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Section 1: Reading
Section 2: Parts of Speech
Section 3: Spelling Rules
Section 4: Conventions - capitalization and
punctuation
Section 5: Writing
Section 6: Revising
Section 7: Speech
Section 8: Testing Tips
 
 
 
 

 
 

  1  
 
 
Reading  Terms  to  Know  
 
Allegory:    symbolic  representation  
     
Alliteration:  repetition  of  beginning  consonant  sounds  (tongue  twister)  
 
Allusion:    reference  to  someone  
 
Analogy:        comparison  of  two  unlike  things  
 
Assonance:    repetition  of  beginning  vowel  sounds  
 
Autobiography:      story  of  writer’s  own  life,  told  by  the  writer  in  first-­‐person  narration  
 
Bandwagon:  appeals  to  the  audience’s  desire  not  to  be  left  out  because  “everyone”  has  
it.  
 
Bias:    giving  only  one  side  of  the  argument  
 
Biography:  story  of  someone  else’s  life;  written  in  third-­‐person  narration  
 
Character:  a  person  or  an  animal  who  takes  part  in  a  literary  work  
 
Climax:    also  known  as  the  turning  point,  is  the  high  point  in  the  action  of  the  plot.    It  is  
the  moment  of  greatest  tension,  when  the  outcome  of  the  story  hangs  in  the  balance.  
 
Conflict:  a  struggle  between  opposing  forces  
   
Connotation/Denotation  
   
Connotation:      set  of  ideas  or  emotions  associated  with  a  word  in  addition  to  its  
dictionary  meaning  
  Denotation:      the  dictionary  definition  of  a  word  
 
Context  Clues  
 
Direct  definition:  Direct  definitions  or  explanations  are  the  most  obvious  type  of  
context  clue.    Words  such  as  is  and  means  signal  that  a  definition  or  explanation  
of  an  unfamiliar  word  will  follow.  
   

  2  
Example:    To  many  proud  descendants  of  the  Incas,  that  statue  is  a  
painful  reminder  of  the  destruction  of  the  once-­‐mighty  empire  of  their  
ancestors.    An  ancestor  is  a  family  member  who  lived  long  ago.  
 
Restatement:    Restatements  are  a  type  of  context  clue  that  uses  different  
words  to  say  the  same  thing.    A  restatement  is  often  signaled  by  or,  that  is,  and  
in  other  words,  and  is  usually  set  off  by  commas.        
 
Example:    Jefferson  asked  Meriwether  Lewis  to  lead  an  expedition,  or  
exploring  party,  into  the  Louisiana  Territory.  
 
Compare/contrast:    Comparisons  or  contrasts  are  a  kind  of  context  clue  that  
likens  or  contrasts  an  unfamiliar  word  or  concept.    Words  and  phrases  such  as  
like  just  as,  similar,  different,  in  contrast,  and  on  the  other  hand,  signal  that  a  
comparison  or  contrast  of  an  unfamiliar  word  will  follow.  
 
Example:    Unlike  the  indigenous  people  of  North  America,  the  new  
settlers  from  England  were  unaccustomed  to  using  the  plants  that  grew  
along  the  East  Coast.  
 
Dialect:  the  form  of  language  spoken  by  people  in  a  particular  region  or  group.    
Pronunciation,  vocabulary,  and  sentence  structure  are  affected  by  dialect.    This  may  
include  idioms  and  colloquialisms.  
 
Dialogue:    A  conversation  between  characters.    It  is  used  to  reveal  character  and  
advance  action.    In  a  story  or  novel,  quotation  marks  are  generally  used  to  indicate  a  
speaker’s  exact  words.    Quotation  marks  are  not  used  in  a  script,  which  is  the  printed  
version  of  a  play.  
 
Essays:    Nonfiction  piece  of  writing  based  on  facts  about  a  particular  subject  
 
Response  to  Literature:    expresses  writer’s  feelings  and  thoughts  about  a  book,  
short  story,  essay,  article,  or  poem.  
Persuasive:    try  to  convince  the  reader  to  think  or  act  in  a  certain  way  
Informative:    give  and  explain  facts  
Research  Report:    presents  facts  about  a  subject  
Narrative:    tell  a  true  story  
 
Exposition:    In  the  plot  of  a  story  or  drama,  the  exposition  is  the  part  of  the  work  that  
introduces  the  characters,  the  setting,  and  the  basic  situation.  
 
Fact:  An  idea  that  can  be  proven  true  or  false  
 

  3  
Figurative  Language:    writing  or  speech  that  is  used  to  create  vivid  impressions  by  
setting  up  comparisons  between  unlike  things.  
 
Foreshadowing:  the  use  of  clues  that  suggest  events  that  have  yet  to  occur.    The  use  of  
this  technique  helps  to  create  suspense.      
 
Free  Verse:    poetry  that  has  no  form;  written  to  sound  like  conversation  
 
Glittering  Generality:  association  with  something  recognized  as  desirable  
 
Genre:    a  category,  or  type,  of  literature.    Literature  is  commonly  divided  into  three  
major  genres:    poetry,  prose,  and  drama.  
 
Historical  Essay:  Gives  facts  and  ideas  about  an  event  or  series  of  events  in  history  
 
Hyperbole:    great  exaggeration  
 
Idiom:  an  expression  that  has  a  meaning  apart  from  the  meanings  of  its  individual  words  
 
Imagery:    words  or  word  phrases  that  appeal  to  one  or  more  of  the  five  senses  
 
Irony:    a  writing  technique  that  shows  the  differences  between  appearance  and  reality,  
expectation  and  result,  or  meaning  and  intention.  
 
Journal:    regular  account  of  events  and  the  writer’s  thoughts  and  feelings  
 
Letter:    written  communication  from  one  person  to  another  
 
Literal  language:    Uses  words  in  the  ordinary  senses.    It  is  the  opposite  of  figurative  
language.  
 
Loaded  Words:  words  that  have  an  emotional  impact  
 
Metaphor:    comparing  two  unlike  objects  by  saying  one  is  the  other.    DOES  NOT  use  like  
or  as  
 
Meter:    combining  accented  syllables  with  unaccented  syllables  to  make  a  regular  
pattern  
 
Mood:    the  feeling  a  reader  gets  after  reading  a  literary  work  or  passage.    It  is  often  
suggested  by  descriptive  details.  
 
Moral:    the  lesson  aught  by  a  literary  work.    A  fable  usually  ends  with  a  moral  that  is  
directly  stated.  

  4  
 
Myth:    a  fictional  tale  that  explains  the  actions  of  gods  or  the  causes  of  natural  
phenomena  
 
Name  Calling:    Stating  or  suggesting  that  the  competition  is  wrong  or  inferior  
 
Narrator:    a  speaker  or  character  that  tells  a  story  
    First  person:    one  who  tells  the  story  and  participates  in  the  action  
    Third  person:    one  who  stands  outside  the  action  and  speaks  about  it.    
 
Nonfiction:  Literature  that  deals  with  the  real  world.    It  tells  about  actual  events  or  
people  and  addresses  the  world  of  ideas.  
 
