychological conditioning
Why is EI critical for Administrators?
A stimulus from the environment invokes
When a person is intelligent in one’s field a specific response from an individual. If the
or subject, it means that the person has an in- stimulus repeats in the environment, it is
depth understanding of that area or subject. likely to invoke the same response again from
This type of intelligence results from worldly the individual. This repetition of stimulus-
experience and knowledge especially in one’s response is known as Conditioning. If the
own field. These intelligent persons usually experience was pleasant, the individual is
solve complex problems in their respective likely to repeat the same behaviour by
fields or subjects. But it has been observed engaging in the activity again.
that such intelligent persons sometimes expect
the persons around them to be as intelligent as On the other hand, the individual’s
themselves. When their expectations are not response is likely to be avoidance if the
met by the persons around them, they may experience was painful or unpleasant.
exhibit emotionally unintelligent behaviour by Psychological conditioning happens in
looking down on them. Therefore, EI is critical both the scenarios. Emotionally intelligent
for building harmonious relationships with behaviour can very well be a result of years
people in our work and social environment. of conditioning. The same logic is true for
emotionally unintelligent behaviour too.
Looking at the importance of EI from the
perspective of administering or managing EI with sub-ordinates
an organisation, an emotionally intelligent Being emotionally intelligent with one’s
administrator is sensitive to the emotional sub-ordinates is usually tougher than being
states of self and others. This sensitivity enables emotionally intelligent with one’s superior or
the emotionally intelligent administrator to Head due to the difference in power or status.
motivate self and others to perform at an If the process of an organisation emphasises
optimum level. On the other hand, lack of EI in obedience to instructions from superiors, it
an administrator is likely to reduce the morale becomes even more difficult to be emotionally
of the persons working in the organisation. intelligent with one’s sub-ordinates. If people
Thus, EI is essential for administrators to have been obeying a person in a very senior
build and maintain relationships with the powerful position over several years, it
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becomes even more challenging for the person to understand the situation from his or her
in power to be emotionally intelligent. The perspective. It is fairly easy to see that the
reason is the conditioned behaviour of all crucial factor in this case is the quality of the
the persons involved. Obedience has become relationship between the sub-ordinate and
an established habit in such a scenario. The the superior. If the sub-ordinate has worked
powerful person is conditioned to expect with success over a period of time with the
obedience to his or her instructions every time. superior, being emotionally intelligent is very
easy for both of them.
The sub ordinates are conditioned to be
obedient to the instructions every time. Even On the other hand, if they have met with
if the sub-ordinates do not agree with each very little success while working together then
and every instruction, they are mostly afraid to it is very difficult to be emotionally intelligent.
disagree. So they do not express their feelings This holds true for both the superior as well as
of disagreement openly. As we have already the sub-ordinate. Everyone would agree that
seen before, feelings become emotions when it is always a mixture of success and failure
their intensity increases. Suppressed feelings in life. The key is to keep the net result a
become suppressed emotions over a period success. Therefore, the sub-ordinate is likely
of time. If the powerful person never bothers to encounter challenges in being emotionally
to ask the sub-ordinates how they feel about intelligent with the superior at times. This
their instructions, the suppressed emotions happens when the sub-ordinate has been
are very likely to turn into dormant volcanoes. feeling stressed out at work for a significant
period of time. When a person is stressed out,
The sub ordinates are likely to explode
errors occur and completing projects quickly
any time in anger. Since they cannot explode
becomes increasingly difficult.
against their respective powerful superiors
or bosses, they usually explode against their It is really annoying for the sub ordinate
respective sub-ordinates or other weaker if his or her superior/Head suddenly assigns
persons. As a result, the morale of the entire another large project without enquiring about
organisation is corroded over a period of time. the current work overload of the sub-ordinate.
Hence, it is essential for Administrators to The top people in the organisations tend
be emotionally intelligent with their sub- to accept work overload as part and parcel
ordinates. of their professional lives for the sake of
promotions and other benefits. On the other
EI with superiors
side, fears of losing jobs, perks, hikes etc.
Earlier, we saw why it is difficult for a tend to make the sub-ordinates accept the
powerful person to be emotionally intelligent higher workloads in spite of being aware of
with his or her sub-ordinates. Is it easy for the risks to their physical and mental well-
a sub ordinate to be emotionally intelligent being. In such scenarios, work and targets
with his or her superior/boss? Let us step receive topmost priorities irrespective of
into the shoes of the sub-ordinate in order emotions. So emotions are neglected for the
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sake of performance and output. Hence, EI around them. When mistakes occur, they
is totally out of picture until stress burnout criticize self or others without putting anyone
occurs due to work overload. The sub ordinate down. Emotionally intelligent people value not
should take care not to wait until (s)he burns only their own self-respect but respect the
out; (s)he should identify emotions within self other persons as well.
and superior and persuade the superior in
Stress management skills
advance to see the risks of ignoring EI. After
all, prevention is better than cure! Persons with high EI know themselves
very well. Hence, they know when their stress
Competencies of Emotionally Intelligent
level is approaching the threshold. Once
Persons
their stress level is nearing the maximum
Emotionally intelligent persons behave in limit, they consciously make an attempt
certain specific competencies. And they are: to manage the stress levels. In fact, stress
tolerance and management is a key attribute
Self-awareness of an emotionally intelligent individual. Every
administrative set will have its own share
An emotionally intelligent person is aware
of stress quotient, therefore it is advisable
of his or her own emotions and feelings.
for administrators to develop their stress
They understand their own behaviour –
tolerance abilities.
both internal and external. Hence, they
can regulate their emotions and channelize Balanced temperament
them constructively. As a result, they feel
realistically confident about their own skills Emotionally intelligent individuals have
and strengths while being aware of their own a balanced temperament. Have you noticed
weaknesses and shortcomings. They accept that some people never seem to get angry or
their mistakes proactively and take corrective stressed? These individuals look relaxed and
actions quickly. Once one is aware of one’s friendly all the time! The fact is that everyone
own emotions and feelings, it is easier to gets upset and angry but people with high
empathise with and understand the emotions EI know exactly why they get upset and
of the people in one’s environment. angry. So when they are able to notice their
anger they immediately neutralise it without
Respect for self and others making any visble attempt in suppressing it.
Hence, they have a balanced temperament.
Persons with high EI understand that it
They understand the importance of both head
is impossible to be perfect all the time. They
(common sense) and heart (emotions) and
learn from their mistakes and try to improve
maintain the right balance.
themselves. They accept themselves while
trying to improve. They understand that the Attentiveness and empathy
same logic applies to the other persons as well.
Hence, they have a general respect for self and Listening and observation are precise
others while trying to improve self and others when the listener or the observer is in a state
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of keen attention. A person in distress often very well. Communication of emotions
feels light after talking about it to someone. involves both speaking and listening in an
Therefore, just listening attentively usually emotionally meaningful manner. A major
helps the other person. There are persons part of communicating emotions involves
who do not open up easily. Yet the eyes, non-verbal cues. We have already seen that
face and body language often expose their emotionally intelligent persons are keen
true emotional states. In order to pick up observers and listeners. So they pick up non
these non-verbal signs, one has to be a keen verbal cues quite easily.
observer.
They understand the value of non-verbal
Persons with high EI are keenly attentive cues in sending messages. So they use eye
and they usually pick up these non-verbal contact, eye movements, facial expressions,
signs. Once they observe the distress signs, physical touch and body language to send
they take the initiative to go and ask the person non-verbal messages about their emotions
how (s)he feels and/or whether everything is as well as in response to the messages about
fine. The affected person usually opens up and emotions from the others. A simple pat on
begins to talk about their emotional states and the back or a smile can lift the morale of the
the associated events. Emotionally intelligent other person more than a long talk or advice.
persons are good at stepping into the other Persons with high EI communicate such
person’s shoes and empathising with her or encouraging non-verbal messages very well.
him.
Simplicity and clarity
Awareness of others’ feelings
Persons with high EI keep things simple
An emotionally intelligent person is aware and clear. As a result, others find it easy to
of the mutual feelings among the persons understand them and vice-versa. Once the
in his or her circle. (S)he knows how each initial understanding is established through
person in their circle feels towards each other. simplicity and clarity, the relationship blooms
Therefore, (s)he is capable of promoting team fast leading to frequent win-win situations.
spirit and friendship among his or her team Stress level never goes up when things are
members. Most importantly, they do not use kept simple and clear.
this awareness of others’ feelings for selfish
Communication gap never occurs and
purposes such as politicking, emotional
even if it does, it is easily resolved due
manipulation etc. They use it only for the
to simplicity and clarity. Mistakes are
common good.
accepted and corrective measures are taken
Excellent communication skills immediately when things are simple and
clear. If complexity and/or confusion arise,
There is no point in identifying and
emotionally intelligent persons sit down with
understanding the emotions of self and others
the other persons involved and simplify things
if the emotions cannot be communicated.
together as a team.
Persons with high EI communicate emotions
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Role-oriented team player Identifying & Understanding Emotions
Emotionally intelligent persons The moment we call a person emotional,

understand themselves as well as the other do we not imply that the person is subjective?
team members. They understand the other Think about it and look at your own past life
teams / groups within their organisation over experiences. It is likely to be true in everyone’s
a period of time. Individuals are by nature life. Therefore, identifying emotions could be
unique. So, emotionally intelligent persons extremely difficult if the individual identifying
are aware of each team member’s strengths them is emotional. To put it differently, we need
and weaknesses including their own. They are to identify our own emotions before attempting
aware of the roles played by each team member to identify the emotions within others. If we
and how one team member’s weaknesses are do not identify our own emotions, we are not
covered by another team member’s strengths. going to be objective in the identification of
emotions within others.
Therefore, they stick to their specific roles Types of emotions
and fulfill the responsibilities associated
with their respective roles without stepping The most common types of emotions we
on another team member’s toes. As a result, find in our daily lives are happiness, sadness,
the chances of politics and conflicts within love, fear, disappointment, enthusiasm,
the team are minimised significantly. The passion, surprise, shock, disgust, anger, pain
whole team benefits due to the role-oriented and frustration. If you examine each emotion
behaviour of emotionally intelligent persons. closely and trace their origin, you would
discover that all emotions are reactions to
Conflict resolution and negotiation fulfilment or non-fulfilment of desires. When
skills we have a desire, we often expect it to be
fulfilled.
Emotionally intelligent persons face
We express happiness when our desires
conflicts directly and do not try to avoid or
are fulfilled. On the contrary, we feel sad and
evade it. They may be extremely anxious but
disappointed when our desires are unfulfilled
they manage their emotions well. Hence, they
and our expectations are not met. The same
identify the root cause of a conflict and resolve
holds true for our professional lives too. A
it. Since they have already handled their own
superior desires, defines and expects certain
inner conflicts, they can resolve the conflicts
results from sub ordinates. If the sub-
occurring outside them as well. They do not
ordinates do not deliver as per expectations,
try to escape or look for shortcuts. They bring
the superior feels angry or disappointed. There
together the persons involved in the conflict,
is always the fear of rejection or failure in
persuade each person to understand each
the minds of all professionals. Some people
other and negotiate effectively to resolve the
love their work and show their enthusiasm
conflict.
and passion. Some people work only for the
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sake of earning money and they really do not Involving someone whom we trust would
enjoy their work. Frustration and disgust help us to ensure our objectivity. We can
could creep into their minds when they do tell the person how we feel and encourage
something that they do not truly enjoy. Yet it her or him to ask us questions so that we
may not be possible for them to express their can verify the accuracy of identification
disgust and frustration openly due to fear. of our emotions.
When there is a huge gap between Look out for repetitive patterns in your
expectation and reality, there is shock or emotional behaviour. If it is desirable, you
surprise. When something works out faster can consciously reinforce the behaviour
than estimated, the professionals involved pattern. On the other hand, you can
in the project are happy and pleasantly prevent undesirable conditioning if it is
surprised. So we are likely to encounter not desirable.
situations with a mixture of various emotions.
Identifying emotions could become tricky Identifying emotions within others
when we have mixed emotions.
Identifying emotions expressed by another
Identifying emotions within oneself person could be as simple as asking the other
person “How do you feel now?”. Quite obviously,
Before managing the other persons in it should not be a routine mechanical artificial
one’s organisation, it is important to manage question without genuine concern. You might
oneself. Identifying emotions within oneself as well not ask the question if you do not
is extremely helpful in managing oneself. feel like asking the question from your heart
The next obvious question is: “How does an because you would expose yourself sooner
individual identify one’s own emotions?”. or later. The following guidelines would help
The following guidelines would help you in the learner in identifying the emotions within
identifying the emotions within herself or another person.
himself.
Be attentive to the other person. Do not
It is extremely difficult to identify our multi task when the other person is
emotions precisely when we are not telling you something. Listen and observe
calm and still within. Therefore, we have with keenness.
to relax first and only then look within
ourselves to identify our emotions. It may be easier to ask how the person
feels if (s)he is a sub ordinate. If the
Ask yourself “How do I feel now?” and other person happens to be a superior,
record your responses if you are alone. you have to wait for the right moment to
You can either write down or talk about it ask the question. You could also put the
and record it. If you read what you have question differently by asking “Would
written or listen to what you have talked you like to talk about anything else with
after a few days or weeks, you are most me now?” and then give the person time
likely to be surprised to see the difference to respond. Do not insist on an answer if
between then and now. they are not in a mood to talk.
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Observe the other’s facial expressions identified by us are most likely to
without staring. Prolonged staring with be behaviour patterns caused by
fixed eyes may make the other person psychological conditioning. For example,
uncomfortable. Let your eye movements a powerful person surrounded by
be natural and friendly. The other person sycophants is most likely to feel positive
may be observing your eyes and facial on being appreciated. On the contrary,
expressions as well. the person may become hostile and
aggressive even if we point out an obvious
Listen to the other person’s voice and
mistake committed by them. So, we got
look out for significant and subtle
to be extremely delicate and diplomatic
modulations. Her or his paralanguage
while pinpointing the mistake of such a
may reveal the person’s innermost
person. One of the ways could be to tell
feelings in a subtle way.
the person: “You have achieved great
Understanding Emotions things in your career. You are a wonderful
person. I am sure you are going to do a
Why do we have to understand emotions? lot better than what you have done now.”
Why cannot we stop with just identifying Framing this kind of balanced statements
emotions? When we identify emotions, we requires high EI.
identify only the effects. When we understand
emotions, we have traced the origin and Most of our emotional responses directly
the root cause of the identified emotions. or indirectly originate from our childhood
Imagination dominates sometimes and it experiences. Therefore, trying to map each
becomes difficult to segregate facts from identified emotion to a specific childhood
imagination. Human memory itself may not be experience would reveal their respective
accurate or precise at all times. The following origins. Having said that, it may prove
guidelines would help you to trace the origin to be extremely difficult for an older
of the emotions identified within one’s own person to recollect specific childhood
selves as well as within others: experiences. We can try and remember
the earliest possible experience instead
While the question how one feels enables of a childhood experience. Consulting
us to identify emotions, the question why one’s parents or childhood friends may
one feels the way one feels would enable help. You can suggest the same course
us to trace the origins of the identified of action to the other person whose
emotions. So, ask yourself “Why do I feel emotions you are trying to understand.
this way?” and ask the other person “Do
you know why you feel this way?” in order Sharing emotions usually creates a
to understand the identified emotions bond among the persons involved. When
deeply. the sharing of emotions is related to
one’s career, the bond would enhance
Our lives are filled with conditioned team spirit. As an Administrator, you
behaviour patterns. The emotions can organise team outings in informal
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environment such as sports, excursions, feels, it is obvious that the learner is not
tours, trekking etc. Joint activities are yet convinced about the importance of
highly likely to bring out emotions. EI. One crucial point to remember is that
Understanding these emotions would it takes lot more time and money for a
enhance team spirit and camaraderie. new employee to start being productive.
Therefore, it makes lot of business sense
It would be sometimes very tempting to
to identify and understand emotions
say “I have enough work already and I
of self and others. Work gets done
don’t want to overload myself by trying
faster and at a lesser cost in the long
to understand other people’s emotions. I
run if everyone in the organisation is
hardly have the time to understand my
emotionally intelligent.
own emotions.” If this is how the learner
iiiii
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CHAPTER 5
Attitude
Attitude Content example, attitudes toward the different

cars were formed through a methodical
Attitudes can be thought of as a global consideration of the positive and negative
evaluation (e.g., like–dislike) of an object and characteristics of each car.
from this perspective a number of conceptual
models of the attitude concept have evolved. The affective component of attitudes
The most influential model of attitude has refers to feelings or emotions linked to
been the multicomponent model.
an attitude object. Affective responses
According to this perspective, attitudes influence attitudes in a number of ways.
are summary evaluations of an object A primary way in which feelings shape
that have Cognitive, Affective, and attitudes is through feelings that are
Behavioral components. aroused in response to an attitude object.
For instance, many people indicate that
CAB spiders make them feel scared. This
negative affective response is likely to
The cognitive component of attitudes
cause a negative attitude toward spiders.
refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and
attributes we associate with an object.
The behavioral component of attitudes
In many cases, a person’s attitude
might be based primarily upon the refers to past behaviors or experiences
positive and negative attributes they regarding an attitude object. For instance,
associate with an object. For example, people might guess that they must
when one author recently bought a new have a negative attitude toward factory
car, he devoted considerable attention farming, if they remember having signed
to different vehicles’ safety records, a petition against the unethical treatment
gas mileage, and repair costs. In this of animals.
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Do the CAB components predict attitudes? Attitude Structure
So far, we have shown that cognitive, In addition to considering the content of

