Pure Substances and Mixtures

A pure substance consists of only one type of material. It:

1. Has definite and constant chemical composition e.g, pure water is always composed of 2
hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom chemically bonded.
2. Its properties are constant throughout the whole sample. Example: constant appearance, colour
and density throughout the sample.
3. Cannot be separated into two or more substances by physical means. Example: distilling pure
water does not separate water into hydrogen and oxygen, it only produces water vapour.
4. They have sharp and fixed melting and boiling points.
5. Elements and Compounds are examples of pure substances.

Elements

An element is a pure substance which is made up of a single kind of atom. Example: an element of
copper consists of individual atoms of the same kind, i.e copper (Cu) atoms while an element of Oxygen
consists of molecules composed of atoms of the same kind, i.e, oxygen molecules O 2.

An Element:

1. cannot be split into simpler substances by any chemical process.

2. There is finite number of elements- represented in the periodic table. (2 elements exist in
nature as liquid: mercury and bromine), (11 exist and gases [hydrogen, helium, nitrogen,
oxygen, fluorine, neon, chlorine, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon] and the other are solid).
Elements are represented by letters (symbols)

Compounds

A compound is a pure substance containing two or more different types of elements bonded together
chemically in fixed proportions (specified ratio).

Example: Water is a compound made up of two elements, hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). These elements
are combined in a very specific way- in a ratio of two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom, known as
H2O. Many compound contain hydrogen and oxygen, but only the one that has that special 2 to 1 ratio
we call water.

A compound has physical and chemical properties that are different from the elements which it is
composed of. The compound water has physical and chemical properties that are different from both
the physical and chemical properties of hydrogen and oxygen. Other examples of compounds are
Magnesium Oxide, Sodium Chloride, Carbon dioxide, Ammonia, Ethanol.

A compound can be divided into its constituent elements by chemical means. Example: passing an
electric current through water will cause it to decompose to hydrogen and oxygen. Compounds are
represented by chemical formula.

Mixtures
A mixture consists of two or more substances (elements/ compounds) combined together in varying
proportion. Each component retains its own independent properties and has undergone no chemical
reaction with any other substance in the mixture. A mixture:

1. Does not have a fixed chemical composition. Its composition can be varied by changing the
proportion of pure substances making it up.
2. Displays the properties of the pure substances making it up.
3. Can be separated into two or more substances by physical means.
4. Do not have sharp melting or boiling points and they melt over a range of temperatures.
5. The types of mixtures are Homogenous and Heterogeneous.

Homogenous Mixtures

A homogeneous mixture has

1. Uniform composition -The particles are uniformly distributed so you cannot distinguish
between components of a homogeneous mixture
2. They are called solutions. Examples: alcohol- water, salt water, brass- copper and zinc

Heterogeneous Mixtures

A heterogeneous mixture has

1. Non-uniform composition- The particles involved are not uniformly distributed so you can
distinguish between components of a heterogeneous mixture
2. Example: sea water, water and sand, peanuts mixed with raisins, blood

Solutions, Suspensions and Colloids

Solutions

Appearance- Clear, transparent and homogeneous

Particle size- The components of a solution are atoms, ions or molecules, which makes them about 0.1
to 2 nanometer in diameter

Effect of sedimentation- none

Effect of the light Tyndall Effect- none, light passes through the solution as the particles do not reflect
light.

Filtration- The particles cannot be filtered out

Example: salt and water

Suspensions

Appearance- Cloudy, Heterogeneous, atleast two substances visible

Particle size- about 1000 nm, large enough to be visible to the naked eyes
Effect of sedimentation- particles will eventually settle out

Effect of the light Tyndall Effect- variable

Filtration- the particles can be filtered out

Example: Sand and water

Colloids

Appearance- Cloudy, but uniform and may be homogeneous

Particle size- range in sizes from 10^-8 to 10^-6 m in size

Effect of sedimentation- none

Effect of the light Tyndall Effect- Light is dispersed by colloidal particles

Filtration- The particles cannot be filtered out using a filter paper but they can be filtered out using a
semi permeable membrane

Example: milk

Diagram: Chemistry Concise page 36

The Tyndall Effect

Draw a diagram to show the Tyndall effect for a solution and a colloid

Types of Solutions

Solid in Liquid- Salt dissolved in water

Solid in Solid- Alloys, such as brass are made up of a mixture of metals

Gas in Liquid- Soft drinks such as cola, are solutions made up mainly of carbon dioxide gas and water

Liquid in Liquid- Wine is a mixture of mainly ethanol and water

Gas in Gas- The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen
Solutions and Solubility

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. A solution consists of solutes and a
solvent.