Onomatopoeia:    words  that  sound  like  what  they  mean  
 
Opinion:    Can  be  supported  but  not  proven  
 
Ordinary  folks:  association  with  common  people  and  common  needs  rather  than  with  
rich  celebrities  or  privileged  politicians  
 
Oxymoron:    ironic  comparisons  
 
Personification:    giving  human  qualities  to  a  nonhuman  thing  
 
Plot:    the  sequence  of  events  in  a  literary  work.    Begins  with  an  exposition  that  
introduces  the  setting,  the  characters,  and  the  basic  situation.    This  is  followed  by  the  
iniating  action,  which  introduces  the  central  conflict.    The  conflict  then  increases  until  it  
reaches  a  climax.    All  the  events,  leading  up  to  the  climax,  make  up  the  rising  action.    
The  climax  is  followed  by  the  falling  action,  which  leads  to  the  resolution,  or  end,  of  the  
central  conflict.    
 
Propaganda:    Misuse  of  information  in  order  to  persuade  people.  
 
Prose:    the  ordinary  form  of  written  language.    Most  writing  that  is  not  poetry,  drama,  
or  song  is  considered  prose.  
 
Pun:    a  word  with  two  meanings,  usually  humorous  
 
Refrain:  repetition  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  
 
Rhyme:    words  that  sound  alike  
 
Rhythm:    the  pattern  of  beats  or  stresses  in  spoken  or  written  language  
 

  5  
Rhyme  Scheme:    pattern  of  rhyming  sounds  at  the  end  of  lines  in  a  poem  
 
End  Rhyme:  pairing  the  last  word  in  one  line  with  the  last  word  in  the  
next  line  
 
Internal  Rhyme:  the  last  word  in  a  line  is  echoes  by  a  word  placed  at  the  
beginning  or  in  the  middle  of  the  following  line  
 
 
Science  fiction:    writing  that  tells  about  imaginary  events  that  involve  science  or  
technology.    Many  science-­‐fiction  stories  are  set  in  the  future.  
 
Sensory  language:    writing  or  speech  that  appeals  to  one  or  more  of  the  senses  
 
Setting:    where  and  when  a  story  takes  place  
 
Simile:    Comparing  two  unlike  objects  using  like,  as,  or  than  
 
Speaker:      the  imaginary  voice  assumed  by  the  writer  of  a  poem.    In  many  poems,  the  
speaker  is  not  identified  by  name.    The  speaker  may  be  a  person,  an  animal,  a  thing,  or  
an  idea.  
 
Stage  directions:    Notes  included  in  a  drama  to  describe  how  the  work  is  to  be  
performed  or  staged.    They  are  used  to  describe  sets,  lighting,  sound  effects,  and  the  
appearance,  personalities,  and  movements  of  characters.  
 
Stanza:  a  formal  division  of  lines  in  a  poem,  considered  a  unit.    Often  stanzas  are  
separated  by  spaces.    They  are  like  the  paragraph  in  prose.  
 
Suspense:    a  feeling  or  curiosity  or  uncertainty  about  the  outcome  of  events  in  a  literary  
work  
 
Symbol:  Anything  that  stands  for  or  represents  something  else.    An  object  that  serves  as  
a  symbol  has  its  own  meaning,  but  it  also  represents  abstract  ideas.  
 
Testimonial:    Also  known  as  endorsement.    A  respected  organization  or  well-­‐known  
person  introduces  the  product  and  so  the  audience  assumes  it  must  be  good.  
 
Theme:    the  central  message,  concern,  or  purpose  in  a  literary  work.    It  may  be  the  life  
lesson  or  the  moral  of  the  story.    The  theme  is  the  writer’s  central  idea.    It  is  NOT  the  
summary  of  the  plot.  
 
Tone:      the  writer’s  attitude  toward  his  or  her  audience  and  subject.  
 

  6  
Unsupported  inference:    Conclusions  that  do  not  have  the  right  kind  of  evidence  to  back  
them  up  

  7  
Character  Traits  
Humble   Brave   Courageous  
Serious   Funny   Humorous  
Sad   Resourceful   Stubborn  
Loyal   Gullible   Handsome  
Caring   Carefree   Selfish  
Unselfish   Generous   Self-­‐confident  
Respectful   Considerate   imaginative  
Inventive   Creative   Independent  
Studious   Intelligent   Honest  
Mischievous   Friendly   Adventurous  
Hard-­‐working   Timid   Shy  
Bold   Daring   Dainty  
Busy   Lazy   Patriotic  
Fun-­‐loving   Successful   Responsible  
Helpful   Dreamer   Happy  
Disagreeable   Conceited   Leader  
Demanding   Bossy   Gentle  
Loving   Proud   wild  
Messy   Neat   Joyful  
Cooperative   Lovable   Ambitious  
Quiet   Curious   Witty  
Fighter   Determined   Energetic  
Cheerful   Thoughtful   Calm  
Mannerly   Rude   mean  
 

  8  
Parts  of  Speech  
 
Noun:    
  The  name  of  a  person,  place,  thing,  or  idea.  
a. Proper  nouns  are  specific  persons,  places,  or  things  and  are  
capitalized.  
b. Common  nouns  do  not  name  specific  persons,  places,  or  things  and  
are  not  capitalized.  
 
Pronouns:    
  A  pronoun  is  a  word  that  stands  for  a  noun  or  for  a  word  that  takes  the  place  
of  a  noun.    The  antecedent  is  the  noun  that  the  pronoun  refers  to  or  replaces.  
  1.  Personal  Pronouns  
                 Singular            Plural  
    First  Person     I,  me,  my,  mine     we,  us,  our,  ours  
  Second  Person   you,  your,  yours     you,  your,  yours  
    Third  Person     he,  him,  his,         they,  them  
          she,  her,  hers,       their,  theirs  
          it,  its          
2. Demonstrative  pronouns  point  out  a  person,  place,  or  thing.  There  are  
four  of  them:  this,  that,  these,  those.  
 
3. Reflexive  pronouns  direct  the  action  of  the  verb  back  to  the  subject.    
 
First  Person:  myself,  ourselves  
Second  Person:  yourself,  yourselves  
Third  Person:  himself,  herself,  itself,  themselves  
 
4. Interrogative  pronouns  introduce  a  question:  what,  which,  who,  whom,  
whose,  whom,  whose.  
 
5. Relative  pronouns  introduce  a  subordinate  clause:  that,  what,  which,  
who,  whom,  whose.  
 
6. Indefinite  pronouns  refer  to  a  person,  place,  or  thing  that  is  not  
specifically  named:  
 
all       both     few     nobody   several  
another     each     many     none     some  
any     either     more     no  one     somebody  
anybody     everybody   most     nothing   someone  
anyone     everyone   much     one     something  
anything     everything   neither   other     such  
 
 

  9  
Verbs:  
  A  verb  is  a  word  that  expresses  time  while  showing  an  action,  a  condition,  or  
the  fact  that  something  exists.  
 
  1.  An  action  verb  may  express  physical  action  or  mental  action.  
 
  2.  A  linking  verb  links  or  connects,  the  subject  with  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  or  an  
adjective  in  the  predicate.  
 