affective, and behavioral information are attitudes, another important issue concerns
three separable components of attitude. But how positive and negative evaluations are
how well do they actually predict a person’s organized within and among the cognitive,
attitude? Numerous studies have addressed affective, and behavioral components of
this important question. The primary idea attitudes. It is typically assumed that the
behind this line of research is to examine the existence of positive beliefs, feelings, and
degree to which the favorability of people’s behaviors inhibits the occurrence of negative
cognitions, feelings, and behaviors are beliefs, feelings, and behaviors. For example,
correlated with a person’s overall attitude. this assumption implies that an individual
with positive beliefs, feelings, and behaviors
Key conclusions of the research about the New York Yankees baseball team is
unlikely to have negative beliefs, feelings, and
Attitudes have cognitive, affective, and
behaviors about this team. In other words,
behavioral components.
according to this one-dimensional perspective,
The cognitive component refers to beliefs, the positive and negative elements are at
thoughts, and attributes associated with opposite ends of a single dimension, and
an attitude object. people tend to experience either end of the
dimension or a location in between.
The affective component refers to feelings
or emotions associated with an attitude This one-dimensional view is opposed by a
object. two-dimensional view. This view suggests that
one dimension reflects whether the attitude
The behavioral component refers to past has few or many positive elements, and the
behaviors with respect to an attitude other dimension reflects whether the attitude
object. has few or many negative elements. If this
view is correct, then people can possess any
These components have a “synergistic”
combination of positivity or negativity in their
relation. When an individual possesses
attitudes. Some of these combinations fit the
positive beliefs about an attitude object,
one-dimensional view: attitudes may consist
they typically have positive affective and of few positive and many negative elements,
behavioral associations with the object. few negative and many positive elements, or
Despite their synergism, the cognitive, few positive and few negative elements (i.e.,
affective, and behavioral components are a neutral position). Another combination
is inconsistent with the one-dimensional
quantitatively and qualitatively distinct.
view: attitudes might occasionally contain
Further, people differ in the degree to
many positive and many negative elements,
which their attitudes are based on each
leading to attitudinal ambivalence. The two-
of the CAB components.
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dimensional perspective explicitly allows for People could choose this option because it
this ambivalence to occur, whereas the one- is a compromise between many positive and
dimensional perspective does not. negative elements of their attitude (e.g., they
have many positive and negative thoughts,
The top panel depicts the one-dimensional
feelings, and behaviors regarding eating
view of attitudes. In this panel, Person X,who
rhubarb) or because they have no positive or
is plotted on an axis depicting the one-
negative elements whatsoever (e.g., they have
dimensional view, would be slightly negative.
never eaten rhubarb).
The single axis does not permit one to mark
Person X as being both negative and positive. The failure to distinguish between these
The bottom panel depicts the two-dimensional two reasons for the neutral selection is
view of attitudes, with one axis (from middle important, because measures that directly
to top) representing variability in negative assess attitudinal ambivalence predict a
evaluations and the other axis (from middle variety of outcomes. The best known outcome
to right) depicting variability in positive is response polarization. People who are
evaluations. From this perspective, a person highly ambivalent toward an object are
can possess high amounts of negativity and more strongly influenced by features of their
positivity toward an object. For example, environment that make salient the object’s
Person Y in the figure could be considered positive or negative attributes. This causes
highly ambivalent. them to behave more favorably toward the
object when the positive elements are salient
Which perspective is superior? At first
than when the negative elements are salient.
glance, the two-dimensional perspective
In contrast, non-ambivalent people are less
seems as though it should be superior because
strongly influenced by the acute salience of
it allows for the same patterns of positivity and
the positive or negative attributes.
negativity as the one-dimensional view, while
also allowing for ambivalence. For instance,
Key points
it is difficult to interpret the meaning of the
neutral point in one-dimensional scales for An important issue related to attitudes
assessing attitudes. concerns how positive and negative
evaluations are organized within and
Imagine that people were asked to report among the components of attitude.
their attitude toward eating rhubarb (a tart
vegetable) on a nine-point scale that ranged The one-dimensional view postulates
from “1 – extremely unfavorable” to “9 – that the positive and negative elements
extremely favorable” as the end points, with are stored as opposite ends of a single
“5 – neither unfavorable nor favorable” in the dimension.
middle. If someone indicated that his or her
The two-dimensional view postulates that
attitude was 5, it is half-way between the
positive and negative elements are stored
most extreme positive response option and
along two separate dimensions.
the most extreme negative response option.
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Feelings of ambivalence may only partly Utility: this function exists in attitudes
reflect the potential ambivalence in that maximize rewards and minimize
thoughts feelings, and behaviors relevant punishments obtained from attitude
to our attitude. objects.
Attitude Functions Ego-defense: ego-defensive function

exists in attitudes that serve to protect
Individuals hold attitudes for a variety
an individual’s self-esteem
of reasons. The most prominent models of
attitude functions were developed almost 50
Value-expression: attitudes serve a
years ago suggested that attitudes serve three
value-expressive function, such that an
primary functions:
attitude may express an individual’s self-
Object-appraisal: Object-appraisal refers concept and central values. For example,
to the ability of attitudes to summarize a person might cycle to work because she
the positive and negative attributes of values health and wishes to preserve the
objects in our social world. For example, environment.
attitudes can help people to approach
things that are beneficial for them and A new generation of research has provided
avoid things that are harmful to them. fresh new insights into the functional
perspective. For example, Gregory Herek
Social-adjustment: Social-adjustment suggested a distinction between evaluative
is fulfilled by attitudes that help us to functions, which pertain to the ability of
identify with people whom we like and to attitudes to summarize information about the
dissociate from people whom we dislike. attitude object itself, and expressive functions,
For example, individuals may buy a which are fulfilled upon the expression of an
certain soft drink because this drink is attitude.
endorsed by their favorite singer.
Key points
Externalization: Externalization is
fulfilled by attitudes that defend the self Individuals hold attitudes for a variety
against internal conflict. For example, of reasons.
bad golfers might develop an intense
dislike for the game because their poor Among the functions, the object-appraisal
performance threatens their self-esteem. function is especially important as it
suggests that attitudes serve as energy-
Daniel Katz proposed four attitude saving devices that make judgments
functions easier and faster to perform.
Knowledge: this function represents the
Research on attitude functions requires
ability of attitudes to organize information
further improvement in the methods used
about attitude objects
to assess them.
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CHAPTER 6
Thinkers
whims of anthropomorphic, Homerian gods.

THALES OF MILETUS Rather, he sought to explain the many diverse
phenomena he observed by appealing to a
(C.720 - 540 BC) common, underlying principle, an idea that is
still germane to modern scientific method. He
The first natural scientist and is also credited by Herodotus with correctly
analytical philosopher in Western predicting that there would be a solar eclipse
intellectual history in 585 BC during a battle between the Medes
and the Lydians. As such, Thales can with
Credited as the first philosopher of Ancient
some justification be thought of as the first
Greece, and therefore the founder of Western
natural scientist and analytical philosopher
philosophy, Thales hailed from the Ionian
in Western intellectual history.
seaport of Miletus, now in modern Turkey.
Miletus was a major centre of development
Thales had other modern traits, for it
for both science and philosophy in Ancient
also seems that he was something of an
Greece. Thales, probably born somewhere
entrepreneur. According to one story, Thales
around 620 BC is mainly remembered as the
made a fortune investing in oil-presses before
presocratic philosopher who claimed that the
a heavy olive crop-certainly he would have
fundamental nature of the world is water.
had to be wealthy in order to devote time and
Aristotle mentions him, as does Herodotus,
and these are really our only accounts of thought to philosophy and science in seventh
Thales’ background. However, his significance century BC Ancient Greece.
as a philosopher is not so much what he
said, but his method. Thales was the first According to his metaphysics, water was
thinker to try to account for the nature of the first principle of life and the material
the world without appealing to the wills and world. Seeing that water could turn into both
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vapour by evaporation and a solid by freezing,
that all life required and was supported by PYTHAGORAS OF SAMOS
moisture, he postulated that it was the single
causal principle behind the natural world. In a
(C.570-480BC)
crude anticipation of modern plate tectonics,
Thales professed that the flat earth floated The ultimate nature of reality is
on water. number
Probably born around the mid-sixth
Aristotle tells us that Thales thought the
century BC no exact date is known as to when
earth had a buoyancy much like wood, and Pythagoras lived. Despite his name being
that the earth floated on water much like a log familiar to every schoolchild for Pythagoras’
or a ship. Indeed, many floating islands were Theorem, which states that the square of the
said to be known to the sea-farers of Miletus, hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal
which may have served as either models or to the sum of the squares of the remaining
evidence for Thales’ theory. He even accounted two sides, it is likely that this was known
for earthquakes as being due to the rocking both to the Babylonians - where Pythagoras
of the earth by subterranean waves, just as is thought to have travelled in his youth - and
a ship may be rocked at sea. From the port the Egyptians.
of Miletus he would have been familiar with
Pythagoras was a somewhat shadowy
the phenomenon of sedimentation, possibly
figure and like Socrates after him wrote
believing it to be the spontaneous generation
nothing himself, preferring to leave his
of earth from water, an idea held as recently
students to document his thoughts. Reputed
as the 18th century.
to be a mystic as well as a thinker, the school
he founded would nowadays be thought of
Having sought to give a naturalistic
as a religious cult that taught many unusual
explanation of observable phenomena,
and strange doctrines including, notoriously,
rather than appealing to the wills of gods,
the veneration for - and abstinence from the
Thales claimed that god is in all things. eating of - beans. Pythagoras also preached
According to Aetius, Thales said the mind of reincarnation and the transmigration of souls
the world is god, that god is intermingled in and is largely responsible for the modern
all things, a view that would shortly appear belief in numerology, later popularised by
contemporaneously in a number of world Nostradamus.
religions, most notably Buddhism in India.
Despite his metaphysical speculations being According to Pythagoras, the ultimate
clearly mistaken, it seems that Thales was a nature of reality is number. This idea
modern thinker in more ways than one, pre- developed out of his theory of music, in which
empting many ideas in religion, philosophy he proved that the intervals between musical
and science. tones could be expressed as ratios between
the first four integers (the numbers one to
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four). Since part of Pythagoras’ religious due to one of Pythagoras’ own discoveries.
teaching consisted in the claim that music has For Pythagoras had shown how the ratio of
a special power over the soul, infused as it is the diagonal through a square to its sides
into the very fabric of the universe, the belief could not be expressed as a whole number.
that number is the ultimate nature of reality The problem of ‘the incommensurability of the
quickly followed. diagonal’ led to the discovery - or invention,
depending on your philosophical point of
The Pythagoreans went on to venerate
view - of irrational numbers. Though a major
certain numerical patterns, especially the so-
problem for the Pythagorean cosmogony,
called ‘tetractys of the decad’. The tetractys
irrational numbers have proven a major and
is a diagram that represents the first four
lasting development in mathematical thinking.
numbers in a triangle of ten dots:
Both the triangle and the number 10 -

the decad - became objects of worship for the
SOCRATES
Pythagoreans. In Pythagorean thought, the (C.470-399BC)
number 10 is the perfect number because it is
made up of the sum of the first four integers, as ‘The only thing I know is that I know
shown in the tetractys. The integers themselves nothing’
were thought to represent fundamental ideas
- the number one representing the point, Socrates lived through times of great
two the line, three the surface and four the political upheaval in his birthplace of Athens,
solid. Further, it was thought that there were a city which would eventually make him a
ten heavenly bodies - five planets, the sun, scapegoat for its troubles and ultimately
the moon, the earth and a mysterious and demand his life. Much of what is known about
invisible ‘counter-earth’ (probably invented Socrates comes through the works of his one
to make the celestial number up to ten) all time pupil Plato, for Socrates himself was an
revolving around a central fire. itinerant philosopher who taught solely by
means of public discussion and oratory and
After Pythagoras’ death, his school never wrote any philosophical works of his
splintered into two camps. One maintained own.
his religious and mystical teachings, while
the other concentrated on his mathematical Unlike the Greek philosophers before him,
and scientific insights. The latter continued Socrates was less concerned with abstract
to believe the nature of the universe must metaphysical ponderings than with practical
be essentially arithmetical. Units of number, questions of how we ought to live, and what
points, were somehow thought to possess the good life for man might be. Consequently,
spatial dimensions and be the ultimate he is often hailed as the inventor of that
constituents of objects. An idea later criticised branch of philosophy known as ethics. It is
by both Parmenides and Zeno. The Pythagorean precisely his concern with ethical matters that
cosmogony also encountered grave problems often led him into conflict with the city elders,
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who accused him of corrupting the minds of convince the citizens of Athens that the new
the sons of the wealthy with revolutionary and leadership had a tight rein on law and order.
unorthodox ideas. With a plea of guilty he might perhaps have
walked away from the trial and lived out the
Socrates was certainly a maverick,
rest of his life as a private citizen. However,
often claiming to the consternation of his
in characteristic style, he robustly defended
interlocutors that the only thing he was sure
himself, haranguing his accusers and claiming
of was his own ignorance. Indeed much of his
that god himself had sent him on his mission
teaching consisted in asking his audience to
to practice and teach philosophy. When asked,
define various common ideas and notions,
upon being found guilty, what penalty he
such as ‘beauty’, or ‘the good’, or ‘piety’, only
thought he should receive, Socrates mocked
to show through reasoned argument that
the court by suggesting a trifling fine of only 30
all of the proposed definitions and common
minute. Outraged, a greater majority voted for
conceptions lead to paradox or absurdity.
Socrates to be put to death by the drinking of
Some of his contemporaries thought this
hemlock than had originally voted him guilty.
technique disingenuous, and that Socrates
Unperturbed, Socrates readily agreed to abide
knew more than he let on. However, Socrates’
by the laws of his city and forbade his family
method was meant to provide salutary lessons
and friends from asking for a stay of execution.
in the dangers of uncritical acceptance of
orthodoxy. He often railed against, and made Socrates’ trial, death and final speeches
dialectic victims of, those who claimed to have are wonderfully captured by Plato in his
certain knowledge of some particular subject. dialogues Apology, Crito and Phaedo.
It is chiefly through the influence of Socrates
that philosophy developed into the modern
discipline of continuous critical reflection. PLATO
The greatest danger to both society and the
(C.427-347BC)
individual, we learn from Socrates, is the
suspension of critical thought.
‘The safest characterisation of
Loved by the city’s aristocratic youth, Western philosophy is that of a series
Socrates inevitably developed many enemies of footnotes to Plato’ A.N. Whitehead
throughout his lifetime. In his seventieth
year, or thereabouts, after Athens had gone Student of Socrates and founder of the
through several changes of leadership and Academy, the first reported institution of
a period of failing fortunes, Socrates was higher education - no philosopher has had
brought to trial on charges of ‘corrupting a greater or wider-ranging influence in the
the youth’ and ‘not believing in the city history of philosophy than Plato. Alfred North
gods. It would seem that the charges were Whitehead once said, with much justification,
brought principally to persuade Socrates to that the safest characterisation of Western
renounce his provocative public speaking and philosophy is that of a series of footnotes
to Plato. There is no topic of philosophical
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concern for which one cannot find some view for the task of ruling. The rest of society is
in the corpus of his work. divided into soldiers and the common people.
In the republic, the ideal citizen is one who
Accordingly it can be difficult to
understands how best they can use their
characterise such a vast and comprehensive
talents to the benefit of the whole of society,
canon of thought. However, much of Plato’s
and bends unerringly to that task. There is
work revolves around his conception of a
little thought of personal freedom or individual
realm of ideal forms. The world of experience
rights in Plato’s republic, for everything is
is illusory, Plato tells us, since only that
tightly controlled by the guardians for the good
which is unchanging and eternal is real, an
of the state as a whole. This has led some,
idea he borrowed from Parmenides. There
notably Bertrand Russell, to accuse Plato of
must, then, be a realm of eternal unchanging
endorsing an elitist and totalitarian regime
forms that are the blueprints of the ephemeral
under the guise of communist or socialist
phenomena we encounter through sense
principles. Whether Russell and others who
experience. According to Plato, though there
level this criticism are right or not is itself a
are many individual horses, cats and dogs,
subject of great debate. But it is important
they are all made in the image of the one
to understand Plato’s reasons for organising
universal form of ‘the horse’, ‘the cat’, ‘the
society in this way. The Republic is an attempt,
dog’ and so on. Likewise, just as there are
in line with his theory of forms, to discover the
many men, all men are made in the image of
ideal form of society. Plato thinks there must
the universal ‘form of man. The influence of
be one ideal way to organise society, of which
this idea on later Christian thought, in which
all actual societies are mere imperfect copies,
man is made in the image of God, is only one
since they do not promote the good of all. Such
of many ways in which Plato had a direct
a society, Plato believes, would be stronger
influence on Christian theology.
than its neighbours and unconquerable by its
Plato’s Theory of Forms, however, was not enemies, a thought very much in Greek minds
restricted to material objects. He also thought given the frequent warring between Athens,
there were ideal forms of universal or abstract Sparta and the other Hellenistic city-states.
concepts, such as beauty, justice, truth and But more importantly, such a society would
mathematical concepts such as number and be just to all its citizens, giving to and taking
class. Indeed, it is in mathematics that Plato’s from each their due, with each citizen working
influence is still felt strongly today, both Frege for the benefit of the whole. Whether Plato’s
and Godel endorsing Platonism in this respect. republic is an ideal, or even viable society, has
had scholars divided ever since.
The Theory of Forms also underlies Plato’s
most contentious and best known work,
The Republic. In a quest to understand the ARISTOTLE
nature and value of justice, Plato offers a (384-322BC)
vision of a utopian society led by an elite
class of guardians who are trained from birth
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More than just a philosopher, Aristotle Unlike his predecessor Plato, Aristotle always
was a scientist, astronomer and undertook his investigations by considering
political theorist the regarded opinions of both experts and lay
people, before detailing his own arguments,
Aristotle’s achievements in the history assuming that some grain of truth is likely to
and development of western thought are be found in commonly held ideas. Aristotle’s
both stunning and unrivalled. More than method was nothing if not rigorous and
just a philosopher, Aristotle was a scientist, lacked the proselytising tone of many of his
astronomer, political theorist and the inventor predecessors.
of what is now called symbolic or formal logic.
He wrote extensively on biology, psychology, In contradistinction to both Plato and
ethics, physics, metaphysics and politics the Presocratics, Aristotle rejected the idea
and set the terms of debate in all these that the many diverse branches of human
areas right up to modern times. Indeed, his inquiry could, in principle, be subsumed
writings on justice are still required reading under one discipline based on some universal
for undergraduates reading Law. philosophic principle. Different sciences
require different axioms and admit of varying
After his death his works were lost for degrees of precision according to their subject.
some 200 years or so, but fortunately were Thus Aristotle denied there could be exact
rediscovered in Crete. Later translated into laws of human nature, whilst maintaining
Latin by Boethius around 500 AD, Aristotle’s that certain metaphysical categories
influence spread throughout Syria and Islam
whilst Christian Europe ignored him in favour such as quantity, quality, substance and
of Plato. Not until Thomas Aquinas reconciled relation.
Aristotle’s work with Christian doctrine in
were applicable to the description of all
the 13th century did he become influential in phenomena.
western Europe.
If there is one common thread to much
Aristotle received his education from
of Aristotle’s work it lies in his conception
age seventeen in Plato’s ‘Academy’, where
of teleology, or purpose. Perhaps as a result
he stayed for some 20 years until Plato’s
of his preoccupation with biological studies,
death. Later he founded his own institution,
Aristotle was impressed by the idea that both
‘the Lyceum’, where he would expound a
animate and inanimate behaviour is directed
philosophy altogether different both in method
toward some final purpose (‘telos’) or goal. It
and content from that of his former teacher.
is common to explain the behaviour of people,
More than any other philosopher before institutions and nations in terms of purposes
him, Aristotle made much of observation and and goals (John is sitting the bar exam to
strict classification of data in his studies. For become a barrister; the school is holding a
this reason he is often considered as the father fete to raise funds for the roof; the country
of empirical science and scientific method. is going to war to protect its territory), and
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likewise modern evolutionary biology makes combined and justified it with a brand of
use of purposive explanation to account for the therapeutic hedonism, in which the anxieties
behaviour of, for instance, genes and genetic of contemporary life were salved by the pursuit
imperatives. However, Aristotle thought the of pleasure without fear of divine punishment.
concept of purpose could be invoked to explain
In essence, Epicurus follows Democritus’
the behaviour of everything in the universe.
atomism but with one important modification.
His reasoning lay in the idea that everything
According to Epicurus, atoms in the void
has a natural function and strives towards
originally moved in undisturbed parallel
fulfilling or exhibiting that function, which is
lines. However, some atoms swerved from
its best and most natural state. It is by means
their course by a spontaneous act of free
of the concept of function that Aristotle then
will. The resulting collisions giving rise to the
ties his ethics to his physics, claiming that
myriad forms of things and the phenomenal
the natural function of man is to reason, and
world as we now know it. This important
to reason well is to reason in accordance with
modification of atomis allowed Epicurus to
virtue. Unlike the opposing ethical theories of
proclaim mechanism but reject determinism
Kant and Mill, both of which view actions as
as an explanation of human behaviour, one
the subject of ethical judgements, Aristotle’s
of the primary reasons for dissatisfaction with
ethics focuses on the character of the agent
Democritus’ philosophy. Although he kept to
as that which is morally good or morally bad.
the idea that the soul was itself nothing but
This so- called ‘virtue ethics’ was revived with
the movement of atoms in the material body,
much critical success by Alistair Macintyre in
some atoms could freely ‘swerve in the void’.
late 20th century moral philosophy.
This mysterious and wholly unaccounted
for property allowed Epicurus to maintain a
EPICURUS concept of human free will against the critics
of earlier atomic theories.
(341-272BC)
It is clear, however, that Epicurus’ real
Epicurus’s ethics consisted in the interest was not in speculative metaphysics
pursuit of happiness, conceived of as but with a practical philosophy of life which
the elimination of pain required atomism only for its theoretical
underpinnings. His ethical teaching consisted
Born to a poor Athenian colonist in Samos, in the pursuit of happiness, which he
Epicurus was neither wealthy nor aristocratic conceived of as the elimination of pain, both
and apparently suffered from ill health for mental and physical. Of the two, Epicurus
much of his life. His philosophy represents a taught, mental pain is the worse, for severe
creative blend of the metaphysical interests of physical pain either soon abates and can be
the Presocratics with the ethical concerns of brought under control of the mind, or results
Socrates. In line with Democritus, Epicurus in death. Death was not to be feared, since
espoused an atomistic metaphysics but there is no afterlife and no avenging gods, the
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soul being, in accordance with the doctrine of not able? Then he is not omnipotent. Is he
atomism, merely the concatenation of atoms able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent.
which will be dispersed upon bodily death. Is he both able and willing? Then how can
Mental anguish, on the other hand, in the form there be evil?’ Even so, Epicurus was not an
of anxiety and fears, could continue unabated atheist, since he believed there were gods,
and result in distraction, depression and other but that these gods had no interest in human
psychological ills. affairs, which would only have distracted
them from their own pursuit of pleasure in
Although thought of as a hedonist because
contemplation.
of his emphasis on the pursuit of pleasure,
it would be a mistake to think of Epicurus Epicurus’ philosophy represents a curious
as condoning a promiscuous or decadent mix of opposing ideas. He is at once a hedonist
lifestyle, an accusation unjustly levelled at who preaches prudence and temperance, a
him by the stoic philosopher, Epictetus. On theist who rejects divine intervention and
the contrary, he was aware that many of the the survival of the soul, and an atomist who
bodily pleasures brought with them pain or upholds both mechanism and free will. His
had painful consequences. He himself was followers became known as the Epicureans,
a man of little means and of poor health, the most famous of whom was Lucretius.
given which it is perhaps unsurprising that Epicurean philosophy enjoyed almost six
central to his philosophy were both prudence hundred years of popularity, remaining
and temperance. Epicurus also taught that faithful to the teachings of its founder
wisdom was the greatest virtue, for through throughout, before being eclipsed by the
it we could learn which pleasures to seek and Roman interest in Stoicism.
which to avoid. Moreover, he professed that
no one could be completely happy unless they
lived a virtuous life, not because virtue was
DIOGENES OF SINOPE
good in itself, but because it led to pleasurable (400-325BC)
consequences and the absence of pain and
fear. Nicknamed ‘the dog’ for his vagrant
lifestyle, Diogenes was described as
Like Democritus and other Presocratics
‘a Socrates gone mad’
before him, Epicurus rejected the idea of
anthropomorphic gods who were cognisant Contemporary of Aristotle, Diogenes’ style
of human affairs. Indeed, he was the first and method of philosophy could not have been
to formulate an argument that later became further removed from that taught at Plato’s
called ‘the problem of evil’ for those who Academy. Diogenes was a charismatic and
maintain that there is an all-loving, all- enigmatic character and inspiration for the
knowing, all-powerful deity. Noting the many Cynics, a school of thought that rejected the
ills suffered by people in the world, Epicurus complications and machinations of civic life.
complained, ‘Is God willing to prevent evil, but Whether Diogenes ever actually wrote down
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his ideas is open to question, but if so they oriental schools of Buddhism and Taoism.
are all lost and it would seem out of keeping However, critics complain that Diogenes’
with his lifestyle and philosophy for him to lifestyle is self-indulgent, relying on the
have done so. generosity and productivity of others to
support his vagrant lifestyle. There is a
Diogenes professed a simplistic lifestyle,
philosophical point here, not just a pragmatic
foregoing the trappings and distractions of
one, concerning the universalisability of
civic life in favour of a devotion to the mastery
ethical prescriptions. If everyone were to follow
of the self. Equally he reviled metaphysics and
Diogenes’ example society would collapse
the intellectual pretensions of philosophers.
making it economically impossible for anyone
Diogenes claimed that happiness could only
- including Diogenes - to concentrate on
be achieved by living ‘according to nature’.
the mastery of the self. Therefore Diogenes’
This meant satisfying only the most basic
philosophy is elitist - it cannot be universally
requirements of the body by the simplest
followed.
means possible. Nicknamed ‘the dog’ for
his vagrant lifestyle, Diogenes was allegedly Such criticism hardly troubled the Cynics,
described by Plato as ‘a Socrates gone mad’. the loose collection of philosophers who
He made his living by begging, refusing to wear followed in Diogenes’ footsteps. It must be
anything but the simplest of cloth and was noted that the term ‘Cynic’ had a different
renowned for outrageous public stunts - once connotation from the modern one, being
reputedly masturbating in front of a crowd to derived from the Greek word ‘Kyon’ meaning
show how easily and trivially sexual desires ‘dog’, Diogenes’ nickname. In Ancient Greece
can be sated. and Rome, where a resurgent Cynicism also
enjoyed brief popularity around 1 AD, the term
According to Diogenes, mastery of the self,
stood for what we would now understand as
or ‘self-sufficiency’, leads to both happiness
asceticism. As such it would be over simplistic
and freedom but requires constant practice
to pass off the Cynics’ philosophy as merely
and training in the face of adversity. His
self-indulgent or elitist. The Cynics’ popularity
uncompromising philosophy requires that
coincided with times of economic turbulence
one should abandon all property, possessions,
and social unrest. Their ideas, which taught
family ties and social values in order to
that the one thing of real value - which was
minimise the distraction of ‘illusory’ emotional
neither family, friends, cultural values or
and psychological attachments. But to avoid
material goods, but the mastery of the self
such distractions is not enough. One must
- was the one thing that could not be taken
aggressively attack society to help liberate
away no matter how calamitous a misfortune
others, and purposefully open oneself up
one might suffer. As a general philosophic
to ridicule and abuse in order to remain
principle it has merit and was highly influential
emotionally detached. Though more radical
upon the later Stoic philosophers.
and uncompromising, Diogenes’ philosophy
has its counterpart in the teachings of the
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that you entertain no notions unsuitable to
MARCUS AURELIUS virtue and reasonable nature’.
(121-180) Like Seneca before him, Marcus Aurelius