The solvent is the substance which does the dissolving and is present in the highest concentration.

The solutes are the substances which dissolve and are present in lower concentrations.

Types of Solutions

Solid in Liquid- Salt dissolved in water; sea water

Solid in Solid- Alloys, such as brass, bronze and steel are made up of a mixture of metals

Gas in Liquid- Soft drinks such as cola, are solutions made up mainly of carbon dioxide gas and water

Liquid in Liquid- Wine is a mixture of mainly ethanol and water; vinegar

Gas in Gas- The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen

Solubility

Saturated Solution- A solution which has dissolved the maximum amount of solute at a given
temperature.

Unsaturated Solution-A solution which has less solute than the maximum amount of solute that can
dissolve at a given temperature.

Supersaturated Solution- A solution that has dissolved more than the maximum amount of solute,
reached by heating and then by cooling
The solubility of a solute in a solvent is defined as the mass of the solute which can be dissolved in 100 g
of the solvent at a given temperature.

In general:

The solubility of a solid in a liquid increases as temperature increases.

The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases as temperature increases.

Different substances dissolve in a solvent by varying amounts. Therefore, they have different solubilities.
When we describe the solubility of a substance, we must mention three things:

 The name and mass of the solute which is dissolved

 The name and mass of the solvent that the solute is dissolved in
 The temperature of the solution

Solubility Curves
A solubility curve is a graph which shows the variation of solubility with temperature. Solubility (g per
100 g of solvent) is plotted on the y axis and Temperature is plotted on the x-axis.

Information that can be obtained from a Solubility Curve

1. The state (unsaturated, saturated, supersaturated) of a solution at a given mass of solute at a

given a temperature. E.g., Does 23g of X at 60°C forms a saturated solution?

2. The solubility of a solid at a given temperature- e.g., what is the solubility of X at 18°C, at 40°C?

3. The temperate at which a given amount of solute will form a saturated solution. E.g., what
temperature would 30 g of X saturate 100 g of water?

4. The mass of solute which must be added to resaturate a solution if its temperature is
increased.- e.g., If the temperature is increased from 35°C to 45°C, what mass of X must be
added to a solution containing 100 g of water at 35°C to form a saturated solution at 45°C?
Solubility of X at 35°C = x g per 100 g water
Solubility of X at 45°C = y g per 100 g water y g-x g= g
 5. The mass of solute that would crystallize out of a saturated solution if its temperature is
decreased.-e.g., If the temperature is decreased from 90°C to 70°C, what mass of X would
crystallize out of a solution containing 100 g of water that is saturated at 90°C
Solubility of X at 35°C = x g per 100 g water
Solubility of X at 45°C = y g per 100 g water y g-x g= g

6. The minimum mass of solvent required to dissolve a fixed mass of solute at a given
temperature. E.g.- To dissolve 116 g of X at 70°C:
At 70°C, x g of X dissolve in 100 g of water
1 g X dissolve in 100/x g water
And 116 g X dissolve in 116 x 100/x g water =
So to dissolve 116 g of X at 70°C requires Y g of water.

7. To compare the solubilities of different substances

Separation Methods and Techniques

Method: Filtration

Apparatus:

Use: to separate suspended or settled solids (insoluble) from a liquid

Basis for Separation: differences in particle size of the various components

Retains: can be used to keep either the liquid or solids of even both

Examples: sand and water, wood chips and water, Styrofoam particles from water

Method: Evaporation

Apparatus:

Use: to separate solid solutes from a solution. The solute must not:

1. Decompose on heating
2. Contains water of crystallization

Basis for Separation: Application of heat which results in the evaporation of the solvent

Retains: the solid solute

Examples: salt and water, does sucrose contain water of crystallization

Method: Crystallization

Apparatus:

Use: to separate solid solutes from a solution especially if the solid contains water of crystallization.