Linking  Verbs  
Formed  from  the  Verb  Be  
 
am           be         being  
are             been         is  
has  been         may  be         was  
have  been           could  be       were  
will  be           should  be       should  have  been  
was  being         would  be       will  have  been  
 
Other  Linking  Verbs  
 
appear           look         sound  
become         remain         stay  
feel           seem         taste  
grow           smell         turn  
 
  3.  Helping  verbs  help  the  main  verb  to  express  an  action  or  a  state  of  being.    
There  are  23  helping  verbs  commonly  used.  
 
  am       is       are       was       were         be  
  being     been     do       does     did     have  
  has     had     can     could     shall     should  
  will     would     may     might     must  
 
A  verb  has  four  principal  parts:  the  present,  the  present  participle,  the  past,  and  the  
past  participle.  
Example:  
 
  Present     Present       Past     Past  
        Participle           Participle  
 
walk(s)   (am/is)walking   walked   (have/has/had)  walked  
 
 
 
 

  10  
Regular  verbs  have  a  past  and  past  participle  formed  according  to  a  pattern.  
 
Irregular  verbs  are  formed  in  various  ways.    In  some  cases  the  verb  remains  exactly  
the  same.  
 
Verb  Tenses  
 
The  tense  of  a  verb  indicates  the  time  of  the  action  or  state  of  being  expressed  by  the  
verb.  
 
The  six  tenses  of  the  verbs:  
 
    Past       Present         Future  
Existing  or   Existing  or       Existing  or  happening  
  happening  in       happening       in  the  future.  
  the  past.       now.  
 
 
Past  Perfect       Present  Perfect     Future  Perfect  
Existing  or       Existing  or       Existing  or  
happening       happening       happening  
before  a  specific     sometime       before  a  
time  in  the  past.     before  now.       in  the  future.    
 
Helping  Verb       Helping  Verb       Helping  Verb  
had         have  or  has       will  have  
 
 
 
Adjectives:  
 
  An  adjective  describes  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  gives  more  specific  meaning.  
 
 
Adverbs:  
 
  An  adverb  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

  11  
Prepositions:  
 
  A  preposition  relates  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  following  it  to  another  word  in  a  
sentence.  
 
  aboard     considering     onto  
  about       despite     opposite  
  above       down       out  
  according  to     down  from     out  of  
  across       during       outside  
  across  from     except       outside  of  
  after       except  for     over  
  against     excepting     over  to  
  along       for       owing  to  
  alongside     from       past  
  alongside  of     from  among     prior  to  
  along  with     from  between     regarding  
  amid       from  under     round  
  among       in       round  about  
  apart  from     in  addition  to     save  
  around     in  behalf  of     since  
  aside  from     in  front  of     through  
  at       in  place  of     throughout  
  away  from       in  regard  to     till  
  back  of     in  spite  of     to  
  because  of     inside       together  with  
  before       inside  of     toward  
  behind       instead  of     under  
  below       into       underneath  
  beneath     like       until  
  beside       near       unto  
  besides     near  to     up  
  between     of       up  to  
  beyond     off       upon  
  by  means  of     on       with  
  concerning     on  top  of      
 
 
Conjunctions:    
 
  A  conjunction  connects  other  words  or  groups  of  words.  
   
    FANBOYS:  for,  and,  nor,  but,  or,  yet,  so  
 
 
 

  12  
Interjections:    
 
  An  interjection  is  a  word  that  expresses  a  feeling  or  emotion  and  functions  
independently  of  a  sentence.  
 
Phrases,  Clauses,  and  Sentences:      
 
  Phrases:  A  group  of  words  without  a  subject  and  a  verb.  
 
  Clause:  A  group  of  words  with  its  subject  and  verb.  
  Independent  Clause:  Can  stand  alone  by  itself  as  a  complete  sentence.  
Dependent  or  Subordinate:  Has  a  subject  and  a  verb  but  cannot  stand  alone  
as  a  sentence.  
 
  Sentence:  A  group  of  words  with  two  main  parts:  a  complete  subject  and  a  
  complete  predicate.    Together  these  parts  express  a  complete  thought.  
    Subject:  Who  or  what  the  sentence  is  about.  
    Predicate:  Tells  what  the  subject  is  doing  or  thinking.  
Sentence  Fragment:  A  group  of  words  that  does  not  express  a  
complete  thought.  
  Sentence  Types:    
Simple:    Contains  one  subject  and  one  predicate  that  create  an  
independent  clause.  
Compound:  Contains  two  or  more  independent  clauses,  joined  by  
either  a  FANBOY  or  a  semi-­‐colon.  
    Complex:    Contains  two  or  more  clauses,  one  of  which  is  a  subordinate  
    clause.  
 

  13  
Preposition  Song  –  sung  to  Mine  Eyes  Have  Seen  the  Glory  –  Read  down  the  columns.  
 
Aboard   Among   Beside     For  
About     Around   Between   From  
Above     At     Beyond   In  
Across     Before     By     Into  
After     Behind   Down     Like  
Against   Below     During     Of  
Along     Beneath   Except     Off  
 
Chorus:    Prepositions  come  in  phrases,    
       the  phrases  always  end  in  objects,  
       Prepositions  never  work  alone,    
       or  they  are  called  adverbs.  
 
 
Over     Underneath   Since     Up  
Past       Until     Through   Upon  
To       With     Throughout   Without  
Toward   Within     Under              
 
Repeat  Chorus.        
 

Subject – Predicate Song: Sung to the tune of "A Tisket, a Tasket, a Green and Yellow
Basket"

A subject, a predicate-
These are quite important!
Combine the two, and you will see
That you have formed a sentence.

The subject, the subject


Is a noun or a pronoun.
Who or what it usually tells,
And that is how you'll find it.

The predicate, the predicate


It tells about the subject,
What it is or what it does,
A verb and all its helpers.

The subject, the predicate


Together form a sentence.
Write them both then punctuate
VOILA! You have a sentence.

  14  
Spelling  Rules  
 
ie  and  ei  
 
1.    Except  after  c,  write  ie  when  the  sound  is  long  e.  
 
2.    Write  ei  when  the  sound  is  not  long  e,  especially    when  the  sound    is  long  a.  
 
-­‐-­‐cede,    -­‐-­‐ceed,    and  -­‐-­‐sede  
 
3.    The  only  word  ending  in  -­‐-­‐sede  is  supersede.    Most  other  words  with  this  sound  
end  in  -­‐-­‐cede.  
 
Adding  Prefixes  
 
4.    When  adding  a  prefix  to  a  word,  do  not  change  the  spelling  of  the  word  itself.  
 
Adding  Suffixes  
 
5.    When  adding  the  suffix  -­‐-­‐ly  or  -­‐-­‐ness  to  a  word,  do  not  change  the  spelling  of  the  
word  itself.  
 
6.    Drop  the  final  silent  e  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel.  
 
7.    Keep  the  final  silent  e  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  consonant.  
 
8.    For  words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  the  y  to  i  before  any  suffix  
that  does  not  begin  a  vowel.  
 
9.    For  words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel,  keep  the  y  when  adding  a  suffix.  
 
10.  Double  the  final  consonant  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel  if  the  word    
 
(1) has  only  one  syllable  or  has  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable  
 
and  
 
  (2)    ends  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel.  
 