believed that a divine providence had placed
reason in man, and it was in the power of
‘The happiness of your life depends
man to be one with the rational purpose of the
on the quality of your thoughts’
universe. The Stoic philosophy was primarily
Adopted son of the Emperor Pius, Marcus concerned with living in accordance with
Aurelius himself became Roman emperor for both one’s own nature and universal Nature,
almost 20 years until his death in 180 AD. perhaps best understood in the sense meant
by Taoist philosophers of the East. Simple
He is known for his only work the
living and contentment with one’s lot go
Meditations or Writings to Himself written,
hand in hand with stoicism, but run the risk
according to critics, in the midst of the
of leading to quietism. As a means of social
Parthian war when he might have better
control Stoicism is the ideal ‘religion’, since
used his time directing the army. Still, as a
the more that people are willing to accept
‘converted’ Stoic, he had great concern for
that things are just as they are, the less
the social problems of the poor, slaves, and
trouble they are likely to give the Emperor.
the imprisoned. Despite this, he continued,
Though it is unlikely that Marcus Aurelius
as emperor, with the persecution of the
professed Stoicism for political purposes -
growing Christian population, undoubtedly
the Meditations seem sincere enough - it is
because he saw them as a threat to the Roman
a factor of his philosophy that should not be
religion and way of life, based as this was on
ignored.
conquest, polytheism, and the deification
of dead emperors. His own life ended as a The rationale behind the Stoic insistence
result of the plague, whilst he was planning on living ‘in accordance with nature’ stems
a campaign to increase the domain of the from a certain biological outlook. According
Empire to the north. to the Stoics, all ‘ensouled beings’ (by
which they mean what we would now call
The importance of his Meditations lies in
‘sentient life’) strive towards self-preservation.
their practical and aphoristic Stoic message.
Self-preservation leads a being to look for
A loosely-organised set of thoughts relating to
that which is in tune with its nature and
stoic philosophy, they nevertheless represent
appropriate to its own being. Man, being
an example of a living ethic, of a teaching closer
endowed with reason, seeks not just food,
to religion than to philosophic speculation.
warmth and shelter, but also that which is
For example, the following is typical of good for the intellect. Ultimately, Reason
Marcus Aurelius: ‘The happiness of your life allows us to choose that which is in tune with
depends on the quality of your thoughts: our true nature with greater accuracy than if
therefore, guard accordingly, and take care we merely follow our animal instinct.
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Central to this Stoic outlook is an of truth. Although reason alone could attain
understanding of what constitutes the good to some truths, Augustine maintained that
or most appropriate life for human beings. rational thought was the servant of faith.
Whilst many thinkers might suppose health or
wealth, the Stoics insist that the ultimate good One of Augustine favourite texts, quoted
must be good at all times. It is conceivable that from Isaiah, held that ‘unless thou believe
wealth might sometimes be detrimental to a thou shalt not understand. One must believe
person, and so too even health, if for example, in order to acquire understanding. This idea
my strength were put to ill-doing. Accordingly, of Augustine’s was not mere slavish following
the Stoics conclude that the only infallible of Christian doctrine. Indeed, in his youth he
good is virtue. Virtue includes the usual list had renounced religion, finding the scriptures
of Greco-Roman excellences: wisdom, justice, intellectually unsatisfying. After converting
courage, and moderation. to Christianity in his early thirties, it became
his aim to show how reason could prove the
tenets of faith. This was the idea that informed
ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO his philosophy.
(354-430)
Augustine’s use of reason to justify the
doctrines of faith is best known, famously
Rational thought is the servant of
or infamously depending on one’s point of
faith: ‘unless thou believe thou shalt
view, for putting down the so-called ‘Pelagian
not understand’ Isaiah
heresy. Pelagius had questioned the notion of
Religious scholar and philosopher, original sin, and further held, in accordance
Augustine produced works, principally his with the notion of free will, that when a person
Confessions and his City of God, that are does good they do so from the virtue of their
classics in both the philosophy of religion and own moral character. As a result they are
Christian doctrine. Born in Algeria, he studied rewarded in the servant of faith: shalt not
in Carthage, Rome and Milan before returning understand’ Isaiah
to North Africa to found a monastery. He was
heaven. Augustine found this doctrine
made Bishop of Hippo Regius in 395.
subversive and distasteful. He argued,
following the Epistle of St Paul, that all men
At the heart of Augustine’s philosophy is
are born in sin. Redemption is only possible
the belief that only through faith can wisdom
by the grace of God regardless of our actions
be attained. He saw both philosophy and
on Earth. Adam, in taking the apple had
religion as quests for the same thing, namely
condemned himself and all of mankind
truth, but with the former inferior to the latter
to damnation. Our only salvation lies in
in this pursuit. The philosopher without faith
repentance, but this does not guarantee that
could never attain to the ultimate truth, which
we will be chosen to go to heaven and not to
for Augustine was beatitude, or ‘the enjoying
hell.
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Augustine’s arguments, later revived
by Calvin and eventually abandoned by the ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
Catholic Church, are skilled rationalisations of
(1225-1274)
St Paul’s Epistle to the Romans. But nowhere
does he question the assumptions of the
Epistle, concentrating instead on drawing out ‘If the hand does not move the stick,
the logical conclusions of the Scripture. the stick will not move anything else’
The favoured philosopher of the Catholic
In more recent times, Augustine’s Church, Aquinas is principally remembered
Confessions received attention from for reconciling the philosophy of Aristotle with
Wittgenstein, not for its religious or even Christian doctrine. Born in northern Sicily, he
philosophical pronouncements, but for the was educated first at the University of Naples
way in which Augustine describes the learning and later at Cologne, and lectured at Paris
of language: and Naples. Aquinas was canonized in 1323
by Pope John XII.
‘When they (my elders) named some object, While much of Aquinas’ work was
and accordingly moved towards something, I Aristotelian in derivation, he also extended and
saw this and I grasped that the thing was clarified many of Aristotle’s ideas and made
called by the sound they uttered when they many original contributions to Aristotelian
meant to point it out. Their intention was thought. Chief amongst Aquinas’ many
shown by their bodily movements, as it achievements are the ‘Five Ways’, or proofs
were the natural language of all peoples: the of the existence of God, from his Summa
expression of the face, the play of the eyes... Theologica. The Five Ways are the clearest and
Thus as I heard words repeatedly used in most succinct attempt to prove the existence
their proper places in various sentences, I of God by means of logical argument.
gradually learnt to understand what objects
In the first of the Five Ways, Aquinas
they signified; and ... I used them to express says the existence of God can be proved by
my own desires’ (Confessions, I. 8). considering the concept of change. We can
clearly see that some things in the world are
At the beginning of his posthumously in the process of change, and this change
published Philosophical Investigations, must be a result of something else, since a
Wittgenstein famously called this common- thing cannot change of itself. But the cause
place conception ‘the Augustinian picture of of the change itself, since in the process of
language. Much of the rest of the Investigations change, must also be caused to change by
is a successful repudiation of the Augustinian something other than itself, and so on again,
conception of language. ad infinitum. Clearly, there must be something
which is the cause of all change, but which
itself does not undergo change. For, as
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Aquinas says, ‘if the hand does not move the the cause of all other things being hot, so there
stick, the stick will not move anything else. must be some fully ‘good’ thing which makes
The first mover, Aquinas concludes, is God. all other things good. That which is most good
is, of course, God.
In the second Way, arguing in a similar
manner to the first, Aquinas notes that causes Finally, in the fifth Way, Aquinas relies
always operate in series, but there must be a on Aristotle’s notion of ‘telos’ or purpose. All
first cause of the series or there could not be things aim towards some ultimate goal or
a series at all. Interestingly, both the first and end. But to be guided by a purpose or a goal
second Ways proceed on the assumption that implies some mind that directs or intends
a thing cannot cause itself. Yet this is precisely that purpose. That director is, once again,
his conclusion, that there is a thing which God. Versions of Aquinas’ cosmological and
does cause itself, namely, God. Philosophers ontological arguments are still accepted by
have criticized this form of arguing as the Catholic Church today, though modern
confused, since the proposition that appears philosophers have almost unanimously
to be proven in the conclusion is the very same rejected all five of Aquinas’ Ways.
proposition denied in the argument.
In the third Way, it is noted that we