Basis for separation:

Retains: Solid solute

Examples: Copper sulphate from copper sulphate solution,

Method: Separating funnel

Apparatus:

Use: to separate immiscible liquids

Basis for Separation: immiscibility of liquids

Retains: can retain all components

Examples: oil and water

Method: Paper Chromatography

Apparatus:

Use: to separate several solutes, usually coloured, present in a solution. Paper Chromatography involves
a stationary phase (the paper) and a mobile phase (the solvent).

Basis for Separation: The solvent moves up the paper separating the dyes according to:

 Their solubility in the solvent- most soluble moves fastest

 Their attraction for the paper- least attracted moves fastest

Retains: solutes

Examples: dyes in black ink, pigments in chlorophyll

Method: Solvent Extraction

Apparatus:
Use: to separate solutes from a solution when one of the solutes is soluble in a second immiscible
solvent.

Basis for Separation:

 The desired component being more soluble in one solvent than in the other
 The immiscibility of the liquids

Retains: solutes

Examples: sodium chloride and iodine in trichloroethane and water (iodine is not very soluble in water)

Method: Sublimation

Apparatus:

Use: to separate a solid which sublimes from a mixture of solids.

Basis for Separation: One solid sublimes and the other does not

Retains: solutes

Examples: E.g, to separate iodine or ammonium chloride from a mixture containing either substance.

Method: Simple Distillation

Apparatus:

Use: to separate and retain the solvent from a solution.

Basis for Separation: Wide difference in boiling point between solute and solvent

Retains: both solute and solvent

Example: to obtain distilled water from sea water

Method: Fractional Distillation

Apparatus:

Use: to separate a solution of liquids

Basis for Separation: the miscible liquids have small differing boiling points (Miscible liquids are liquids
which mix completely)

Retains: all components

Example: E.g ethanol (BP-78°C) and water (BP-100°C).

The Extraction of Sucrose from Sugar Cane
Sucrose is a carbohydrate, a disaccharide consisting of one molecule of glucose joined to one
molecule of fructose by a glycosidic bond, its chemical formula is C 12H22O11.

 The cane is cut from the stalk in the fields, and enters the factory.
 It is then cut by knives and crushed in a series of mills to release the juice.
 Water is then sprayed on the cut and crushed cane to dissolve the sugar and
concentrated juice from the cells.
 The fibres are removed and burnt in the boiler furnace, which converts water into steam
to drive turbines to generate electricity.
 The extracted mixture of dilute juice contains sugars and other soluble, partially soluble
and insoluble materials. It is allowed to settle in a tank.
 Lime, Ca(OH)2 is added to the settling tank to:
- Neutralize the acids, this prevents the inversion of sucrose to glucose and fructose
- Precipitate impurities- the lime causes the insoluble and sparingly soluble
substances to coagulate so the settle out. Adding lime to the mixture clarifies it.
 The mixture is filtered in a rotary filter and the mud is washed to extract all the sucrose.
 The mud is returned to the fields
 The clear juice is heated in a series of evaporators at reduced pressure. This:
- Makes the sugar solution concentrated and by the end it is very concentrated and is
called syrup.
- The steam from the boiler furnace is used to heat the first evaporator.
- The steam from the first evaporator is used to heat the second and so on.
 Vacuum distillation (distillation at low pressure which reduces the boiling point and thus
the temperature) is then used to concentrate the syrup even further by removing
almost all of the water. This produces a heavy, viscous (thick and sticky) substance
called massecuite. The low pressure in vacuum distillation prevents charring and
caramelisation.
 The massecuite is allowed to cool and as it does, crystals of sugar form. This is called
crystallization.
 The massecuite is put into perforated vessels which are spun at very high speed. The
liquid part (molasses) is flung through the perforations, leaving the sugar crystals inside.
This separation process is called centrifugation.
 The molasses may:
- Returned for further crystallization
- The final molasses is used to manufacture rum, alcohol, animal feed, etc.
 The unrefined sugar (refined-extremely processed with no nutritional value) then sent
to the local market or exported.