Forming  the  Plurals  of  Nouns  
 
11.  The  plural  form  of  most  nouns  is  made  by  adding  -­‐s  to  the  end  of  the  word.  
 
  chair     chairs     floor     floors  
  president   presidents   desk     desks  
  face     faces     drill     drills  

  15  
 
12.  If  the  word  ends  in  -­‐s,  -­‐h,  -­‐ch,  -­‐x,  or  -­‐z,  the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  -­‐es.  
 
  boss     bosses     dish     dishes  
  bench     benches     fox     foxes  
  waltz     waltzes     tax     taxes  
 
13.  If  the  word  ends  in  a  consonant  followed  by  -­‐y,  the  plural  is  formed  by  changing  
the  -­‐y  to  -­‐i  and  adding  -­‐es.  
 
  city     cities     country     countries  
  variety   varieties   candy       candies  
  family     families   cherry       cherries  
 
14.  If  the  word  ends  in  a  vowel  followed  by  -­‐y,  the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  -­‐s.    
 
  valley     valleys     turkey     turkeys  
  key     keys     play     plays  
  journey     journeys     boy     boys  
 
15.  The  plurals  of  most  nouns  ending  with  -­‐f  or  -­‐fe  are  formed  by  adding  -­‐s.  
 
  gulf     gulfs     belief     beliefs  
  cuff     cuffs     roof     roofs  
  cliff     cliffs     dwarf     dwarfs  
 
16.  Some  words  that  end  in  -­‐f  or  -­‐fe  are  formed  by  changing  the  -­‐f  to  -­‐v  and  adding  -­‐
es.  
 
  knife     knives     wife     wives  
  leaf     leaves     elf     elves  
  thief     thieves   life     lives  
  loaf     loaves     wolf     wolves  
  half     halves     self     selves  
  calf     calves  
 
17.  If  the  word  ends  in  a  consonant  followed  by  -­‐o,  form  the  plural  by  adding  -­‐es.  
 
  hero     heroes     potato     potatoes  
  tomato   tomatoes   echo     echoes  
  zero     zeroes     cargo     cargoes  
 
18.  If  the  word  ends  in  a  vowel  followed  by  -­‐o,  form  the  plural  by  adding  -­‐s.  
 
  video     videos     radio     radios  
  studio     studios   patio     patios  

  16  
 
19.  To  form  the  plural  of  a  compound  word,  make  the  base  noun,  or  second  noun,  
plural.  
 
  brother-­‐in-­‐law   brothers-­‐in-­‐law   bucket  seat     bucket  seats  
  sandbox     sandboxes     passer-­‐by     passers-­‐by  
 
20.  Some  words  are  used  for  both  singular  and  plural  meanings:  
 
  cod     deer     trout     sheep  
  moose     bass     corps     wheat  
  barley     mackerel   rye     series  
  traffic     dozen     fish     gross  
 
21.  Some  words  have  irregular  plural  forms:  
 
  child     children   foot     feet  
  ox     oxen     mouse     mice  
  louse     lice     radius     radii  
  piano     pianos     Eskimo   Eskimos  
  sheep     sheep     tooth     teeth  
  trout     trout     deer     deer  
  salmon   salmon   woman   women  
  man     men     goose     geese  
  series     series     species   species  
  basis     bases     stimulus   stimuli  
  crisis     crises     medium   media  
  index     indices   criterion   criteria  
  solo     solos     auto     autos  
  axis     axes     focus     foci  
  oasis     oases     parenthesis   parentheses  
 
Writing  Numbers  
 
22.  Spell  out  a  number  that  begins  a  sentence.  
 
23.  If  you  use  several  numbers,  some  short  and  some  long,  write  them  all  the  same  
way.    Usually,  it  is  better  to  write  them  all  as  numerals.  
 
24.  Spell  out  numbers  used  to  indicate  order.  
 
25.  Spell  out  numbers  under  100  in  sentences.    

  17  
Common  spelling  mistakes:  
 
1. Write  out  the  word  and  –  not  &  or  
 
2.    Spell  out  numbers  one  through  one  hundred  (one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven,  
eight,  nine,  ten)  
 
3.    List  yourself  last.    (“My  friends  and  I  went  to  the  store.”    “Ryan,  Jake,  and  I  played  
ball.”    “It  is  for  my  friends  and  me.”    “It  is  for  Ryan,  Jake,  and  me.”  
 
A  lot       2  words     “I  like  you  a  lot.”  
 
Are     verb       “We  are  going.”  
Our     ownership     “This  is  our  car.”  
 
Because     not  cuz  or  cause  
 
Here     place       “Come  here.”  
Hear     listen       “I  can  hear  you.”  
 
Know  =  understanding;  knowledge  
         “I  know  that  for  a  fact.”  
 
No  =   negative  
  “No,  I  won’t.”    
 
Now  =  time  
       “I  will  go  now.”  
 
They     not  thay     “They  are  my  friends.”  
They’re  =  they  are   “They’re  going  to  school  today.”  
Their   =  ownership   “This  is  their  house.”  
There    =  place  “They  live  over  there.”  
 
To  =   toward  
 
Too  =  also  or  to  a  greater  degree  
 
Two  =  2  (Number)  
 
Your  =  ownership     “That  is  your  book.”  
You’re  =   you  are     “You’re  great!”  

  18  
Capitalization  Rules  
 
1. Always  capitalize  the  first  word  of  a  sentence.    The  cat  ran  up  the  tree.  
2. Capitalize  the  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation  when  it  is  used  as  part  of  a  larger  
sentence.    Steve  inquired,  “Is  it  lunchtime  yet?”  
3. The  word  I  is  always  capitalized.    When  I  am  tired,  I  close  my  eyes.  
4. Capitalize  the  name  of  a  specific  person,  place,  event,  date,  thing,  and  document.    
Susan  Thomas,  San  Bernardino,  Fourth  of  July,  Thanksgiving,  September,  the  
Constitution,  the  space  shuttle  Challenger.  
5. Capitalize  a  social  or  professional  title  before  a  person’s  name  or  in  direct  
address.    Ms.  Cox,  Mr.  Goebel,  Mrs.  Thompson  
6. Capitalize  a  title  showing  a  family  relationship  when  used  before  a  person’s  
name  or  in  direct  address.    Uncle  Fred,  Aunt  Lisa  
7. Capitalize  a  title  showing  a  family  relationship  when  it  refers  to  a  specific  person,  
except  when  it  follows  a  possessive  noun  or  a  possessive  pronoun.    Hey,  Mom!    
But  not  She’s  my  mom.  
8. Capitalize  the  first  word  and  all  other  key  words  in  the  titles  of  books,  
newspapers,  magazines,  short  stories,  poems,  plays,  movies,  songs,  and  artworks.  
9. Capitalize  the  title  of  a  school  course  when  it  is  followed  by  a  number,  or  it  refers  
to  a  language.    Otherwise  do  not  capitalize  school  subjects.      Next  year  I  am  
planning  to  take  Spanish,  math,  and  Music  II.  
10. In  a  letter  capitalize  the  following  parts:    heading  (street,  city,  state,  month),  
salutation  (the  first  word,  title,  and  name  of  person),  and  closing  (first  word).  