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
observe that things in the world come to be (1473-1543)
and pass away. But clearly not everything
can be like this, for then there would have
Copernicus revived the planets
been a time when nothing existed. But if that
revolve idea that the earth and around
were true then nothing could ever have come
the sun
into being, since something cannot come
from nothing. Therefore something must Born in Poland and graduate of
have always existed, and this is what people Cracow University, Copernicus studied
understand by God. The first, second and Greek philosophy, mathematics, medicine,
third Ways of Aquinas’ arguments are often astronomy and theology before becoming a
called variations of a more general argument, canon of the cathedral at Frauenberg, where he
the Cosmological Argument. finally settled. Inventor of modern astronomy,
Copernicus did more to revolutionise man’s
In the fourth Way, Aquinas offers a version conception of himself and his place in the
of the Ontological Argument (see Anselm). In universe than perhaps any other thinker,
Aquinas’ version some things are noted to before or since. Even if his work would
exhibit varying degrees of a quality. A thing have a profound and negative impact on
may be more or less hot, more or less good, the Church, he was a man of impeccable
more or less noble. Such varying degrees of orthodoxy. Although he delayed publication of
quality are caused by something that contains his findings for fear of censure by the Church,
the most or perfect amount of that quality. For it is clear that he believed his views were not
just as the sun is the hottest thing, and thus inconsistent with his theology.
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Prior to Copernicus, astronomers had The heliocentric theory would soon be
favoured the view, following both Aristotle condemned by the Church, but Copernicus
and Ptolemy, that the Earth was at the centre was careful during his life not to incur its
of the universe, with both the stars, sun and wrath, unlike Galileo after him. Indeed
the moon revolving about it. Known as the Copernicus even dedicated the work in
Ptolemaic system, this view was wholly in which he proclaims the heliocentric theory,
keeping with many theological teachings, the De RevolutionibusOrbiumCelestium,
in which the universe is seen to be created with apparent sincerity, to the Pope. It was
by God for the express purpose of man. The only later, in Galileo’s time, that the Church
effect of Copernicus’ work was to turn all this condemned Copernicus’ work as heretical.
on its head.
So great and profound was the effect of
Probably first posited by Aristarchus of Copernicus’ hypothesis on the intellectual
Samos around 340 BC, Copernicus revived the world that philosophers and scientists
idea that the earth and planets revolve around have since coined the phrase ‘Copernican
the sun, which remains in a fixed position. Revolution’ to describe world-changing
Moreover, he proclaimed that in this system ideas. The effect of the original ‘Copernican
the earth has a twofold motion. On the one Revolution’ on the development of Western
hand it turns on its own axis, rotating one thought, both philosophical and scientific
full turn every twenty-four hours, and on the is difficult to exaggerate. It gave birth to the
other it completely circumnavigates the sun scientific age and helped remove many of the
every 364 days. This heliocentric (sun-centred) superstitious and ignorant beliefs so typical of
system was vigorously resisted by the Church, the time. It would, for better or worse, lead to
which saw it as usurping man’s central place the decline of the power of the church, and to
in creationist stories of the universe. By a new age of scientific inquiry and invention.
using Pythagorean calculations, however,
Copernicus managed to predict and account
for various astronomical observations with NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI
amazing accuracy. (1467-1527)
Although Copernicus claimed his work

was no more than hypothetical, eventually Never has the phrase ‘the ends justify
the weight of evidence would be too great to the means’ been more appropriate
be resisted, and before long Copernicus would
Florentine-born philosopher of the Italian
famously be supported by Galileo Galilei,
Renaissance, Machiavelli was a diplomat
Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, amongst
and dramatist, but is best remembered for
others. Though still not widely accepted
his hugely influential and notorious work
during his lifetime, by the end of the following
of political theory, The Prince,which has
century Copernicus’ idea would have been
made his name synonymous with political
refined to the point of irrefutability.
machinations. Providing a detailed analysis
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of successful, if on occasion immoral, end, although Machiavelli does not teach
political techniques, Machiavelli’s text is still that virtue is good in itself, it can often serve
used today by students of both philosophy one’s political ends to appear to be virtuous.
and politics. In The Prince, Machiavelli This is perhaps the doctrine that has caused
concentrates on those techniques a successful most outrage against Machiavellian thought.
politician must use if he is to achieve his But Machiavelli himself is unconcerned with
political ends, without regard to the moral such weak and even hypocritical sensibility.
justification of the means thereby employed. If, as we have said, one’s ends are good in
Often criticised by detractors for its lack of themselves, all that matters is that one brings
moral sensibility, it is nevertheless a work of them about; in order to do this, Machiavelli
great intellectual integrity and consistency. tells us, one must have more power than
one’s opponents. Without doubt, The Prince
In The Prince, Machiavelli considers how
is a work meant only for those that have the
best a leader can achieve his ends once he has
fibre to take this fact, surely true, however
determined that the ends he has identified are
unpleasant, seriously.
worthwhile. Never has the phrase ‘the ends
justify the means’ been more appropriately Although The Prince is unflinching in
applied than it is to Machiavellian technique. its teachings, it must be read alongside
The book is almost entirely practical, rarely Machiavelli’s longer and more balanced
speculating on the rightness or wrongness of work, the Discourses, if his own views are
the methods adumbrated therein. to be fairly understood. In the Discourses,
Nonetheless, The Prince does contain he provides more detailed background
certain theses about which political ends as to what he thinks makes a good and
are good. Machiavelli thinks there are successful constitution. His political ideal is
three primary political ‘goods’: national the republic run by the Princes, leaders of the
security, national independence, and a strong principalities, but held in check by both the
constitution. Beyond this, he is almost entirely noblemen and ordinary citizens, all of whom
concerned with practical questions of how to share a part in the constitution. As Russell
go about securing political success. It is vain rightly says in his commentary on Machiavelli,
to pursue a good political end with inadequate the Discourses might easily be read by an
means, for it will surely fail. One must pursue eighteenth century liberal without occasioning
one’s convictions with strength and courage much surprise or disagreement. Machiavelli
if one is to be successful, employing whatever has no time for tyrannies, not because people
means necessary. have an inalienable right to freedom, but
because tyrannies are less stable, more cruel
The heart of Machiavelli’s teachings and more inconstant than governments held
consists in the manipulation of others, in esteem by a reasonably content population.
including the populace, for power. To this It is the achievement of such a government
that is Machiavelli’s prime political concern.
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that he spent most of his time on earth in the
DESIDERIUS ERASMUS divine exercise of singing psalms... but Christ
will interrupt: “Woe unto you, scribes and
(1466-1536) Pharisees, I left you but one precept, of loving
one another, which I do not hear anyone plead
For Erasmus, religion is...a that he has faithfully discharged.”’
confidence in human reason to know
This introduces the central theme of
and worship God
Erasmus’s Folly, namely his concern with
Dutch humanist philosopher and religion as a worship ‘from the heart’ that
theologian, Erasmus was the illegitimate has no need of the offices and intermediaries
son of a priest and was himself forced into supplied by the Church. True religion, Erasmus
a monastic life by his guardians. In the insists, is a form of Folly, in the sense that it
monastery at Steyr his lifelong passion for is simplistic and direct, not convoluted with
Latin began, and he quickly outstripped the unnecessary sophistications and dogmatic
ability of his tutors. doctrine. For Erasmus, religion is based on
a thorough-going humanism, understood in
He escaped the monastic life in his late
its classical sense as a confidence in human
twenties and proceeded to travel and study
reason to know and worship God.
widely. He eventually came to England and
struck up a friendship with Thomas More, In similar vein, Erasmus was no friend of
which lasted until the latter’s death at the scholasticism, nor indeed of the philosophical
hands of Henry VIII. It was whilst making his fathers of his day, Plato and Aristotle.
way to England on a subsequent visit from Erasmus’s hero was Augustine, from whom
Italy that he conceived his best known work, he took the doctrine that reason must be the
In Praise of Folly. Arriving at More’s house in servant of faith. Apart from In Praise of Folly
London, he quickly committed it to paper and and his later Colloquia much of his work
published it, with More’s support, in 1509. consisted in Greek and Latin translations of
the Bible.
In Praise of Folly has a dual purpose. On
the one hand, Erasmus uses it to satirise and Erasmus had enormous influence on
inveigh against the offices and institutions of ushering in the Reformation, but surprisingly,
the Church, for which he had developed a deep in the struggle between the Catholics and
hatred during his time at Steyr. He attacks the Protestants, the latter of whom were
the monastic orders and their conception of undoubtedly closer to Erasmus’ religious
worship as consisting in ‘the precise number ideas, he eventually sided with the Catholics.
of knots to the tying on their sandals’. With This apparent contradiction reflects his
more venom he goes on, ‘It will be pretty to somewhat timid nature. He could not condone
hear their pleas before the great tribunal: one the violence of the Lutherans, preferring to
will brag how he mortified his carnal appetite attack the Catholics with words rather than
by feeding only upon fish: another will urge actions. When More was executed by Henry
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VIII for refusing to accept his supremacy over the content and meanings of words - a view
the Pope as head of the Church of England, Bacon dismissed as like spinning a web from
Erasmus is quoted as saying, ‘Would More the inside of one’s own head. Secondly, the
have never meddled with that dangerous Aristotelians, intent on collecting masses
business, and left the theological cause to the of empirical data, where equally useless
theologians. A quote that brings into sharp at helping a man arrive at any scientific
relief the difference between his character and hypotheses. What was needed, insisted Bacon,
the uncompromising, incorruptible nature of was a new way of collating and organising
More. data that would help generate inductive
hypotheses.
Bacon, like many of his contemporaries