  19  
Punctuation  Rules  
 
Apostrophes  
 
1. Use  them  to  form  possessives.    Example:    Sue’s  house  
2. Use  them  to  omit  letters  in  contractions.    Example:    can’t  =  cannot  
3. Use  them  in  plurals  of  symbols.    Example:    1900’s,  two  A’s  
 
****Apostrophes  are  NEVER  used  in  plurals  of  words.  ****  
 
Commas  
 
1. Use  a  comma  before  a  conjunction  to  separate  two  independent  clauses  in  a  
compound  sentence.  
2. Use  a  comma  to  separate  a  series  of  words  or  a  series  of  phrases.  
3. Use  a  comma  after  an  introductory  word  or  phrase.  
4. Use  a  comma  to  set  off  interrupting  words  and  phrases  from  the  rest  of  the  
sentence.  
5. Use  a  comma  after  each  item  in  an  address  made  up  of  two  or  more  parts.  
6. Use  a  comma  after  the  salutation  in  a  friendly  letter.  
7. Use  a  comma  after  the  closing.  
8. Use  commas  with  numbers  of  more  than  three  digits.  
9. Use  commas  with  three  or  more  umbers  written  in  a  series.  
 
Semicolons  
 
  Use  a  semicolon  to  connect  two  independent  clauses  that  are  closely  
connected  in  meaning.  
 
Colons  
 
1. Use  a  colon  after  an  independent  clause  to  introduce  a  list  of  items.      Note:    
DO  NOT  use  a  colon  after  a  verb  or  a  preposition.  
2. Use  a  colon  to  separate  hours  and  minutes.  
3. Use  a  colon  after  the  Salutation  in  a  business  letter.  
4. Use  a  colon  on  warnings  and  labels.  
 
 

  20  
Writing  Terms  to  Know  
 
 
Expository  writing  deals  with  factual  material.    Examples  include  essays  
(persuasive,  problem/solution,  cause/effect),  reports,  letters,  memos,  and  
newspaper  articles.  
 
Narrative  writing  deals  with  writing  a  story.    The  narrative  can  either  be  fiction  or  
nonfiction.  
 
Essay  Terminology  
 
Essay:    A  piece  of  writing  that  gives  your  thoughts  (commentary)  about  a  subject.  
 
Introduction/Introductory  paragraph:    The  first  paragraph  in  an  essay.    It  includes  a  
hook,  a  bridge,  and  a  thesis  sentence  at  the  end.  
 
Thesis:    A  sentence  with  a  subject  and  opinion.    This  is  stated  in  your  introductory  
paragraph  and  is  repeated  in  different  words  in  your  conclusion.  
 
Body  paragraph:    A  middle  paragraph  in  an  essay.    It  develops  a  point  you  want  to  
make  that  supports  your  thesis.      
 
Concrete  Details:    Specific  details  that  form  the  backbone  or  core  of  your  body  
paragraphs.    Examples  include  facts,  specifics,  examples,  descriptions,  illustrations,  
support,  proof,  evidence,  quotations,  paraphrasing,  or  plot  references.  
 
Commentary:    Your  opinion  or  comment  about  something.    You  “comment”  on  your  
concrete  detail.    Examples  include  opinion,  insight,  analysis,  interpretation,  
inference,  personal  response,  feelings,  evaluation,  explication,  and  reflection.      
 
Topic  Sentence:    The  first  sentence  in  a  body  paragraph.    It  must  have  a  subject  and  
opinion  for  the  paragraph.    It  does  the  same  thing  for  the  paragraph  that  the  thesis  
does  for  the  whole  essay.  
 
Concluding  Sentence:    The  last  sentence  in  a  body  paragraph.    It  is  all  commentary,  
does  not  repeat  key  words,  and  gives  a  finished  feeling  to  the  paragraph.  
 
Concluding  paragraph:    The  last  paragraph  in  your  essay.    It  may  sum  up  your  ideas,  
reflect  on  what  you  said  in  your  essay,  say  more  commentary  about  your  subject,  or  
give  a  personal  statement  about  the  subject.  
 
Your  conclusion  is  all  commentary  and  does  not  include  concrete  detail.    It  does  not  
repeat  key  words  from  your  paper  and  especially  not  from  your  thesis  and  
introductory  paragraph.    It  gives  a  finished  feeling  to  your  whole  essay.    

  21  
 
 
Ways  to  Organize  Writing  
 
Spatial  order:    Present  details  from  left  to  right,  top  to  bottom,  or  back  to  front.  
    Use  for  descriptions  of  places  or  objects.  
 
Order  of  importance:    Present  least  important  details  at  the  beginning  and  the  most  
important  at  the  end.    Use  for  descriptions  that  will  be  used  to  evaluate  the  thing  
being  described  or  to  show  its  significance  (persuasive  essays,  problem/solution  
essays,  cause/effect  essays).  
 
Chronological  order:    Present  the  events  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur.    Use  for  a  
story,  summary,  and  explanation.      
 
 

  22  
Six  Traits  of  Quality  Writing  
 
Use  the  checklist  below  to  help  you  revise  your  rough  draft.  
 
Ideas  and  Content  
• My  paper  has  a  clear  purpose  or  makes  a  point.  
• I  choose  clear  details  and  examples  to  help  the  reader  understand  my  
message.  
• I  am  writing  about  something  I  know  
 
Organization  
• My  introduction  would  make  a  reader  want  to  keep  reading.  
• I  tell  things  in  an  order  that  makes  sense  
• Details  in  my  paper  go  together  
• My  paper  ends  in  a  good  spot.    It  doesn’t  stop  suddenly  or  drag  on  too  long.  
• I  use  academic  transition  words.  
 
Voice  
• My  writing  shows  what  I  really  think  and  feel.  
• I  like  what  I’ve  written  
• My  writing  sounds  like  me  and  not  someone  else  
• I  have  considered  my  audience  
• I  have  tried  to  make  my  writing  clear  to  the  reader.  
• My  “fingerprint”  is  on  my  writing.      
 
Word  Choice  
• I  choose  words  that  will  help  make  my  meaning  clear.  
• My  words  paint  a  picture  in  the  reader’s  mind.    I  use  imagery.  
• I  have  tried  to  find  my  own  way  to  say  things.  
• Sometimes  I  have  tried  to  say  something  in  a  new  or  different  way.  
• I  use  academic  language.  
 
Sentence  Fluency  
• My  sentences  make  sense.    They  are  clear.  
• Some  sentences  are  longer  than  others.  
• Sentences  begin  in  different  ways.    They  do  not  all  begin  with  the  same  
words.  
• My  paper  is  easy  to  read  out  loud  and  it  flows  when  read  aloud.  
• Someone  else  has  read  your  paper  aloud  to  you  while  you  listen.  
 
Conventions  or  Mechanics  –  CUPS.  
• My  paragraph  begins  in  the  right  spots.  
• My  punctuation  is  correct.  
• I  use  capital  letters  on  proper  names  of  people,  places,  or  things.  

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• My  spelling  is  correct.  
• I  have  proofread  my  paper.  

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Twelve  ways  to  write  topic/thesis  sentences  –  from  Step  Up  to  Writing  
 
1. Occasion/Position  Statements  –  complex  sentence  
Use  one  of  these  words  or  phrases  to  begin  your  sentence  
 
After  
       As  soon  as   Even  though   So  that     Whenever   Although  
Because  
         If     Though   Where     As     Before  
In  
  order  to       In  order  that   Unless     Wherever   As  if  
Even  
      Until     Whether   As  long  as  
Even  
  if       Since     When     While  
   
 
Examples:      
1. Although  my  family  and  I  have  taken  many  wonderful  vacations,  
none  was  more  fun  and  exciting  than  our  camping  trip  to  the  Grand  
Canyon.  
2. Before  a  person  makes  the  decision  to  light  up  a  cigarette,  he  
should  consider  the  problems  caused  by  smoking.  
3. If  you  are  ever  fortunate  enough  to  capture  an  anole,  William  
White’s  book,  “The  American  Chameleon,”  offers  important  rules  for  
keeping  your  new  pet  healthy  and  happy.  
4. Unless  a    person  is  willing  to  take  risks,  she  may  not  reach  her  
goals.  
 
2. Power  (number)  statements  
 
A  Power  (Number)  Statement  is  a  sentence  that  contains  a  number  word.    The  
number  word  is  the  focus  of  the  sentence;  it  tells  your  reader  that  a  list  of  
information  will  follow.    Power  (Number)  Statements  can  be  short  or  long;  in  
fact,  they  can  be  any  grammatical  structure  that  you  need  or  want.  
 
A  couple  of   a  number  of   numerous   some     various  
 
  A  few     plenty  of   many     a  myriad  of   several  
 
 
 
    Examples:  
 
1. The  winter  season  has  several  different  types  of  sports.  

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2. Like  most  American  cities,  Los  Angeles  is  faced  with  many  
problems  including  homelessness,  gang  violence,  and  
unemployment.  
3. The  architect  presented  numerous  problems  to  the  committee.  
 
Do  not  fall  into  the  “There  are”  trap.      
 
Start  your  power  statement  with  a  who,  what,  where,  or  when.  
 
Examples:  
 
  Who     Mary  and  her  sister  Margaret  are  her  two  best  friends.  
  What     The  word  friendship  means  two  things.  
  Where     At  school  Sam  had  several  good  friends.  
  When     During  the  school  year,  Sam  developed  many  good  friends.  
 
3.However  Statements  
 
However  is  one  of  several  conjunctive  adverbs  that  can  help  organize  your  thoughts  
into  a  topic  sentence  or  a  thesis  sentence.    Use  however  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence.    
Place  a  semi-­‐colon  (;)  before  the  word  however  and  a  comma  (,)  after  the  word  
however.  
 
This  method  creates  a  compound  sentence.    Usually,  the  first  part  will  be  the  
occasion  (reason  for  writing);  the  second  part  will  state  the  position  (what  you  plan  
to  prove  or  explain).  
 
Examples:  
 
1. The  rules  for  the  school  cafeteria  seemed  unfair  to  the  students;  however,  the  
rules  have  made  the  cafeteria  a  better  place  to  eat  lunch.  
2. Some  of  the  citizens  in  Springfield  protested  when  the  city  council  voted  to  
close  the  old  theater;  however,  one  man  was  able  to  settle  the  argument  by  
suggesting  a  way  to  rebuild  the  theater  without  having  to  ask  the  taxpayers  
for  more  money.  
3. Most  Americans  want  to  eliminate  crime;  however,  it  will  take  a  great  deal  of  
money,  time,  and  effort  to  reach  this  goal.  
 
4.    And,  But,  and  Or  Statements  
 
  Use  coordinating  conjunctions-­‐for,  and,  nor,  but,  or,  yet,  so  
   
1. Some  people  find  it  difficult  to  program  a  VCR,  but  most  will  succeed  if  they  
just  remember  to  follow  these  guidelines.  
2. Reptiles  are  all  alike  because  they  have  backbones,  breathe  with  lungs,  and  
have  scales,  yet  reptiles  come  in  a  variety  of  sizes  and  shapes.  

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3. School  boards  should  not  cut  art  and  music  programs,  nor  should  they  
sacrifice  the  industrial  arts  electives  offered  in  most  high  schools.  
 
5.A  Few  Good  Prepositions  
 
Once  you  have  learned  to  write  Occasion/Position  Statements  and  However,  
Statements,  try  this  list.    Like  the  Occasion/Position  list,  the  words  on  the  
preposition  chart  in  your  toolkit    can  jog  your  thinking  and  push  you  into  a  good  
topic  sentence.    
 
Not  all  prepositions  will  work  for  your  topic.    Read  your  sentence  out  loud  and  make  
your  decision  once  you  hear  the  sentence.  
 
Remember  that  your  topic  sentence  gives  your  audience  a  quick  glance  at  your  
reason  for  writing  and  tells  them  what  you  intend  to  prove  or  explain.      
 
Some  of  the  words  on  the  preposition  list  are  the  same  as  words  on  the  
Occasion/Position  list.    Words  like  since,  until,  before,  and  after  are  prepositions  if  
there  is  no  verb  (action  word).  
 
Examples:  
 
1. After  the  game  there  were  several  fights  in  the  parking  lot.    (preposition)  
After  the  game  ended,  fights  broke  out  in  the  parking  lot.  (clause)  
2. According  to  Current  Events,  many  high  schools  have  banned  pagers.  
3. Throughout  the  game,  the  defense  made  incredible  sacrifices.  
 
6.To,  Plus  a  Verb  
 
Try  using  an  infinitive  to  start  your  paper.    An  infinitive  is  the  main  verb  b  preceded  
by  the  word  to.    Some  examples  of  infinitives  are  to  succeed,  to  accomplish,  to  finish,  
to  win,    and    to  teach.    Topic  sentences  with  infinitives  are  clear  and  direct.    They  
won’t  confuse  your  reader.  
 
Examples:      
1. To  win,  at  chess,  players  need  to  master  three  skills.  
2. To  succeed  in  business,  a  person  must  establish  clear  but  realistic  goals.  
3. To  prepare  for  college,  high  school  students  should  take  several  math,  
science,  and  English  classes.  
 
7.The  List  Statements  
 
A  common  method  for  writing  a  topic  sentence  is  to  list  the  categories  that  you  will  
address  in  your  paper.    There  are  several  types  of  lists  you  can  use.  
 
A  list  of  words:  

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• All  college  students  need  money,  friends,  and  encouragement.  
• The  corner  café  offers  the  best  in  service,  food,  and  atmosphere.  
 
A  list  of  phrases:    
• The  Smiths  love  their  new  home  but  are  having  trouble  with  the  garage  door  
and  with  the  new  sprinkler  system.  
A  list  of  dependent  (cannot  stand  alone)  clauses:  
• When  she  found  her  lost  puppy,  when  she  won  the  trip  to  Florida,  and  When  
she  met  a  group  of  teachers  from  Russia,  Mary  realized  that  life  is  great  and  
full  of  surprises.  
 