FRANCIS BACON and predecessors, had been concerned
(1561-1626) with the problem of induction, a problem
that would later receive an astonishingly
sceptical response from Hume. The problem
‘The repetitive occurrence of an
of induction, as Bacon’s contemporaries saw
incident does not guarantee that the
it, was that the mere repetitive occurrence of
same thing will happen again’
an incident does not guarantee that the same
English philosopher of science, Francis thing will happen again. To give a simple
Bacon was the forerunner of the famed British example, suppose a man draws nine blue
school of philosophers that include Locke, marbles out of a bag of ten. It is no more likely
Berkeley, Hume, J. S. Mill and Bertrand that the tenth marble will be blue than it is
Russell. Bacon’s important works include that it will be red. The previous instances do
The Advancement of Learning, New Atlantis not guarantee anything about the following
and the Novum Organum. Bacon was also an instance.
essayist and enjoyed a successful legal and
Bacon saw that the answer to this
political career, in particular after James I’s
problem lay in placing the emphasis of
succession of Elizabeth, whereupon he was
investigation on looking for negative instances
made Lord Chancellor until being found guilty
to disconfirm hypotheses, rather than finding
of corruption.
ways of confirming them. This is a striking
Attributed as the originator of the saying precursor to Karl Popper’s twentieth century
‘knowledge is power’, his importance as a falsificationist scientific methodology and his
philosopher is most notable with regard to much vaunted claim of ‘solving the problem of
his concern for scientific method. Bacon was induction. As Popper readily admits, he owes
troubled by the two schools of thought that much to Francis Bacon.
had come out of Platonism and Aristotelianism
However, unlike others of his time, and
respectively. Firstly, the rationalist view that
later, Hume, Bacon was less interested in the
knowledge could be gained by examining
problem of justifying inductive generalisations,
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than in how to generate good inductive
hypotheses out of the masses of data collected GALILEO GALILEI
by observation. Bacon devised a new method.
To illustrate it, Bacon shows how one might
(1564-1642)
generate an hypothesis on the nature of heat.
One should, Bacon tells us, list all those things The first to discover the law of falling
in which the property under investigation, in bodies, Galileo was far more than just
this case heat, is present, then all those things an astronomer
in which the property is absent and finally all
Italian philosopher, astronomer, scientist
those cases which admit of varying degrees
and mathematician, Galileo is probably
of the property in question. From such a list,
best remembered for his work in support
Bacon believes the natural hypothesis will
of Copernicus’ heliocentric theory of the
present itself, which in this case, as he well
solar system. For the sake of his life, Galileo
knew at the time, is that heat is produced
recanted his views in 1633, admitting that
according to the movement or excitation of
the earth did not spin on its own axis. It is
molecules within a body.
unlikely that the recantation was sincere and
Although Bacon’s method is undoubtedly he nevertheless remained under house arrest.
one way of applying order to a body of data,
In 1608 the Dutchmen Lippershey
and even perhaps a useful way in some
invented the telescope. Within two years
cases, it nevertheless seems unlikely to fulfil
Galileo used it to dramatic effect, showing
his ambition, which was to find a systematic
by his astronomical observations that the
way of deriving scientific hypotheses from
Ptolemaic or geocentric theory which held that
the arrangement of data. It is unlikely that
the Earth was at the centre of the universe,
there ever could be such a system. Bacon
was seriously flawed. Galileo also observed
failed to take into account the creativity
that the Milky Way was in fact made up of
and imaginative aspect of scientific theory
many millions of individual stars. He observed
building. No matter how systematically one
the phases of Venus and discovered the moons
organises data, inductive hypotheses cannot
of Jupiter, which had theological experts up
be guaranteed to appear out of them. One may
in arms. Indeed, Galileo’s findings attracted
find that some facts deductively follow from a
such sharp criticism, both from secular and
certain ordering of data, but that is not what
ecclesiastical quarters that he felt compelled
Bacon was after.
to offer, both in his defence and in reply to
Despite his failure in this regard, his critics, the Letter to the Grand Duchess
Bacon nevertheless made some important Christina in 1615. In the Letter, Galileo argues
contributions to the philosophy of science that scientific and theological matters should
and to the problem of induction, not least, as not be confused. Science could not cast
we have seen, in being the first to stress the doubt on religious doctrine, only strengthen
importance of negative instances. it. Nonetheless he was condemned by the
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Inquisition, first in private communication between the primary and secondary qualities
in 1616 and later in 1633, when he publicly of bodies. The former are essential and
recanted. inherent in objects, whereas the latter exist
only insofar as they cause certain effects in
Although his work was instrumental
the minds of observers. Undoubtedly, Galileo
in bringing the Copernican system into
was a great thinker who risked much in the
prominence, Galileo was far more than just an
pursuit of truth, helping to set free the quest
astronomer. Much of his important work lay
for knowledge from the chains of religious
in dynamics and the principles of movement.
dogmatism.
He was the first to discover the law of falling
bodies, or constant acceleration, published
THOMAS HOBBES
after his recantation and whilst still under
house arrest in 1638, in his Discourse on Two (1588-1679)
New Sciences. Moreover, what would later
be Newton’s celebrated First Law of Motion Without the rule of law, the life of man
was directly taken from Galileo’s principle of would be ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish
inertia, namely that a body moves in a straight and short’
line with uniform velocity unless acted upon.
British philosopher and author of the
This principle was important in helping to
famous political treatise Leviathan. Although
support the Copernican theory. Critics of
Hobbes made important contributions in a
Copernicus had claimed that if the heliocentric
number of other fields, including geometry,
theory were true, then a falling body should
ballistics and optics, it is for his work as a
not fall in a straight line, but in fact land
political thinker that he is best known. Like
somewhat to the west of the point from which
both Bacon and Descartes, Hobbes sought
it was dropped, on account of the eastwise
to underpin his inquiries not by finding out
rotation of the Earth. It had been proven by
more facts but by finding and using a new
experiment that this was not the case, a result
methodology. Unlike Descartes, his concerns
which led many to dismiss Copernicus as
were more political than epistemological,
wrong even if they did not share the religious
but he borrowed from him, and other
reasons for dismissing him. It took Galileo’s
contemporaries such as Galileo and Newton,
work in dynamics to show why the prediction
the idea that if the natural sciences could be
was not fulfilled. Simply put, the falling stone
underpinned by axiomatic laws of nature,
retains the rotational velocity of the Earth.
then this should also be the case for the social
Philosophically, Galileo held that ‘the sciences. Hobbes’ method was to apply the
book of nature is written in the language rule of natural law to the realm of politics.
of mathematics’. He was heavily influenced
Hobbes’ new political science first appeared
by Greek philosophy and a great admirer of
in his Elements of Law in 1640, a treatise not
Archimedes. He also maintained, like Locke,
intended to be published, but rather for use
that there was a metaphysical distinction
by supporters of King Charles I to justify
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the king’s actions to an increasingly hostile Not since the presocratic Greeks had a
Parliament. Hobbes spent the next ten years philosopher advanced such an unremitting
in self-imposed exile in France, where he made materialism. Although in the spirit of his
a name for himself as a serious thinker. His times, many of his contemporaries hesitated
De Cive, published in Paris in 1642, develops to make so bold as he, fearing the censure of
the themes of the Elements, but his thought the Church.
is exhibited at its best in his masterpiece,
This materialism, however, had to make
the Leviathan. According to Hobbes man
way for some element of free will without
acts according to certain natural laws. In
invoking the incorporeal soul or mind. For
an analogy reminiscent of Newton’s first law
although Hobbes made much of the natural
of motion, which says matter will behave in
state of man, he had to give some account
a uniform way unless acted upon, Hobbes
of how societies came about according
believes the natural state of man is one of war
to a covenant. For Hobbes, free will and
and strife, unless acted upon and governed by
determinism were not mutually exclusive,
the rules of social living. Only a covenant kept
but compatible notions. Just as water is
by the rule of the sword can keep man from
unconstrained and yet will always flow to
falling back into his natural state. Without
earth, so is man free but constrained by
the covenant, Hobbes tells us, society would
natural law. So long as a man is free to follow
disintegrate and it would be ‘a war of every
his natural inclinations, which ultimately
man, against every man’ and the result would
are to survive and multiply, he is free to act.
inevitably be that the life of man would be
That man’s inclinations are determined by
‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.
his nature presents no problem for Hobbes.
Accordingly, Hobbes advances the notion
of a social contract by which we are kept - and
keep each other - from falling into this dark, RENE DESCARTES
natural state of war and strife. Every man (1596-1650)
operates, says Hobbes, according to a natural
law of selfpreservation. We each naturally ‘Cogito ergo sum’ (I think, therefore
want what is good for ourselves, and the I am)
covenant ensures that this can only be gained
by taking into account the good of others. French philosopher and mathematician,
Descartes is often called the father of modern
Hobbes’ social contract is premised upon philosophy. Known to physicists as the
the naturalistic forces that drive human discoverer of the law of refraction in optics,
beings. It is unsurprising, therefore, that Descartes’ most famous work is in philosophy.
Hobbes turns out to be a materialist, for whom Meditations on First Philosophy set the agenda
everything in the universe is corporeal, ruling for speculation in the philosophy of mind
out the existence of such things as incorporeal and epistemology for at least the next 300
spirits or souls. Even God is merely matter. years. He raised problems of such radical
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scepticism about our knowledge of the world and therefore rejects any information obtained
that he suggests that the only thing one can through the senses as being uncertain and
be certain of is the fact of one’s own existence, fallible.
an insight summed up in his famous maxim
Even so, one might think that although
‘cogito ergo sum’, popularly translated as ‘I
the senses may deceive from time to time,
think therefore I am’.
Descartes can be sure, at least, that he is
Descartes’ program in the Meditations is sitting in his study, or is a Frenchman with
to put the edifice of human knowledge upon an interest in philosophy and so on. But he
secure foundations. Reviewing his beliefs, he recognises that there is no clear and distinct
finds that many are contrary. Some are more way of telling the difference between reality
or less justified than others; some, such as the and dreaming. How does he know that the
propositions of mathematics, seem certain; life he thinks he is leading is not just part
others readily turn out to be false. He resolves of a dream? There are no clear ways of
to put some kind of order into this jumble of distinguishing between waking life and a life
beliefs so that justification of one proposition merely dreamt.
may follow from another. In order to do that he
So, rejecting all perceptual knowledge,
needs to begin with whatever is most certain
Descartes turns to what he believes on
and infallible. The question is, where to start?
account of his own internal reflections. Surely
Descartes comes up with an ingenious he knows that 2 + 3 = 5, that a mother is
program. Rather than attempt to examine and older than her daughter, that a triangle has
order each belief in turn, a task impossible to three sides? But it could be the case, reflects
contemplate, he decides to examine his beliefs Descartes, that he is the subject of a massive
against a method of doubt. The method of deception. Now Descartes imagines a scenario
doubt consists in questioning the source of wherein he might be deceived by a divinely
his beliefs and asking whether that source powerful, but malignant being; a demonic
is infallible. If not, he can be sure that any being that could manipulate his thoughts, as
belief from that source cannot be relied upon God might if he were not supremely good, into
to provide the foundations of knowledge. thinking anything the demon might choose.
This idea of wholesale radical deception has
To begin with, Descartes notes that many
been the subject of recent popular films such
of his beliefs are derived from his senses, or
as The Matrix and Twelve Monkeys. Descartes
from perception. He notes that the senses,
realizes, however, that there is one proposition
however, can often mislead. A stick may look
that neither the evil demon nor even God
bent viewed half submerged in water, the true
could ever make false. This is that at any time
size of the sun and the moon is many times
when he thinks, it must be the case that he
greater than would appear from sight and so
exists. For he must exist in order to be able
on. One can even suffer hallucinations such
that what one thinks to be there does not to think. By such reasoning Descartes is led
exist at all. Descartes resolves not to trust to the cogito as the one certain, infallible rock
completely that which has deceived him once, of knowledge.
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For Descartes, the cogito was the beginning therefore first be founded on a number of
of a project in which he attempted to prove the ontological, metaphysical and epistemic
existence of God, in order to guarantee the beliefs. Each of these is, in turn, demonstrated
rest of human knowledge. His commentators, in geometric fashion.
unimpressed by his weak version of Anselm’s
Central to Spinoza’s philosophy is the
ontological argument or his own ‘trademark
idea, similar to that of Parmenides, that
argument’ to prove the existence of God, have
everything in the universe is One. There is
taken the Meditations to be the definitive work
only one substance and that substance we
of epistemological scepticism.
can conceive of as either Nature or God. This
substance has infinitely many attributes but
BENEDICT DE SPINOZA human beings, being finite, can only perceive
two of them, extension and thought. Unlike
(1632-1677)
Descartes, who thought mind and body were
two separate kinds of thing, Spinoza argues
There is only one substance, and that mind and body are just different ways of
that substance we can conceive of as conceiving the same reality.
either Nature or God
This reality, Nature or God, is wholly self
Dutch philosopher of Jewish origin, contained, self-causing and self-sufficient.
Spinoza remains one of the most compelling if Everything in the universe is part of God,
difficult philosophers of the Rationalist school. and everything that happens is a necessary
Greatly influenced by Descartes and Euclid, part or expression of the divine nature. The
he takes rationalism to its logical extremes, upshot of this pantheistic view is to remove
determining to set out the principles of an free will from the realm of human actions.
ethical system in axiomatic format, much After all, if human beings are part of the
as Euclid proved his theorems of geometry. divine reality there is no room for independent
Spinoza’s ambitious project is perhaps one causal actions. Spinoza is more than happy
of the greatest ever undertaken in philosophy with this conclusion, he is a thorough-going
and it is a mark of his greatness that, to determinist: ‘...experience tells us clearly
a considerable extent, he was remarkably that men believe themselves to be free simply
successful in this undertaking. because they are conscious of their actions
and unconscious of the causes whereby these
In the posthumously published
actions are determined; further, it is plain that
Ethicaordinegeometricodemonstrata (Ethics
the dictates of the mind are simply another
demonstrated in geometrical order), Spinoza
name for the appetites that vary according to
sets out the axiomswhich he takes to be self-
the varying state of the body.’
evident and then proceeds, step by step, to
deduce ethical conclusions. Like Descartes, Nevertheless, Spinoza does find a way of
he is concerned to set knowledge on logical making room for a kind of freedom, though
foundations: his ethical conclusions must
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it is not of the sort that philosophers are integrity of his work, Spinoza remains one of
generally used to. Each individual, says the lesser studied and least regarded of all the
Spinoza, is a localised concentration of the rationalist philosophers.
attributes of reality, really a quasi-individual,
since the only true individual is the universe
in totality. Insofar as the quasi-individual is JOHN LOCKE
ruled by his emotions, he is unfree and at (1632-1704)
the mercy of finite understanding. To become
free, the individual must, by means of rational
reflection, understand the extended causal
The mind at birth is like be written on
chain that links everything as one. To become
by the a blank slate, waiting to world
aware of the totality of the universe is to be
of experience
freed, not from causal determinism, but from In his day, John Locke was an important
an ignorance of one’s true nature. political figure and author of the liberal
exposition Two Treatises of Government. An
What then, of wickedness, sin and evil?
associate of the Earl of Shaftesbury, Locke
Since everything is part of one reality, spent time in exile in Holland, returning
there is no such thing as evil from the to England after the ‘Glorious Revolution’
viewpoint of the whole - ‘sub specie aeternitis’ of 1688. It is for his views on the nature of
(from the aspect of eternity). That which human knowledge, however, in his Essay
appears evil does so only because we lack Concerning Human Understanding that he
the understanding to see the bigger picture, is remembered in modern philosophy. Twenty
the chain of causes that makes all events years in the writing, the book was to exert
a necessary part of divine reality. Though such an influence on the next 100 years of
many were shocked by this in Spinoza’s day, Western thought that its author is considered
it reflects the same sentiment expressed by by many to be the greatest British philosopher
those Christians who persevere in the face of all time. The works of Berkeley, Kant and
of adversity by claiming that ‘God moves in Hume are all direct successors to Locke’s
mysterious ways’ and ‘ours is not to reason Essay.
why’. Of course, for Spinoza, to reason why
The subject of Locke’s Essay, as given in the
is exactly what we must do to attain freedom.
title, is the nature of human understanding,
Interestingly, Spinoza’s philosophy is that is, the very way in which the human mind
both mystical, rational and theistic. Yet collects, organises, classifies and ultimately
he was excommunicated from the Jewish makes judgements based on data received
community for his views, denounced as an through the senses. Greatly influenced by the
atheist by Christians and declared so wicked scientific turn of his day, and a personal friend
that at one time his books were publicly burnt. of two renowned contemporary scientists,
Leibniz, who owes a great deal to him, rarely Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton, Locke’s intent
acknowledges the debt. Despite the rigour and was to set the foundations of human knowledge
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on a sound scientific footing. He had read of a unicorn, a complex idea itself made up
with great interest Descartes’ Meditations, from conjoining other complex ideas, such as
but rejected the rationalist philosophy that ‘horse’ and ‘horn’.
underpinned its conclusions. For Locke,
there could be no innate knowledge: rather, Among Locke’s simple ideas is a distinction
everything we know must be derived from between those that are primary qualities
experience, through the actions of the physical of objects and others that are secondary
world on our sense organs. This is the view qualities. The distinction divides those
now known as empiricism, a view still central, qualities thought to be essential and inherent
in essence if not detail, to the philosophies of to all objects and those that are apparent
Quine and other modern thinkers. Locke’s only on account of the effect objects have on
detractors, the Rationalists (see Descartes, our senses. Primary qualities are those such
Berkeley, Leibniz) with whom the Empiricists as solidity, extension, shape, motion or rest,
battled for ideological supremacy throughout and number. Secondary qualities are those
the 17th and 18th centuries, have their such as colour, scent and taste. These are
modern counterparts in the supporters of secondary because, according to Locke, they
Noam Chomsky and his philosophy of innate, do not inhere in objects themselves, but are
or generative, grammar. causally produced only in our minds by the
effect of an object’s primary qualities upon our
Locke states that the mind at birth is senses. Another way of conceiving them is to
like a blank slate, or tabula rasa, waiting say primary qualities are objective (really exist)
to be written on by the world of experience. and secondary ones subjective (only exist in
All human knowledge is derived from ideas the minds of observers).
presented to the mind by the world of
experience. However, these ideas can be In the popular conundrum of whether
classified into two general sorts. a falling tree makes a sound when there
is no one to hear it, Locke’s view would be
There are complex ideas and simple ideas. that the falling tree creates vibrations in
Simple ideas are the immediate products the air, but that there is no ‘sound’ strictly
of sensory stimulation, examples would be speaking, since sound is not a ‘real’ or primary
‘yellow’, ‘bitter’, ‘warm’, ‘round’, ‘hard’ and so quality. This view, sometimes called ‘scientific
on. Complex ideas are constructions out of essentialism’, leads to the metaphysical
simple ideas, and are the product of internal conclusion, plausible to many modern
mental operations. These include all our ideas thinkers, that without a perceiving mind,
of familiar material objects, such as tables, there is no such thing in the world as colour
chairs, cats, dogs and horses. But complex or sound, sweet or sour and so on; but there
ideas need not represent anything real in are really such things as shape, extension
the world. This accounts for ideas like that and solidity, independently of whether anyone
perceives them or not.
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on what he saw as the abuse of power by
VOLTAIRE society’s elite, inevitably bringing himself into
conflict with this elite once again. Typical of
(1694-1778) his view of religion is the following excerpt from
his Philosophical Dictionary, an eminently
‘He [the theist] laughs at Lorette and readable work even by today’s literary
at Mecca; but he succours the needy standards, in which he relates the qualities
and defends the oppressed’ of a theist: ‘Reconciled in this principle with
the rest of the universe, he does not embrace
Voltaire was born Francois-Marie Arouet,
any of the sects, all of which contradict each
to a wealthy Parisian family. Intended for the
other; his religion is the most ancient and the
legal profession, Voltaire rebelled against his
most widespread; for the simple worship of a
family’s wishes and pursued a literary career,
God has preceded all the systems of the world.
much to the embarrassment, at times, of his
parents. He was imprisoned in the Bastille for He speaks a language that all peoples
penning libellous poems, during which time understand, while they do not understand
he wrote tragedies and adopted the name of one another. He has brothers from Peking
Voltaire. After a second spell in prison, he quit to Cayenne, and he counts all wise men
France for England, where he came under the as his brethren. He believes that religion
lasting influence of the works of Locke and does not consist either in the opinions of an
Newton. unintelligible metaphysic, or in vain display,
but in worship and justice. The doing of good,
Following Locke and Newton, Voltaire
there is his service; being submissive to God,
championed reason over superstition and,
there is his doctrine. The Mohamedan cries
though he held certain deistic beliefs,
to him: “Have a care if you do not make the
denounced the power of the clergy. He later
pilgrimage to Mecca!” “ Woe unto you,” says
contributed to what proved to be perhaps
a Recollet, “if you do not make a journey to
the greatest intellectual project of the times,
Notre-Dame de Lorette!” He laughs at Lorette
the Encyclopedia edited by Diderot and Jean
and at Mecca; but he succours the needy and
d’Alembert. The Encyclopediawas to become
defends the oppressed.’
the subject of further controversy for Voltaire,
as it was considered to be a challenge to faith It is small wonder the Church found
by encouraging people to look to the power him vexatious. But Voltaire’s interests were
of reason. much wider than theology. During his time
in England, he had also greatly admired
Alongside his championship of reason,
the English constitution. On considering
Voltaire became a strong voice in calls for
democracy, he writes, ‘One questions every
freedom of expression. Since he had himself
day whether a republican government is
been persecuted for his writings this was,
preferable to a king’s government. The dispute
perhaps, a natural consequence of his own
ends always by agreeing that to govern men is
experience. Accordingly he wrote many satires
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very difficult. The Jews had God Himself for first independent work until he was nearly
master; see what has happened to them on forty years old, but soon became famous
that account: nearly always have they been on its publication. He became the leading
beaten and slaves but do you not find today French philosopher of the Enlightenment,
they cut a pretty figure?’ responsible for inaugurating the Romantic
movement in Continental philosophy. Despite
As a philosopher Voltaire is not by his own
his success as a writer, Rousseau fell out with
work particularly original. However, he must
almost everyone who knew him, including the
be included in any retrospective of Western
Catholics and Mme de Warens, who had by
thought for the huge influence his writings
this time become his mistress. He fell out too
have had. Voltaire did more to popularise and
with the Protestants and the Government of
instigate ‘the age of reason’ than any other
France after publishing The Social Contract.
philosopher. His style is always readable,
He ended his days alone in poverty and
provocative and laced with wit. Not until the
despair having fled from country to country.
plays and stories of the existentialists in the
After quarrelling with his one-time friend
twentieth century would philosophy be again
David Hume in England, he finally expired
so popularly read.
in Paris, most probably committing suicide.
Apart from his collaboration on Diderot’s
Encyclopedia, Rousseau’s best works are his
JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU Confessions, Emile, and The Social Contract.
(1712-1778) The Social Contract is Rousseau’s magnum