A  list  of  independent  (can  stand  alone)  clauses:  
 
• Run  for  office;  join  a  club;  march  in  the  band.    Activities  like  these  will  make  
high  school  more  rewarding.  
 
Be  careful.    Do  not  mix  words,  phrases,  and  clauses.    If  you  start  with  a  phrase,  
all  parts  of  the  list  should  be  phrases.    If  you  start  with  a  noun,  all  parts  of  the  
list  should  be  nouns.    This  is  called  keeping  the  list  parallel.    Think  of  similar  
endings  like  ed  and  ing  when  you  make  your  list.  
 
8.Get  Their  Attention  
 
A  Declarative  Statement  uses  a  strong  verb  (action  word).  
 
Examples:      
1. Children  love  the  new  flavored  cereals.  
2. Clay’s  gas  station  offers  the  best  service.  
 
9.  Side-­‐by-­‐Side  Statements  
 
Sometimes  using  two  simple  sentences-­‐one  for  the  occasion  and  one  for  the  
position-­‐is  the  right  way  to  go.    This  technique  is  especially  powerful  if  your  goal  is  
to  put  emphasis  on  your  position.  
 
Examples:  
 
1. A  little  stress  may  be  good.    Too  much  is  dangerous.  
2. Young  children  belong  in  car  seats.    The  car  seat  belongs  in  the  back  of  the  
car,  not  in  the  front.  
 
 
 
 

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10.  Semicolon  Topic  Sentence  
 
This  kind  of  topic  sentence  is  just  like  a  Side-­‐by-­‐Side  Statement.    The  main  ideas,  
however,  are  connected  by  a  semicolon  (;)  This  method  is  another  way  to  write  a  
compound  sentence.  
 
Use  this  method  when  you  want  to  emphasize  the  relationship  between  the  occasion  
(your  reason  for  writing)  and  the  position  (what  you  plan  to  prove  or  explain.)  
Examples:  
 
1. The  football  team  deserves  the  state  championship;  the  players  and  the  
coach  are  talented  and  dedicated.  
2. Burying  a  new  car  is  exciting;  it’s  also  stressful.  
 
11.Two  Nouns  and  Two  Commas  
 
When  we  set  off  a  noun  or  a  noun  phrase  with  commas,  we  call  it  an  appositive.    An  
appositive  does  not  have  a  verb;  it  is  simply  a  noun  followed  by  a  description  that  
tells  more  about  the  noun.      
 
Examples:      
 
1. Deckers,  a  small  town  nestled  in  the  Colorado  Rockies,  is  a  fishing  haven  
for  many  serious  anglers.  
2. The  medulla,  an  important  part  of  the  brain,  controls  your  breathing.  
 
12.  Using  a  quotation  
 
Using  a  quotation  in  the  topic  sentence  is  an  easy,  yet  powerful,  way  to  start  a  paper.  
 
Example:      
 
1. Although  I  usually  appreciate  the  advice  I  receive  from  my  grandmother,  I  
wish  that  she  would  follow  the  advice  of  Horace:    “Whatever  advice  you  
give,  be  short.”  
2. When  I  visited  my  relatives  in  Michigan,  I  learned  very  quickly  that  the  
old  German  proverb,  “Never  give  advice  unless  asked,”  is  true.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Writing  an  Introduction  
 
  Your  introduction  should  get  your  reader’s  attention.    There  are  many  different  
ways  to  begin  your  essay.  
 
Narrative  
 
1. Start  in  the  middle  of  the  action.  
 
Suddenly,  I  heard  a  crash  downstairs  and  the  sound  of  breaking  glass.    “Hey,  
who’s  down  there?”  I  yelled.  
 
2. Have  the  characters  talk  and  use  dialogue.  
 
My  brother’s  lips  were  so  swollen,  it  sounded  like  he  said,  “Mine  guess  
who  fur  his!”  
  “What?”  I  said.  
  He  glared  at  me  and  said  louder,  “I’ll  get  you  for  this!”  
 
3. Begin  with  a  surprising  statement  or  fact.  
 
When  I  was  nine,  I  started  my  dad’s  car  and  drove  onto  the  street.    I  
thought  I  was  going  to  New  Jersey.  
 
4. Give  some  important  background  information.  
 
Mr.  Brown  was  in  the  marines  before  he  became  a  teacher  and  a  coach.    
He  does  not  allow  any  fooling  around  in  his  classroom  or  in  the  gym.    I  
learned  that  the  hard  way  during  basketball  tryouts.  
 

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Nonfiction  
 
1.  Startling  information:  
 
              Recent  research  has  shown  that  the  color  pink  has  a  calming  effect  on  people.    
 
   
2.  Anecdote:  
 
    Dale  Ching  was  a  teenager  in  1937  when  he  rode  on  a  steamer  bound  for                    
America  from  China.    For  22  days,  he  dreamed  about  San  Francisco,  fortified  by  
the  knowledge  that  his  father  was  waiting  for  him  there.    
 
    3.    Quotation:      
 
    Praise  from  the  chief  wife  of  the  king,  his  beloved  ...  Nefertiti,  living,  healthy,  and  
youthful  forever  and  ever.”    This  hymn  to  the  god  Aten  with  a  prayer  on  behalf  
of  a  beautiful  queen  of  3,  300  years  ago  expresses  the  primary  hope  of  her  
people.    The  ancient  Egyptians  sought  eternal  life  above  all  else.  
 
4. Definition:      
 
  While  the  Internet  boom  has  lent  some  respectability  to  the  term,  narrow  
minded  stereotypes  still  linger.    Nerds  are  supposedly  friendless,  book-­‐smart  
sissies  who  suck  up  to  authority  figures.      
 
5. Move  from  general  to  specific.  
 
They  are  big,  they  are  ugly,  they  are  vicious,  and  the  only  good  one  is  a  dead  one.    
That  is  what  some  people  say  about  sharks.      
       
 
             6.    Summary  Information:      
 
Caught  up  in  battle  or  ritual  dance,  these  mythic  catlike  creatures  have  
faced  each  other  on  a  cliff  in  Libya  for  perhaps  8,000  years.    During  that  time  
northern  Africa’s  broad  savannas  became  a  vast  desert,  and  most  of  its  people  
moved  south.    Civilizations  vanished,  but  their  words  of  art  remain.    
 
7. Example:  
 
The  skull  roars  from  the  darkness,  its  thick-­‐boned  snout  and  dagger  teeth  
emerging  then  melting  away  like  a  ghostly  nightmare.      
       

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Creating  a  Great  Hook  
 
I. Background    
• May  include  historical  or  chronological  information  that  helps  the  
reader  understand  the  main  ideas  of  your  paper.  
• Example:    The  end  of  World  War  II  introduced  the  world  to  the  
atomic  bomb  with  devastating  consequences.    Although  atomic  
energy  is  our  most  promising  energy  alternative,  critics  have  
drastically  reduced  its  production.  
 