opus, in which he provides a blueprint for the
‘Man was born free, and he is ideal society, in contrast to the contemporary
everywhere in chains’ social, political and educational climate
which he had criticized in his earlier work,
Rousseau was born in Geneva, the son of a
particularly Emile and The Origin of Inequality.
watchmaker. Rousseau’s mother died in child
In these works, Rousseau had argued that
birth and his father showed little interest in
injustice was a result of institutions which
him: the young Rousseau was left in Geneva
suppress the natural will and ability of men.
when his father was exiled to Lyons. At the
In the later book, Rousseau introduces his
age of fourteen Rousseau left Geneva and
famous concept of ‘the noble savage’, declaring
after several adventures, ended up in Turin.
that ‘Men in a state of nature do not know
Several more years of wandering from place
good and evil, but only their independence’,
to place passed until he was taken into the
and this along with ‘the peacefulness of their
private care of a certain Madame de Warens.
passions, and their ignorance of vice, prevents
Under her care he took to reading and them from doing ill’.
study and spent some eight years there until
Man was born free, and he is everywhere
obtaining a job as secretary to the French
in chains’. With this famous opening line,
Ambassador in Venice. He did not write his
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Rousseau begins The Social Contract. Greece that were known at times to practise
Frequently misinterpreted as a blueprint for just this sort of democracy.
totalitarianism, Rousseau’s work stressed the
Secondly, and this is the significance of
connection between liberty and law, freedom
the small city-state, insofar as the sovereign
and justice. The ruler, emphasises Rousseau,
can impose legislation upon the members of
is the agent of the people not the master, and
the state in the name of the general will, the
yet his doctrine of an abstract general will
sovereign is no more than the community
appears to license the tyranny of the majority
itself in its legislative and collective capacity.
over minorities. For although Rousseau
In other words, as Rousseau sees it, there can
esteems the democratic process, he combines
be no disharmony between the interests of
it with a duty of all those who participate in
the sovereign and the interests of the people,
society to obey that which is for the greater
since by definition, the former is constituted
good of the state, thus eroding any notion of
from the latter.
individual rights. Indeed, Rousseau insists
explicitly that any notion of individual rights However, one should not overlook the fact
must be forsaken. that there are serious tensions in Rousseau’s
concept of a social contract. Rousseau is not
The general will, Rousseau tells us, is the
so much the idealist that he does not realise
will of all those directed to their own common
there will be times when an individual’s will
interests and must be understood as distinct
runs counter to the general will. In such cases
from ‘the will of all’, which is merely the
there is no compromise: the individual shall be
aggregate of individual selfish wills. ‘Each
forced to comply, or in Rousseau’s pithy but
of us puts his person and all his power in
rather chilling words, ‘This means nothing less
common under the supreme direction of the
than that he will be forced to be free.
general will, and, in our corporate capacity,
we receive each member as an indivisible
part of the whole’. The general will, however, IMMANUEL KANT
appears to generate a force that is greater than
the sum of its parts. There is a suggestion in (1724-1804)
Rousseau’s writings that the general will takes
on the aspect of a personal will, over and above ‘What are the necessary
the members of the society that give it power. preconditions for having any
The populace have a duty to obey, leading to experience at all?’
the interpretation of Rousseau as condoning
totalitarianism. What is often missing in Probably the greatest and most influential
this interpretation, is, firstly, Rousseau’s philosopher since Aristotle, Kant spent
insistence that the direct democracy he almost the whole of his life exclusively in
advocates is only really practicable in small his birthplace, Konigsberg. Popular myth
city-states, and indeed Rousseau takes as has it that the Konigsberg professor, an
his model and ideal the city-states of Ancient inveterate bachelor, was so regular in his
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daily constitutional that housewives would set Kant’s genius was finding a way to
their clocks by the time at which he passed synthesize these two opposing views. His
their windows. Undoubtedly apocryphal, the fundamental insight sprang from posing the
story nevertheless highlights the fact that question, ‘what are the necessary preconditions
Kant was a very unadventurous fellow, with for having any experience at all?’ He argued
little interest in music or the arts but with a that in order for human beings to interpret
passion for mathematics, logic and science. the world the human mind had to impose
Kant claimed in his work to have discovered certain structures on the flux of incoming
and laid out universal principles of thought sense-data. Kant attempted to define these in
applicable to the whole of mankind and for terms of twelve fundamental judgements he
all time. called the Categories (substance, cause/effect,
reciprocity, necessity, possibility, existence,
Kant’s influence stems largely from the
totality, unity, plurality, limitation, reality and
first two of his three Critiques - the mammoth
negation) which could only be applied within
and cryptic Critique of Pure Reason (1781), in
a spatial and temporal framework. Thus Kant
which he sets out to discover and justify the
claimed both the Categories and space and
principles underlying objective judgements
time, which he called ‘forms of intuition’,
about reality; and the shorter, more lucid
were imposed on phenomenal experience by
Critique of Practical Reason (1788), in which
the human mind in order to make sense of it.
he attempts to give a rational justification for
This idea Kant proudly called his ‘Copernican
ethical judgements.
revolution. Like Copernicus, who had turned
The Critique of Judgement (1790), the traditional idea of the sun orbiting the
principally concerned with the ideas of beauty earth on its head, Kant had solved the problem
and purpose, has received considerably less of how the mind acquires knowledge from
attention. experience by arguing that the mind imposes
principles upon experience to generate
In the first of his Critiques, Kant was knowledge. This idea was later to have great
concerned to justify metaphysics as a influence on the phenomenologists and gestalt
legitimate subject of inquiry. In Kant’s eyes, psychologists of the twentieth century.
it had been brought into disrepute by the
impasse between the rationalists (see Leibniz) Just as Kant had laid down laws of
and the empiricists (see Hume). The former thought in his first Critique, so in his second
claimed that metaphysical judgements - he claimed to have discovered a universal
the fundamental principles upon which all moral law which he called ‘the categorical
knowledge is based - are known and justified imperative. He gave several formulations of
purely by the intellect. The empiricists on the this law, the first of which was ‘act by that
other hand, claimed that the human mind is maxim which you can at the same time will
like a blank sheet or tabula rasa waiting to as a universal law. In essence, this categorical
be written upon by the world of experience. imperative is an expression of the oft-heard
moral remonstration: ‘what if everybody did
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that?’ Kant realised that taking this seriously Favoured philosopher of Margaret Thatcher
entailed that some moral rules could not be and darling of Conservative economists, Smith
rationally broken. Suppose an agent is about is famous for his views on private property,
to break a promise but stops first to consider the free market economy and the doctrine
Kant’s imperative: ‘could I will that promise that ‘unintended consequences of intended
breaking become a universal law?’ According action’ will be to the benefit of society at large.
to Kant the answer is no, for it is only against The idea behind this most fortunate if true of
the background of some people keeping principles is that in intentionally serving one’s
promises that the practice of promising makes own interests one unintentionally serves the
any sense. Thus one cannot rationally assert interests of society as a whole.
that everyone should break their promises
A simple example will illustrate the
and hence, argued Kant, we have a duty as
essence of Smith’s idea. Suppose that Jones,
rational creatures to keep them.
in seeking his own fortune, decides to set up
Kant thought this kind of reasoning could and run his own business, manufacturing
be applied to many of our most cherished some common item of everyday need. In
moral imperatives and would entail the seeking only to provide for his own fortune,
obedience of any rational creature. Versions Jones’ entrepreneurial enterprise has a
of Kant’s theory of moral duty, often called number of unintentional benefits to others.
deontological theories, have been widely First, he provides a livelihood for the people
upheld and defended by philosophers up to in his employ, thus benefiting them directly.
and including the present day.
Second, he makes more readily available
some common item which previously had been
ADAM SMITH more difficult or more expensive to obtain for
(1723-1790) his customers, thus easing one, if only minor,
aspect of their lives. The forces of market
economy ensure that these unintentional
‘Unintended consequences of
benefits occur, for if Jones’ workers could
intended action’ will be to the benefit
find more profitable employ elsewhere they
of society at large
would either cease to work for him or he would
Scottish philosopher of morals, politics have to raise their salaries in order to secure
and economics, Smith was a contemporary a workforce. Likewise, if Jones’ product was
of Hume and is very close to him in outlook available more readily or less expensively from
and philosophic temperament. His lectures on some other source, Jones would either go out
ethics and logic were published under the title of business or be forced to lower his prices to
Theory of the Moral Sentiments but he is most a competitive rate. The model assumes the
famous for his work of political economics, The absence of a monopoly, both in the labour
Wealth of Nations. and economic markets.
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The belief that ‘unintended consequences
of intended action’ will be of benefit to MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT
society held great imaginative power over the
industrial philanthropists of the 18th and
(1759-1797)
19th centuries and provided the philosophical
groundwork for the later ethical theories of ‘The neglected education of my
Bentham and Mill. However, criticism is not fellow-creatures is the grand source
hard to come by. It is surely a blinkered view, if of the misery I deplore’
comforting for the entrepreneurial capitalist, to
The original feminist, Wollstonecraft, who
suppose that pursuing one’s own self-interest
died in childbirth at the early age of thirty-
constitutes a magnanimous and philanthropic
eight, was a radical thinker who campaigned
act towards society at large. One has only to
both for the rights of women but also for the
review the social history of industrial Britain,
rights of man, in similar style to Thomas
to witness the treacherous and exploitative
working practices of the industrial age, Paine.
the extreme poverty and degrading social
Wollstonecraft’s most important work,
conditions of the suffering working classes, to
Vindication of the Rights of Women was
realise Smith’s idealistic model has far more
preceded by a pamphlet, Vindication of the
serious ‘unintended’ consequences. What has
Rights of Man, in which she argued that the
largely brought an end to such conditions in
British people had the right to remove a bad
the industrialised West is not a triumphant
king and that slavery and the treatment of
adherence to Smith’s principles in Western
the poor at that time wereimmoral. Indeed,
economics, but a shifting of the poverty and
unlike some strands of the modern feminist
exploitative working practices from one part of
movement, Wollstonecraft saw the rights
the world to another. In other words, the living
conditions of those in the West has improved of both men and women as mutual and
to the detriment of other countries insofar inextricably linked.
as the labour required to support Smith’s
For Wollstonecraft, the evil of her days
economic philosophy has been removed from
and the means by which to put them right,
Western societies and transferred to those of
lay in education. In the introduction to the
the Third World.
Rights of Women, she observes, ‘I have turned
Regardless of one’s political views on over various books written on the subject of
Smith, The Wealth of Nations is one of the education, and patiently observed the conduct
most important and deservedly read works of parents and the management of schools;
of economic and political philosophy in the but what has been the result? A profound
history of Western thought. It needs to be read conviction that the neglected education of my
and understood by its detractors as much as fellow-creatures is the grand source of the
it does by its supporters. misery I deplore.
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In particular, she was concerned with In the cause of female suffrage
the way women’s natural abilities were Wollstonecraft argues that whilst men reject
being suppressed through an education that the rights of women they can make no
emphasised the qualities required to flatter appeal to women’s duties, as either wife or
and serve men rather than enhance their mother. Can women not vote because they
natural abilities as people. She writes, ‘One are not rational? If, so, quips Wollstonecraft,
cause of this barren blooming I attribute to a sardonically, ‘it will be expedient to open a
false system of education, gathered from the fresh trade with Russia for whips; a present
books written on this subject by men who, which a father should always make to his son-
considering females rather as women than in-law on his wedding day, that a husband
human creatures, have been more anxious may keep his whole family in order by the
to make them alluring mistresses than wives; same means; and without any violation of
and the understanding of the sex has been so justice reign, wielding this sceptre, sole master
bubbled by this specious homage, that the of his house, because he is the only being in
civilized women of the present century, with it who has reason: the divine, indefeasible
a few exceptions, are only anxious to inspire earthly sovereignty breathed into man by the
love, when they ought to cherish a nobler Master of the universe. Allowing this position,
ambition, and by their abilities and virtues women have not any inherent rights to claim,
exact respect. and by the same rule, their duties vanish, for
rights and duties are inseparable.
Although Wollstonecraft is clear that it is
male-dominated society that has encouraged
Wollstonecraft’s book was truly
women to be ‘docile and attentive to their
revolutionary, shocking many of her
looks to the exclusion of all else’ and that
contemporaries. She was once patronisingly
marriage is merely ‘legal prostitution’, she is
described as ‘a hyena in petticoats’, not just
adamant that this is as much to the detriment
for her views on women’s rights but also for
of men as it is to women. ‘Let woman share
calling for the abolition of the monarchy and
the rights and she will emulate the virtues
the dissolution of the power of the Church,
of man’, proclaims Wollstonecraft. Since the
both of which she saw as oppressive regimes.
good of society proceeds from the increase
Had she not suffered an early death the
of reason, knowledge and virtue, it can only
cause of women’s rights may have advanced
be to the benefit of both sexes to maximise
much quicker than it in fact did. As it is, it
these qualities. To treat women as mere
is significant that philosophy would have to
trifles encourages them to be cunning and await the arrival of Simone de Beauvoir, nearly
sly, debases their natural talents and fosters 200 years later, before finding another female
discord in the home that can only be reflected thinker of such influence.
upon and perpetuated in the children.
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a man may pretend to abjure their empire,
JEREMY BENTHAM but in reality he will remain subject to it all
the while.’
(1748-1832)
From this follows one simple moral rule,
What one ought to do is to maximise that what one ought to do is to maximise
pleasure and minimise pain pleasure and minimise pain. As a keen reformer
of political, legal and social institutions,
Born in London, Bentham was trained Bentham argued that such institutions should
to become a lawyer but became dissatisfied be set up in accordance with this rule. He
with its over-complex language and conflicting famously designed a prison, the ‘panopticon’,
principles. He undertook instead an inquiry in which prisoners would be visible to the
into the very nature and basis of law, morals authorities at all times, and thus encouraged
and politics, which he found could be to naturally do what they ought to do, in
united by a single principle. This principle, other words, to promote the greatest good for
which insists that the good for man is the the greatest number, in order to avoid pain.
attainment of pleasure and the absence of Punishment was thus always intended as
pain, is a reflection of the simple hedonistic a means of reform and carefully calculated
psychology known and promoted since the so that its long-term consequences, though
time of Epicurus. However, Bentham wove painful for the punished in the short term,
the principle - which he called the principle would lead to an increase in pleasure. To this
of utility - into the very fabric of philosophy, end, Bentham even constructed a ‘felicific
society and culture, popularising a system of calculus’, to aid the calculation of the exact
ethics, known as ‘utilitarianism’, that is still quantity of pain and pleasure that would
of major importance today. result from a given action.
Bentham’s genius was to show how the It is interesting that Bentham makes no
covenants of law, politics and ethics could all distinction between happiness and pleasure.
be recast in the more simple language of utility, To experience pleasure is to be happy as far
which is concerned only with maximising that as Bentham is concerned, a view that would
which we desire and minimising that which we be criticised by his utilitarian successor,
fear. Utilitarianism is based on a very simple John Stuart Mill. Moreover, Bentham’s idea
that pleasure and pain can be calculated
view of human nature. Bentham says:
quantitatively, in units of equal value, counted
‘Nature has placed mankind under the like buttons in a jar, makes no allowance for
governance of two sovereign masters, pain the different quality of various experiences;
and pleasure. They govern us in all we do, in again a problem Mill would later wrestle with
all we say, in all we think: every effort we can in his developments of the utilitarian ethic.
make to throw off our subjection will serve
Perhaps the greatest problem faced by
but to demonstrate and confirm it. In words
Bentham’s system, and to a certain extent
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one even modern day utilitarian theories Mill’s utilitarianism is a refinement of
have not fully resolved, is that created by the views advanced both by his father and
the subjugation of individuals for the good of Bentham. Like Bentham, Mill maintains
the majority. If all that matters in an ethical that the fundamental guide to moral action
dilemma is ‘the greatest happiness of all should be the maximisation of pleasure and
those whose interest is in question’ as an the minimisation of pain. Mill formulated this
aggregate total, there seems no obvious reason as ‘the Greatest Happiness Principle’, which
why one person’s entire pleasure should not holds that ‘actions are right in proportion as
be sacrificed for the aggregate good of the they tend to promote happiness, wrong as
whole. What Bentham’s utilitarianism lacks, they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.
in similar fashion to the ‘social contract’ of By happiness is intended pleasure, and the
Rousseau, is any notion of an individual’s absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and
rights. Despite this, the ethical system the privation of pleasure.
popularised by Bentham and developed by
Mill and many others has held, and continues Mill recognized two failings in Bentham’s
to hold, a strong intuitive appeal to many earlier theory. In calculating the relative
thinkers. amounts of pain and pleasure in his ‘felicific
calculus’, Bentham had weighted each unit of
good or harm equally. Mill saw that pleasure
JOHN STUART MILL
cannot be reduced to a mere quantitative
(1806-1873) analysis without taking into account certain
qualitative aspects. The pain of losing one’s
Actions are right in proportion as they favourite pet is unlikely to be equivalent to
promote happiness, wrong as they the pain of losing a relative, but then on other
produce the reverse occasions and for some other people, perhaps
it may be; Bentham’s calculus made little
Taught exclusively by his father, James
room for such distinctions. Secondly, Mill
Mill, the young John Stuart was something
insisted that some pleasures were of greater
of a childhood genius, learning Greek at
value than others. He famously writes that
the age of three, and assisting his father in
‘it is better to be a human being dissatisfied
writings on political economics by his early
teens. Around the age of twenty he had a than a pig satisfied; better to be a Socrates
breakdown, and began to react against the dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. Accordingly,
intellectual influence of both his father and Mill distinguishes between ‘higher’ and ‘lower’
Jeremy Bentham. Mill produced his most pleasures, to be taken into account in the
important work, A System of Logic in mid utilitarian calculation.
life, but is principally remembered now for
The utilitarian ethic has a strong intuitive
his short and much later work Utilitarianism
appeal due to its simplicity, but it has
published in 1863.
nevertheless, particularly in Mill’s exposition,
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come in for wide-ranging and sustained
criticism. However, much of the criticism that CHARLES ROBERT
is directed at Mill in particular (rather than DARWIN
the theory in general) results from taking his
Utilitarianism out of the context of his overall (1809-1892)
thought. For example, modern commentators
have complained that Mill’s ethical principle Complex design arises naturally
is too demanding. If every action must tend without the need to posit a designer
toward the increase of pleasure and the
The young naturalist’s voyage aboard
decrease of pain, it looks as though even our
the Beagle in 1831 provided Darwin with
ordinary day to day behaviour turns out to be observational material to put forward the most
immoral. Surely, if I intend to live sincerely influential theory of modern times, the theory
according to Mill’s ethic, I should donate all of evolution. Set out in detail in his Origin of
of my disposable income to charity, and think Species and later The Descent of Man, the
about the wider consequences of my chosen simplicity of Darwin’s theory does nothing to
employment. Is everything I do promoting detract from either its power of explanation
happiness at the expense of unhappiness? nor its influence on almost every intellectual
discipline.
Such universal altruism may be
meritorious; it is not, however, a doctrine or Prior to Darwin, the received wisdom
consequence of Mill’s philosophy. His whole inherited from Plato and only partially
system is one of radical liberalism. He makes modified by Aristotle, was that every natural
it quite clear that we should only be concerned kind, be it gold, silver, animal or plant, can be
with morality in those aspects of life that thought of as having essential qualities that
require sanctions to deter specific kinds of make it what it is, and accidental qualities,
conduct. Otherwise a person is morally and that it may gain or lose without suffering
legally free to pursue their life as they see a change of identity. Applied tothe natural
fit. Critics of Mill have repeatedly overlooked world, what makes an individual a member of
that in the wider context of his philosophy he one species rather than another is that it is an
clearly distinguishes between what is right instance of a particular kind, a dog or horse,
and what is good. Mill nowhere suggests that rose or nettle. Clearly there are differences
we are at all times compelled to act for the amongst different types of dogs as there
good; only that when questions of right and are between individual dogs. But these are
‘accidental differences. All dogs share certain
wrong arise, what is right is what is good,
fundamental qualities which make them dogs
and what is good is that which promotes the
and not cats or horses. Call these fundamental
greatest happiness of all.
qualities the ‘essence’ of a kind.
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Philosophers had long wondered how to geographical features could magnify these
account for essences. From where did they differences. A major geological or climatic
appear? The obvious answer had always been event might make some minor feature the
they were the work of a grand designer. God difference between life and death in that
designed the forms of things which are used region. Accordingly, any individuals without
as blueprints for the production of individuals. that feature would become extinct.
Darwin’s work would show that complex
The so-called ‘essential’ differences
design could arise naturally without the need
between species is nothing more, Darwin
to posit either a designer or a blueprint.
showed, than ‘descent by modification.
The background to evolutionary theory Descendents are modified by time and
lies in the work of Thomas Malthus on environment to the point where what looks like
population explosion. Malthus noted that ‘design’ is merely the survival of inheritable
in order to avoid extinction a population qualities. What qualities survive are not pre-
must continually expand. However, there ordained by a divine creator, but depend on
will inevitably come a time when population the vicissitudes of circumstance.
outstrips available resources. Necessarily,
Thus Darwin’s Origin of Species solves
some will die and others survive. Darwin’s
the problem of ‘the origin of essences’, in his
theory begins by asking, in the lottery of
own words, because, ‘it will be seen that I
who will survive and who will perish, what
look at the term species, as one arbitrarily
determines the winners from the losers? He
given for the sake of convenience to a set of
notes ‘If...organic beings vary at all in the
individuals closely resembling each other, and
several parts of their organization...I think
that it does not essentially differ from the term
it would be a most extraordinary fact if no
variety, which is given to less distinct and
variation had ever occurred useful to each
more fluctuating forms’.
being’s own welfare.if variations useful to any
organic being do occur, assuredly individuals Critics have complained that evolutionary
thus characterized will have the best chance theory is scientifically vacuous because it
of being preserved in the struggle for life; is incapable of refutation. If true, Darwin’s
and from the strong principle of inheritance idea would be less of a theory and more of
they will tend to produce offspring similarly a blind faith. However, Darwin himself was
characterized. This principle of preservation, clear about what could falsify the theory. ‘If
I have called...Natural Selection.’ it could be demonstrated that any complex
organ existed, which could not possibly have
Natural selection thus has two components.
been formed by numerous, successive, slight
First, the minor differences that exist between
modifications, my theory would absolutely
individuals, and second the principle of
break down. So far, no alternative theory has
inheritance that passes these differences
provided the required demonstration to meet
down through the generations. Aboard the
Darwin’s challenge.
Beagle, Darwin noted how topological and
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First, when the organism’s habitual
JOHN DEWEY patterns of action are disturbed, it will
nevertheless continue to act in order to
(1859-1952) resolve the situation. Since its principle of
action (belief) has proven unsuccessful it
‘The truth is that which works’ must begin a process of ‘intellection’. The
second stage then, is to extract the significant
When Bertrand Russell wrote his
elements of the situation in order to formulate
retrospective analysis of philosophical thought
it as a problem-solving exercise. The next
in 1946, The History of Western Philosophy,
step involves ‘hypothesis construction’,
he concluded it by claiming that Dewey is
the creative use of imagination to provide
‘generally admitted to be the leading living
possible answers. The fourth stage that Dewey
philosopher of America’. Undoubtedly Dewey’s
identifies is the use of reason to weigh up and
influence is present in the work of Quine, who
order the alternative hypotheses. This consists
subsequently held that mantle until his death
in reckoning up the different experiences each
at Christmas, 2000, and Russell’s epithet
hypothesis might actually result in. Finally,
is testament to the influence of pragmatist
‘testing’ or experiment is the process by which
thought both then and now on American
hypotheses are eliminated as they are tried
philosophy.
out in the court of experience.
Dewey’s pragmatism consisted in replacing
The end result of this process is a
the notion of truth as ‘correspondence to
successful resolution of the problem with
reality’ with truth as successful rules for
the adoption of a new hypothesis that works.
action. He went beyond his predecessors,
This led to Dewey’s famous remark that ‘the
however, in developing his pragmatism as an
true is that which works. We are warranted
instrumentalist theory of both logic and ethics
in asserting an hypothesis only on the
in which the notion of ‘warranted assertability’
condition that it works, any further claim of it
does all the same work as the notion of ‘truth’
‘corresponding to reality’ is, in Dewey’s view, a
but without the metaphysical baggage.
‘metaphysical’ claim that adds nothing either
Following Peirce, Dewey upheld the to what we already know about or to what we
idea that knowledge is a state of the human can do with the hypothesis.
organism which consists in the settling of
Dewey was keen to extend the
beliefs, understood as habits of behaviour that
instrumentalist approach beyond the theory
have proven successful in action. However,
of knowledge and into ethics, education and
when habitual behaviour is disrupted by novel
social theory. Societies, like individuals, are
or unexpected experiences, the organism
characterized by habitual patterns of action.
must engage in reasoning or ‘intellection.
When such patterns break down, they too
Dewey characterized five different states of
must be repaired in light of the five stages
the reasoning process.
mentioned above. For Dewey, what is ethically
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‘good’ is ‘a unified orderly release in action’ of American intellectuals up until the 1960s. His
conflicting tensions and impulses that arise most influential works are The Communist
out of moral conflicts. The good, like the true, Manifesto and Das Kapital.
is ultimately what works.
Marx’s philosophy owes a great deal to
Dewey’s instrumentalism shares certain Hegel, from whom he borrowed the notion
affinities with the existentialist work of of ‘dialectic. Marx, however, rejects Hegel’s
Heidegger, a connection explored in depth idealism and his notion of truth unfolding
by the contemporary philosopher, Richard towards the Absolute, in favour of a purely
Rorty. Both Dewey and Heidegger reject the atheistic ‘dialectical materialism.
prevailing philosophical emphasis on the
For Marx, the fundamental condition
subject as an isolated spectator in an external
of humanity is the need to convert the
world in favour of a being embedded in an
raw material of the natural world into the
environment which it must manipulate, adapt
goods necessary for survival. Consequently,
and control. The organism is nothing more
production, or in other words economics, is
than ‘the organization of a material system in
the primary conditioning factor of life. Taking
space-time’, and whose features and capacities
a historical perspective, Marx records, ‘The
(psychological, social, ethical and so on), ‘their
hand-mill gives a society with the feudal
emergence, development and disappearance’,
lord; the steam-mill a society with the
are wholly ‘determined by changes in such
industrial capitalist. According to dialectical
organizations’. Clearly, Dewey’s work falls
materialism, there is a three-sided conflict
within the scientific paradigms of the modern
between economic classes. The landowners
age and represents a sustained attempt to
created by feudalism were opposed by the rise
work out the philosophical implications of
of the middle classes, forcing a ‘synthesis’,
that framework.
that is, a new economic class, the industrial
employers of capitalism. However, the new
KARL MARX ‘thesis’ of capitalism generates the antithetical
force of the proletariat, or working classes.
(1818-1883)
The synthesis that Marx envisages from this
conflict, the inevitable dialectical outcome, is
Economics is the primary socialism.
conditioning factor of life
His reasons for supposing that socialism
Born in Treves, Germany, Marx lived is the necessary outcome of the modern
the latter part of his life in England and is economic conflict are not, though such
buried at Highgate cemetery in London. His may appear at times to be the case from his
work, along with that of Engels, profoundly passionate revolutionary invective, predicated
influenced political events in Russia and on ethical judgements about what is best,
Eastern Europe in the twentieth century, or right, or just. Rather, Marx insists that
and he was the darling of both European and socialism is necessarily the most efficient
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means of securing that which human beings
strive for, namely the goods required for MARTIN HEIDEGGER
survival. Since socialism is the most efficient
way to ensure productivity, the progress of
(1889-1976)
‘dialectical materialism’ has no need of moral
sentiments. Socialism is, according to Marx, It is only in full...awareness of our
a natural outcome of the economic conditions own mortality that life can take on any
operating on the human being. purposive meaning
It is at this point that the reversal of German existentialist, born in Messkirch,
Hegel’s idealism in Marx’s materialism can be Baden. After studying theology and then
seen in purely philosophical terms. Whereas philosophy, Heidegger went on to study under
Hegel’s history of ideas insists that it is the Husserl, to whom he dedicated his main work,
dialectic progress of concepts - developments Being and Time, at the University of Freiburg.
in human understanding - that fuel social He founded existentialist phenomenology
and political change, Marx asserts that it is under the influence of both Nietzsche’s and
transformations in economics that give rise Kierkegaard’s work. Notoriously, Heidegger
to new ways of thinking, to the development praised Hitler in a speech of the 1930s,
of ideas. This reflects Marx’s underlying view
an act for which he was widely criticised
concerning epistemology and phenomenology.
and which would do his career lasting harm.
For Marx, the mind does not exist as a passive
It is generally thought that he was at least a
subject in an external world, as the prevailing
sympathiser with national socialism, if not an
empiricist tradition emanating from Locke
outright supporter. After the war he claimed
would have it. Along with Kant, Marx shares
it had been a massive social experiment that
the view that the mind is actively engaged
had gone drastically wrong.
with the objects of knowledge. But whereas
Kant only went so far as to propose that our His contribution to philosophy, fortunately,
psychological apparatus imposes certain is not politically orientated and, for better or
structures on the flux of experience, Marx worse, has been highly influential. Heidegger
held that the subject and object of experience saw the history of philosophy as concerned
are in a continual process of adaptation. We with the wrong kind of questions. Ever since
must order our experience in practical ways, Plato, Heidegger complains, philosophers have
so as to make it useful to our survival. In been asking about what there is and what they
modern terminology what Marx is proposing is can know about what there is. For Heidegger,
a version of instrumentalism or pragmatism, these questions presuppose too much. They
but at the more basic phenomenological notoriously presuppose a number of dualisms,
level, as in the existentialist phenomenology in particular the Cartesian one of subject and
of Heidegger, rather than at the scientific or external world. Like Nietzsche, Heidegger
epistemological level, as in Dewey and James. rejects the division, rejects the notion of a
world as external to some conscious spectator.
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In place of such dualisms, Heidegger is only in full and uncompromising awareness
focuses on the question ‘What is Being?’, by of our own mortality that life can take on
which he intends that before we can ask about any purposive meaning, insists Heidegger.
what sorts of properties objects might be said Properly understood, self-awareness leads
to have, we have first to look and examine, in to the ‘authenticity’ of a life created out of
a priori fashion, what it means for something nothing, in the face of dread, by reference only
to ‘be. The question can be seen as arising to one’s own deliberate purposes.
from the most basic philosophical puzzle
Accordingly, on Heidegger’s view, the
of all: ‘Why is there something, rather than
question of why there is something rather than
nothing?’ Few philosophers or philosophies
nothing comes back to the choice of ‘being-
have ever addressed this question, yet for
there. Dasein chooses to make something out
Heidegger an answer is essential before any
of nothing and so, without Dasein, according
other philosophical questions can be engaged.
to Heidegger there would be nothing. Due to
For Heidegger, the question ‘what is Being?’ the obscure language and often undefined
in general narrows down to considering what concepts which Heidegger uses, it is not clear
type of being one is oneself. He gives Being the if the thesis is really just that without self-
deliberately vague name of Dasein - ‘being- consciousness there would be no-one to be
there. ‘Being-there’ is supposed to denote what aware of the existence of anything. That is not
we ordinarily might call the human subject, a position Heidegger ought to take, for it would
but of course Heidegger rejects the subject- show that his previous rejection of the ‘mind
object distinction. For him ‘being-there’ is a - world’ distinction had been presupposed all
perspective, which, it turns out, is a locus of along. Nonetheless, it is not clear what other
action extended through time. In sum, Dasein sense we can make of Heidegger’s proposal.
is a perspective from which action originates.
In Heidegger’s phenomenology, Dasein’s SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR

first comprehension of objects is not of
(1908-1986
determined and independent material things
to be measured, analysed and classified.
Rather,Dasein’s first comprehension of things ‘One is not born, but rather becomes,
is as tools: whether they are useful, whether a woman’
anything can be done with them, and if so,
French novelist and philosopher, de
what? What about Dasein’s comprehension
Beauvoir is largely responsible for inaugurating
of itself?
the modern feminist movement as well as
Heidegger insists that what is characteristic significantly influencing the later views of
of Dasein, as a temporal, self-conscious Sartre.
phenomenon, is that it knows its own fate. De Beauvoir has become, wittingly or
Dasein knows that it is finite and mortal. This otherwise, the heroine of feminists across
generates what he calls angst or dread. But it the world. Her most significant philosophical
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works are The Ethics of Ambiguity and, the which is defined by culture and society, be
bible of feminism, The Second Sex. Both are it the ‘domestic goddess’ mother and wife of
superior works whose philosophical import the 1950s or more recently, the ‘Supermom’
has often been overlooked because of the of the 1990s. Even biological facts such
determination to marginalize de Beauvoir as menstruation are always culturally
within the feminist movement. In the words interpreted, says de Beauvoir, such that the
of Brendan Gill’s 1953 review in ‘The New fact of it could be lived either as ‘a shameful
Yorker’, The Second Sex ‘is a work of art, with curse, or a sexy reaffirmation of the healthy
the salt of recklessness that makes art sting.’ functioning of one’s body’, according to
societies’ conceptions. Consequently, one is
De Beauvoir’s thought is a development not born a woman. The female becomes one
of existentialist themes found in Sartre. In by accepting and living the role society defines
particular, her most famous expression, ‘One as appropriate. This acceptance, however, is
is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’, can not automatically ‘bad faith’ as Sartre would
only be understood against the background of have it, and it is crucial to see how de Beauvoir
Sartrean ‘bad faith. extends and develops this concept.
According to Sartre, freedom of choice De Beauvoir insists that acting in bad
is an ever-present condition of human life. faith presupposes that one is aware of the
However, because of the enormous weight of potential for freedom in one’s situation, which
responsibility that this entails, we are apt to one then chooses to ignore. But the presence
make excuses, to deny our freedom to choose. of this awareness is not a given. Children, for
Such excuses can typically involve blaming instance, cannot act in bad faith, because
the kind of person that we are on our human others define their being, since the child
nature. But Sartre says cowards and heroes lives in the world of its parents or guardian.
are not born, they are defined in action. What Only when they reach an ‘awakening’ in
we are is what we do. Thus anyone who acts adolescence does existentialist angst take
heroically is a hero, anyone who acts cowardly hold. Similarly, de Beauvoir argues, women
is a coward. But one always has the choice have historically had their being defined for
to act differently next time. There is no such them through socio-economic circumstances.
thing as ‘nature’ which determines how we Consequently they have been ignorant of the
must act. Denial of this radical freedom is a potential for freedom in their situation, and
kind of self-deception, or ‘bad faith’ as Sartre hence could not be acting in ba\d faith.
calls it.
It is easy to see how de Beauvoir’s ideas -
Working within Sartre’s framework, de that women must recognize their own freedom,
Beauvoir accepts that an individual is born define their own being, and free themselves
free, without essence. But the identification from the ‘enslavement’ of a society whose
of ones biological gender serves, in the case
rules and values are defined by men - could
of the female, to define her personhood. The
be taken up as a war- cry by the women’s
female becomes ‘a woman’, the meaning of
liberation movement.
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CHAPTER 7
Civil/Public Service Values
Public servants are servants of the Public officials shall ensure that they
public, of government, of their immediate perform their duties and functions
organisations and of the law. Their role is efficiently, effectively and with integrity,
traditionally conceptualised as part of an in accordance with laws or administrative
interconnected structure existing alongside policies. They shall at all times seek to
but outside of the private sphere. In Western ensure that public resources for which
society, the dominance of democratic theory they are responsible are administered in
means that it is assumed public servants the most effective and efficient manner.
share the values of wider society, whilst
Public officials shall be attentive, fair
also recognising the need for representative
and impartial in the performance of their
government. Though public servants perform
functions and, in particular, in their
a myriad of tasks and undertake a multitude
relations with the public. They shall at
of responsibilities, there are common elements
no time afford any undue preferential
to their work.
treatment to any group or individual
In 1996, the UN adopted an ‘International or improperly discriminate against any
Code of Conduct for Public Officials’ which group or individual, or otherwise abuse
opened with the following general principles: the power and authority vested in them.
A public office, as defined by national law, The public servant’s duties today
is a position of trust, implying a duty to remain many, complex and often seemingly
act in the public interest. Therefore, the contradictory, but successful public servants
ultimate loyalty of public officials shall recognise their multiple roles and prepare
be to the public interests of their country for them. These include maintaining
as expressed through the democratic confidentiality, acting in the public interest,
institutions of government. regulating, providing quality advice,
adjudicating, avoiding conflicts of interest,
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ensuring accountability to a range of actors Grouping of Values
and treating all colleagues equitably.
Toonen (2003) identifies three ‘groups’
In performing each of these tasks, public around which core values in public
servants employ a range of values as a administration are situated:
means to guide their behaviour and to assist
them in steering a course through multiple Parsimony and economy: Values in
requirements. The complexity of public service this group are concerned with ensuring
ensures that its value system is unique and optimal and efficient use of resources,
specific to its work. and are at the core of public management
as viewed from a financial perspective.
Public servants play a critical role in the
Fairness, equity and rectitude: These
implementation of public policy and should
values are concerned with honesty
understand the importance of values to all
and the development of public trust in
aspects of their work. Poor clarity or uncertainty
government.
about values can not only lead to ethical and
decision-making dilemmas, but also affects R o b u s t n e s s , r e s i l i e n c e a n d
organisational coherence by diminishing team s u s t a i n a b i l i t y : These values are
spirit, creating organisational confusion and concerned with ensuring that public
weak external communication. administration and government are
strong in the face of various pressures,
Some research findings
but are flexible enough to learn and adapt
Sherman, found the following values to be to changing circumstances in order to
the most common: maintain public confidence.
honesty and integrity Public Service Virtues

impartiality
Four virtues are discussed below-humility,
respect for the law moral imagination, courage, and prudence.
respect for persons Humility: Because administrators are

diligence temporary stewards of public authority, a
certain humility is a valuable trait for them-
economy and effectiveness increasing their self-restraint-especially when
responsiveness human fallibility is conceded. In its 1985 code,
the American Society of Public Administration
accountability.
(ASPA) formulation of this virtue obliges
Similarly, in a cross-national study members to “serve the public with respect,
of ethics measures,the OECD identified concern, courtesy, and responsiveness,
impartiality, legality and integrity as the most recognizing that service to the public is beyond
frequently stated core public service values. service to oneself”. The virtue of humility
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implies valuing accommodation, inclusivity, Moral Courage: Often public officials are
and empathy and seeking reconciliation of not in doubt about the right thing to do but
contending views. are reluctant to do it because it is not popular,
convenient, or comfortable. Sometimes there
Moral Sensitivity and Imagination: Serious
is a personal cost or risk associated with
conflicts and dilemmas are endemic to
doing the right thing, and the temptation is
ethics problems; one function of the moral
very great to rationalize inaction or avoid the
imagination is to generate creative resolutions
situation altogether. But a commitment to
of these impasses. By redefining dilemmas
doing the right thing is rarely an intolerable
as part of the process of mediating and
burden; one’s career is at stake less frequently
reconciling disputes, administrators can
than one’s integrity. Capability and risk
influence outcomes without taking exclusive
are relevant to making a judgment in such
ownership of public affairs. The best solutions
situations, and they usefully distinguish
are not compromises but novel, fully adequate
courage from rashness or heroism beyond
responses to the situation. Instead of being
the call of duty.
satisfied with doing as little harm as possible,
an administrator with moral imagination Prudence: This is the basic practical
seeks to satisfy as many ethical values virtue familiar to the founders of the republic,
and principles as possible; thus, a creative prudence can be traced to the ancient
response to complexity is especially valued.
Greeks, for whom it embodied the wisdom
A related function of the moral imagination to see the right thing’, coupled with the
is empathy, the capacity to experience from will to do it. Moral, democratic public
a distance the effects of an action or decision leadership requires ethical compromises, not
on others, including future effects. Moral compromise of ethics. It values principled
sensitivity and empathy may be thought of judgment, responsively accommodates
as the conceptual equivalents in philosophy democratic inclusion over exclusive purity,
and psychology of the public interest. As and proposes principled, creative resolutions
Adam Smith wrote in his ‘Theory of Moral when rival claims and true dilemmas threaten
Sentiments’, empathy is the source of our to create personal or collective ethical gridlock
capacity to act ethically. In ‘A Theory of or damaging exclusion.
Justice’, John Rawls proposes that the
Public Service Vices
ethical decision maker should don a “veil of
ignorance” in order to downplay self-interest Four ethical deficiencies in particular
and promote empathy. shadow public leaders today.
The ability to generalize to a broad or Self-Righteousness: When power is

universal and abstract plane is prized in combined with zealotry and self-righteousness
Kant’s “categorical imperative” and occupies constitutional democracy is threatened. But
the highest level of moral reasoning in the problem has a more intimate face as well:
Lawrence Kohlberg’s formulation (1981) of survey after survey consistently finds that
cognitive development.
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people view themselves as more ethical than Lawfulness: The official shall act
others in their profession or organization, and according to law and apply rules and
they view those in their own group as more procedures laid down in Community
ethical than others outside the group. Too legislation.
often we regard ethical problems as applying
Absence of Discrimination: In dealing
mainly to other people.
with requests from the public and in
Self-Indulgence: Most corruption taking decisions the official will ensure
scandals are due to garden-variety greed for that the principle of equality of treatment
money and/or power. This represents self- is respected. The official will in particular
indulgence, in which an individual is unable avoid any unjustified discrimination
or unwilling to resist temptation. between members of the public based on
nationality, sex, race, colour, ethnic or
Self-Protection: Escaping blame and social origin, genetic feature, language,
hiding behind the authority of others represents religion or belief, political or any other
an abandonment of personal responsibility opinion, membership of a national
and judgment. For moral leaders, fixing the minority, property, birth, disability, age
blame should not pre-empt fixing the problem. or sexual orientation.
Self-Deception: Perhaps the most Proportionality: When taking decisions,

widespread ethical deficiencyis self-deception. the official will ensure that the measures
We often mask real but ignoble motives even taken are proportionate to the aim
pursued and there is a fair balance
from ourselves.
between the interests of private person
Some International Public Service and the general public interest.
Guidelines
Absence of Abuse of power
The European Code of Good Administrative Impartiality and Independence: The
Behaviour official will be impartial and independent.
The European code of good administration Objectivity: when taking decision the
issued by European Ombudsman11, is official shall take into consideration the
meant to be respected by European Union relevant factors and give each of them
institutions and bodies, their administration proper weight in the decision, while
and their officials in dealing with public. The excluding any irrelevant material in the
Code serves as a guide and resource for civil decision.
servants, encouraging the highest standards
Legitimate expectation, consistency
of administration. The code with 26 Articles
and advice: The official shall be
was adopted by European Parliament in
consistent in his own administrative
September 2001. The following are some of
behaviour as well as administrative action
the significant provision of the Code:
of the institution.
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Fairly: The official will act impartially, no time afford any undue preferential
fairly and reasonably. treatment to any group or individual
or improperly discriminate against any
Courtesy: The official will be service
group or individual, or otherwise abuse
minded, correct, courteous and accessible
the power and authority vested in them.
in relation to the public.
Conflict of Interest and Disqualification
Right to be Heard : In cases where
the rights or interests of individuals are Public officials shall not use their official
involved, the right of defence should be authority for the improper advancement
respected. of their own or their family’s personal
or financial interest. They shall not
United Nations engage in any transaction, acquire any
position or function or have any financial,
The United Nations concerned about
commercial or other comparable interest
the problem of corruption adopted an
that is incompatible with their office,
International code of Conduct for Public
functions and duties or the discharge
Officials in December 1996. Its salient features
thereof.
are as follows:
Public officials, to the extent required by
General Principles
their position, shall, in accordance with
A public office, as defined by national law, laws or administrative policies, declare
is a position of trust, implying a duty to business, commercial and financial
act in the public interest. Therefore, the interests or activities undertaken for
ultimate loyalty of public officials shall financial gain that may raise a possible
be to the public interests of their country conflict of interest. In situations of
as expressed through the democratic possible or perceived conflict of interest
institutions of government. between the duties and private interests
of public officials, they shall comply with
Public officials shall ensure that they the measures established to reduce or
perform their duties and functions eliminate such conflict of interest.
efficiently, effectively and with integrity,
in accordance with laws or administrative Public officials shall at no time improperly
policies. They shall at all times seek to use public moneys, property, services
ensure that public resources for which or information that is acquired in the
they are responsible are administered in performance of, or as a result of, their
the most effective and efficient manner. official duties for activities not related to
their official work.
Public officials shall be attentive, fair
and impartial in the performance of their Public officials shall comply with
functions and, in particular, in their measures established by law or by
relations with the public. They shall at administrative policies in order that
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after leaving their official positions they Rules 1964, it does not lay down values which
will not take improper advantage of their civil services should follow or a code of ethics.
previous office. The rules are more in the nature of “do’s”
and “don’t”. The Conduct Rules cover matters
Disclosure of Assets: Public officials such as property transactions, acceptance of
shall, in accord with their position and gifts, joining of non-political organization and
as permitted or required by law and host of other issues covering almost every
administrative policies, comply with activity which a normal individual undertakes.
requirements to declare or to disclose
personal assets and liabilities, as well as, The rules are highly restrictive, seriously
if possible, those of their spouses and/ curtailing freedom of operation of a government
or dependants. employee, couched in vague language
and sometimes impractical to follow. If a
Acceptance of Gifts or Other Favours: government servant wishes to carry serious
Public officials shall not solicit or receive academic activity and publish articles and
directly or indirectly any gift or other books, he has to take permission, which does
favour that may influence the exercise of not come by easily. An officer should report
their functions, the performance of their every purchase of a movable property such
duties or their judgement. as TV or a refrigerator of more than Rs 15000
in value. To join a foreign language class run
Confidential Information: Matters of a
by foreign cultural organisation or attend a
confidential nature in the possession
reception hosted by foreign diplomatic mission
of public officials shall be kept
permission is required.
confidential unless national legislation,
the performance of duty or the needs The conduct rules are followed more in
of justice strictly require otherwise. breach than in practice and gives a handle to
Such restrictions shall also apply after government to harass honest and dedicated
separation from service. officers, while the dishonest and corrupt get
away due to complicated procedure involved
Political Activity: The political or other in taking disciplinary action. The rules are
activity of public officials outside the totally inadequate to deal with cases of
scope of their office shall, in accordance malfeasance or misconduct of public servants
with laws and administrative policies, not as they give numerous escape routes for the
be such as to impair public confidence unscrupulous. It is time to discard these
in the impartial performance of their rules and bring a new code of ethics for civil
functions and duties. servants.
The Indian Scenario First Initiative for Code of Ethics- May
While the Central Government has issued
1997
conduct rules for government employees The Department of Administrative Reforms
known as Central Civil Services (Conduct) of Government of India, had prepared a Code
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of Ethics for public services, as part of an is illegal or against prescribed rules
Action Plan for an Effective and Responsive and regulations, he should decline to
Government which was presented in a implement the instructions. He will have
conference of Chief Ministers presided by the right to bring the fact to the notice of
Prime Minister held in May 1997. The objective superior authority.
of the Code was to prescribe standards of
Conflict of Interest: Employees in public
integrity and conduct that are to apply to service should refrain from decisions;
public services. The salient features of the (i) which are calculated to benefit any
code are as follows: particular person or party at the expense
of the public interest; (ii) shall disclose
The public services should assist
any clash of interest when there is conflict
the government in formulating and between public interest and private
implementing policies and administering interest.
public services in the most effective way.
They should maintain their independence
Employees in public services should and dignity and impartiality by not
uphold the rule of law and respect for approaching politicians and outsiders
human rights, and act solely in public in respect of service matters or private
interest. They must maintain the highest benefits, and exercise peer pressure
standards of probity and integrity. to dissuade those within their own
cadre who do so and to set in motion
They should conduct themselves in such disciplinary proceedings against such
manner that the public feels that the persons.
decisions taken or recommendations
Accountability to Citizens: (i) Employees
made by them are objective and in public services should be accessible
transparent and are not calculated to to the people and practice accountability
promote improper gains for the political to them in terms of quality of service,
party in power, for themselves, or for any timeliness, courtesy, people orientation,
third party. and readiness to encourage participation
and form partnership with citizen groups
They should not seek to frustrate or for responsive government. (ii) they should
undermine the policies, decisions be consistent, equitable and honest in
and action taken in public interest by their treatment of the members of the
Government by declining or abstaining public, (iii) they should accept obligation
from action. to recognize and enforce citizen’s right for
speedy redressal of their grievance.
Where an employee in public service
has reasonable grounds to believe that They should have concern for public
he or she is being required by superior assets and funds, avoid wastage and
authority to act in a manner which extravagance and ensure effective and
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efficient use of public money within their Establish high standards, and ensure
control. quality service, effective working and
prompt decision making;
Non- abuse of official position: Employees
in public services have a responsibility to Be accountable for the decisions;
take decisions on merits, as they are in a
position of trust, they must not use their Establish merit as the fundamental
official position to influence any person to principle in employment, promotion and
enter into financial or other arrangements placements;
with them or any one else.
Discharge functions with due regard to
The code also deals with issues such diversity of the nation/community and
as public comment, release of official religion but without discrimination of
information, integrative role of public services caste, community, religion, gender or
and continuous improvement through class and duly protecting the interest
professionalism and team work. of poor, underprivileged and weaker
sections;
Second Initiative for Public Service
Values - Public Service Bill 2006 Provide honest, impartial and frank
advice to political executive;
In 2006 the department Of Personnel
drafted a Public Service Bill which enumerated Ensure that public money is used with
fundamental values of Public Services, a Code utmost economy and care;
of Ethics, a Management Code etc, with the
The Public Service Bill has not made
objective of developing public services as a
any headway and seems to have gone in
professional, politically neutral, merit based
and accountable civil service. The main values cold storage. One problem with the draft
by which the Public Servants shall be guided bill was that it intended to fulfill too many
are as follows: objectives. Apart from values and ethics,
the Bill envisaged to lay down principles of
Allegiance to the Constitution and the management of public services, principles
law, democracy, nationalism, sovereignty, which should govern appointment to public
integrity of India and the security of the services, performance indicators for public
nation; services etc. With such wide ranging and
diverse coverage of matters relating to service
Function in apolitical manner;
matters, it is difficult to reach consensus and
Act objectively, impartially, honestly, secure legislative approval.
equitably, and in a fair and just manner;
Second ARC on Ethics
Act with integrity and in a courteous and
The Second Administrative Reforms
just manner;
Commission in its 4th report (2007), “Ethics
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in Governance” has extensively covered the arbitrary action. The Commission has also
issue of ethics and observes, “The crux of suggested certain measures to protect honest
ethical behaviour does not lie in bold words Civil Servants against malicious complaints.
and expressions enshrined as standards, but
in their adoption in action, in sanction against The ARC in its 10th Report on Personnel
violations, in putting in place competent Administration has re-emphasized the
disciplinary bodies to investigate allegations need for prescribing Civil Service Values
of violations and to impose sanctions quickly and laying down a Code of Ethics. The
and in promoting a culture of integrity”. Code of Ethics should include: integrity,
impartiality, commitment to public service,
In Its wide ranging recommendations, open accountability, devotion to duty and
it has suggested partial state funding of exemplary behaviour.
elections; tightening of anti-defection law
Values and Ethics for Public Services
and code of ethics for ministers, legislatures,
judiciary and civil servants. In order to check Values are the foundations on which our
corruption it has proposed tightening the society is built. Values are the invisible wealth
provision of Prevention of Corruption Act, of a community and of a nation, and guide our
making corrupt public servants liable for journey through the rough and tumble of life.
paying damages, confiscation of property The history of humanity is to a large extent
illegally acquired and speedy trials. Its the history of values. They serve as a source of
recommendations include creation of Lok Pal/ moral precepts that govern the actions of the
Ombudsman at national, State and local level community. History tells us about the adverse
with powers to look into charges of complaints effect of the decline of moral values on the
against high pubic functionaries including nation states. Edward Gibbon in his classic
ministers, chief ministers, MPs and MLAs. ‘Decline and Fall of Roman Empire’ observes
that nepotism, rampant corruption, internal
While recommending a Code of Ethics for
strife and general moral decay were the cause
Civil Servants the Second ARC has observed:” of the ruin of great Roman civilization.
Civil Service Values which all public servants
should aspire, should be defined and made Universal Values
applicable to all tiers of government and
A combination of religious and democratic
parastatal organizations. Any transgression of
values has resulted in creation of a set of
these values should be treated as misconduct,
universal values which has been respected
inviting punishment”15. In order to create a
by all societies in the world, and guide the
regime under which quick disciplinary action
behaviour of people, irrespective of religion,
can be taken against delinquent Government
race, colour, social and economic background
servants, the ARC has recommended deletion
to which they belong. Some of these cherished
of Article 311 of the Constitution, with a
values are listed below:
proviso that legislation under article 309
be made to protect public servants against
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Truth, indifferent to work assigned to them. The Fifth
Honesty, Pay Commission had following to say, “ Today
the government offices is seen as dusty, moth
Dedication to work,
eaten, dingy, paper infested hovel chock-full of
Non Violence babus, which is feudal in outlook, hierarchical
Compassion, in structure, antediluvian in its procedures,
dilatory in examination of issues and secretive
Courage,
in its dealings with customers. Despite being
Perseverance, one of the largest providers of services, there
Self-discipline, is complete lack of customer orientation in
various government departments.”
Loyalty,
Faith We should change the existing work
culture in public services and inculcate the
These values do not change through
philosophy of nishkam-karma propounded
the march of time and are as valid today as
by our scriptures. Bhagwad Gita expounds
they were hundreds of years ago, when they
the concept of Karamanyev adhikarste ma
were originally formulated to guide human
phalesu kadachana i.e. ‘Perform your duties
behaviour and conduct. These values may
diligently and piously, but without expectation
therefore be termed Eternal Values as well.
of what the results will be’. You must till
Values for Public Servants the soil, plant the seeds, water and tend the
seedlings , and take care of the tree, without
Inorder that the public officials perform any thought of how much fruit the tree will
their duties honestly and efficiently and bear. Gita also talks of Yoga karmanesu
become an instrument of service to the people kaushalam – whatever work you do, you must
they need to possess universal values as strive to do your best- excellence in work is
mentioned above. They need in particular the Yoga.
following fundamental values:
Sense of Mission: Work should not be
Devotion to Work,
done simply for the sake of doing work. There
A sense of Mission and Focus should be clear focus and direction in what
Integrity and Honesty one is doing, otherwise it will not be productive
and yield results. Ramakrishna Paramhansa
Fearlessness and Courage
said, if you are digging a well, dig deep till you
Spirit of Service and Sacrifice strike water, if you give up after a while and
Devotion to Work: Today the work go to a new place and then to another, you
culture in government offices is poor. There will never get water. Today most corporates
is an all -round atmosphere of sloth and have a mission and vision statements. This
inefficiency. Employees come late to office, gives clarity about the task to be performed
take extended lunch break, leave early and are and goals to be fulfilled. The trouble with
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government is that it spreads its resources While rules and laws have been framed
too wide and thin, without each department for severe punishment, if officials are caught
of the government having a clarity about its in corruption, they do not act as effective
objectives. It was a clear sense of mission deterrence as rules give so many escape
that was responsible for the success of our clauses. Only when public servants inculcate
space programme, or operation flood which the noble values of integrity and honesty, a
revolutionized milk production in the country. dent in massive corruption problem facing the
Today Finance Minister, while making country can be made.
budgetary allocation to various departments
talks of Outcome. Budget, which implies that Fearlessness and Courage: The Shah
public services should deliver quantifiable Commission which investigated the ‘excesses’
results in term of actual services available committed during Emergency (1975-77),
to people such as education, health, roads, found that public servants committed
and power. If public servants are focused on irregular and illegal acts, which caused
what results they have to achieve and are immense suffering to the masses out of fear
inspired that they are working for a national of their political masters. The Commission
cause, there will be quantum improvement observed, ‘they crawled while they were
in delivery of public services. asked to bend’. During the Nuremberg trial
the top German army commanders told the
Integrity and Honesty: Public servants
War Crime Tribunal that they committed
hold their office in trust, which underlies two
atrocities against the Jews out of fear of Nazi
principles; they shall not use public office for
private gain, and they shall act impartially and top brass. It is often seen that many public
not give preferential treatment to any private officials though honest themselves, succumb
organization or individual. Today corruption to unjust demand of political masters or their
has become a widespread phenomenon among own official superiors, out of fear that their CR
public officials as they unabashedly use their will be spoiled or they will be transferred to a
position and power to enrich themselves inconvenient place, or their promotion will be
personally. How to control corruption is one of jeopardized. This happens largely due to weak
the biggest challenges facing the Government. character and lack of conviction that they are
doing an honest job.
Public officials should also avoid conflict of
interest situations. While a conflict of interest P S Appu Director of National Academy
is not ipso facto corruption, there is increasing of Administration, showed great courage of
recognition that conflicts between the private conviction and stood by his principles and
interests and public duties, if not adequately quit his job, when he found that political
managed, can result in corruption. Thus for masters interfered with his demand to
example negotiation of future employment by terminate the services of an IAS probationer
a public official with a firm with which he has who was indisciplined and indulged in
official dealings, prior to leaving public office criminal behaviour. One of the charges
is widely regarded as a conflict of interest against bureaucracy is that they play safe
situation.
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and are afraid of taking bold decisions. In glacier and brave the hardship as they are
the complex and technocratic world of today inspired by a noble mission that they are
public servants are required to take speedy serving the country. No amount of monetary
and innovative decisions which needs courage. incentive can compensate for the sacrifice and
Courage means mustering the strength and hardship they undergo.
will to do what you know you should do, even
Today in the society there is an increase
though you are afraid. Aristotle had said, “
in selfishness, and general lack of concern
we become brave by doing brave acts”.
for other individuals. What we have in India
Spirit of Service and Sacrifice: Spirit of today, is not a giving and sharing society,
service and sacrifice is an essential ingredient but a grabbing society, not a sacrificing
of public services and public officials should society but a consumer society. Self seeking
feel inspired that that they are working and exploitation of the weak has become
for a national cause. Today it is a common common place. These maladies result in
complaint that salary level in top civil services general unhappiness and a retreat from goal
are very low as compared to private sector. of general welfare and fulfillment. Mahatma
While persons in civil services need to be given Gandhi had said there is enough in the world
decent salary, their salary and emoluments for ‘everyone’s need but not for their greed’.
can never match with their compeers in the We need to change the societal attitudes
private sector. Young men who join the army particularly those who are in public services
and are prepared to lay down their life in the so that they develop sympathy for the masses
event of war or are posted in the harsh and and work in the true spirit of service to the
treacherous weather conditions of Siachin society.
iiiii
85
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1. MEANING OF ETHICS & WHY ETHICS MATTER? ...........................1

2. DETERMINANTS OF ETHICS / ETHICAL THEORIES........................7

4. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE .......................................................19

7. CIVIL/PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES..................................................74

Meaning of Ethics & Why

Introduction Whenever you think about the behaviour

Meaning of Ethics (Peter Singer)

How should we live? Shall we aim at happiness or at knowledge, virtue, or the

 Normative ethics Normative ethics  Descriptive ethics concerns what one

WHAT SHOULD I DO? WHAT IS GOOD? WHAT IS RIGHT?

VALUES – ‘WHAT’S GOOD’

PRINCIPLES – ‘WHAT’S RIGHT’

INTRODUCTION individual, but rather on maximizing the

 Have I acted in a responsible fashion?

HUMAN FLOURISHING/ EUDAIMONIA

Virtue is an excellence allowing something to act in harmony with its purpose – so

In acknowledging our ability to practice virtue might be somewhat outside our

Human Values  prescriptive (“I believe experiments to

At a deeper and more determinative  In another version, “Trust is the

 Discretion is sensitivity to the legitimate  It enables us to “face up” to problems—not

Humility is the most difficult of all Gratitude is a sense of thankfulness and

Definition of Emotions to think rationally, and to deal effectively with

Intelligence Defined Emotional Intelligence

Intelligence has been defined differently  We define emotional intelligence as

Emotionally intelligent persons The moment we call a person emotional,

Attitude Content example, attitudes toward the different

So far, we have shown that cognitive, In addition to considering the content of

Attitude Functions  Ego-defense: ego-defensive function

whims of anthropomorphic, Homerian gods.

Both the triangle and the number 10 -

(121-180) Like Seneca before him, Marcus Aurelius

In the third Way, it is noted that we

Although Copernicus claimed his work

Bacon, like many of his contemporaries

(1712-1778) The Social Contract is Rousseau’s magnum

In Heidegger’s phenomenology, Dasein’s SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR

Civil/Public Service Values

 honesty and integrity Public Service Virtues

 respect for persons Humility: Because administrators are

The ability to generalize to a broad or Self-Righteousness: When power is

Self-Deception: Perhaps the most  Proportionality: When taking decisions,

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen

Normative ethics Normative ethics Descriptive ethics concerns what one

Have I acted in a responsible fashion?

Human Values prescriptive (“I believe experiments to

At a deeper and more determinative In another version, “Trust is the

Discretion is sensitivity to the legitimate It enables us to “face up” to problems—not

Intelligence has been defined differently We define emotional intelligence as

Attitude Functions Ego-defense: ego-defensive function

honesty and integrity Public Service Virtues

respect for persons Humility: Because administrators are

Self-Deception: Perhaps the most Proportionality: When taking decisions,