II. Definitions    
• This  strategy  is  useful  for  papers  about  abstract  themes  such  as  
love  or  subjects  with  a  variety  of  meanings  because  you  can  
define  your  subject  at  the  beginning.    Avoid  dictionary  
definitions!    
• Example:    Courage  is  defined  as  the  selfless  act  of  caring  for  
another  when  there  is  no  expectation  of  personal  reward.    When  
George  decided  to  take  responsibility  for  Lenny  regardless  of  the  
circumstances,  he  did  so  without  thinking  of  the  negative  
consequences  this  might  have  on  his  own  life.    In  John  Steinbeck’s  
novel,  Of  Mice  and  Men,  George  is  the  most  courageous  character.    
 
III. Quotation  
• A  brief,  significant  quote  can  summarize  the  point  of  a  paper.    The  
significance  should  be  discussed  immediately  after  the  quote.    
• Example:    “Habit  is  second  nature!    Habit  is  ten  times  nature,”  the  
Duke  of  Wellington  is  said  to  have  exclaimed.      The  degree  to  
which  this  is  true  no  one  can  probably  appreciate  as  well  as  one  
who  has  been  a  veteran  soldier.    The  daily  drill  and  the  years  of  
discipline  in  the  military  end  by  creating  a  new  person.  
 
IV. Anecdote  
• An  anecdote  is  a  short,  entertaining  story  with  a  point.    This  
dramatic  type  of  introduction  is  often  used  with  narratives  or  
character  sketches  to  make  a  point  related  to  the  thesis.    This  is  
also  described  as  “setting  the  scene.”  
• Example:    Walking  down  the  street,  I  was  confronted  by  a  large,  
ferocious  looking  dog.    He  galloped  toward  me  and  my  heart  
began  to  pound.  I  knew  that  I  was  in  trouble.    When  he  reached  
my  side,  he  stopped,  sniffed,  and  licked  my  hand.    This  proves  it  is  
important  to  know  all  of  the  details  before  drawing  a  conclusion.      
 
 

  32  
 
V. Description  
• Use  a  brief  but  vivid  picture  to  set  a  scene,  place  the  reader  in  the  
center  of  the  action,  and  serve  as  an  attention  grabber.    
• Example:    The  school  was  a  big  brick  cube  set  in  a  square  of  black  
soil  scuffed  by  the  feet  of  hundreds  of  children.    The  smell  of  the  
nearby  landfill  wafted  through  the  chain  link  fence  to  penetrate  
the  noses  of  the  students  as  they  played.    They  were  not  aware  of  
the  danger  lying  just  outside  the  realm  of  their  experience.    
 
VI. Statistics  
• Use  striking  facts  or  statistics  to  pique  the  interest  of  the  reader  
and  lead  them  into  exploring  the  paper  for  more  information.  
• Example:    More  than  850  whales  are  slaughtered  by  fisherman  
each  year  in  the  North  Atlantic.    Their  value  lies  in  whale  oil,  meat,  
and  ambergris.    Although  some  products  can  be  produced  by  other  
means,  whales  are  still  prized  for  their  contribution  to  perfume  
and  engine  fluids.      However,  the  whale  population  is  decreasing  
at  an  alarming  rate  and  the  whaling  industry  must  be  curtailed.          
 
 
 
 
 

  33  
Writing  a  Conclusion  
 
Just  as  every  essay  has  a  clear  beginning,  it  should  have  a  clear  ending.  The  last  
paragraph,  also  known  as  the  conclusion,  should  make  your  essay  sound  finished.  

The  concluding  paragraph  typically  has  two  parts:  

1.  The  summary  statement  is  one  or  two  sentences  which  restate  the  thesis  in  a  
fresh  way  to  reinforce  the  essay's  main  idea.  

Examples  of  thesis  statements  and  summary  statements  that  restate  the  main  ideas  of  
the  thesis:  

Thesis  Statement:  Many  Americans  are  buying  the  Toyota  Corolla  because  
of  its  competitive  price,  fuel  economy,  and  high  resale  value.    

Summary  Statement:  Reasonable  pricing,  low  miles  per  gallon,  and  an  
attractive  resale  value  have  all  contributed  to  the  popularity  of  the  Toyota  
Corolla  in  today's  market.  

Thesis  Statement:  San  Francisco  is  a  stimulating  place  to  visit  because  of  
its  magnificent  location,  its  theaters  and  art  galleries,  and  its  many  fine  
restaurants.    

Summary  Statement:  If  you  love  beautiful  surroundings,  world  class  


theater  and  art,  and  an  exquisite  meal,  then  San  Francisco  is  the  place  for  
you.  

2.  The  clincher  is  a  final  thought  which  should  create  a  lasting  impression  on  the  
reader.    You  can  use  one  of  the  following:  

  A.    Restate  the  seriousness  of  a  problem.  

B.    Call  for  action/What  you  can  do:  Kind  of  like  a  call  for  awareness,  but  with  
specific  directions  for  the  audience  on  how  they  can  get  involved  and  combat  
this  problem.  

C.  Use  a  quotation.  
D.      Evoke  a  vivid  image.  

  34  
MLA Style
Works Cited
Examples

Book with Author:


Last,  First  M.  Book  Title.  Publishing  City:  Published  by,  Year.  Page  (s).  Medium.    

Example:
Ardley, Neil. Eyewitness Books: Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. 18-19. Print.

Book with Editor


Last,  First  M.,  ed.  Book  Title.  Publishing  City:  Published  by,  Year.  Page  (s).  Medium.    

Example:
Dearling, Robert, ed. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments. New York: Schirmer

Books, 1996. 19-21. Print.

Books with Two or More Authors


Last,  First  M.,  and  First  M.  Last.  Book  Title.  Publishing  City:  Published  by,  Year.  Page  

(s).  Medium.    

Example:
Helsby, Genevieve, and Marin Alsop. Those Amazing Musical Instruments. Naperville:

Sourcebooks, Incorporated, 2007. 54-59. Print.

Dictionary
"Entry."  Book  Title.  Publishing  City:  Published  by,  Year.  Page  (s).  Medium.    

Example (without author):


"Musical Instruments." Scott, Foresman Advanced Dictionary. Glenview: Scott, Foresman and

Company, 1979. 678. Print.

Encyclopedia

Last,  First  M.  "Entry."  Book  Title.  Year.  Page  (s).  Medium.    

Examples:
Donington, Robert. "Musical Instruments." The New Book of Knowledge. 2006. 549-50. Print.

  35  
*All Date of Publication or last update are written Day Month (abbreviated) Year, whatever is available.
✝Access Date is written Day Month (abbreviated) Year.

eLibrary

Last,  First  M.  "Book  Title."  Journal  Vol.Issue  (Year):  Page  (s).  Database.  Web.   Access
date✝.

Example:
Diettrich,  Brian.  "The  Nose  Flute  Breaths  Again,  with  Calvin  Rose."  Contemporary  

Pacific  1.I  (2008):  n.pag.  eLibrary.  Web.  14  Apr.  2011.    

Lecture

Last,  First  M.  "Title  of  Lecture."  Sponsoring  Organization.  City.  Year.  Type  of  

Presentation.  

Example:  

Galway,  Sir  James.  "Art  of  Music-­‐Making."  WETA.  Arlington.  15  Jan.  2008.  Lecture.    

Magazine

Last,  First  M.  "Article's  Title."  Magazine  (Year):  Page(s).  Medium.  

Example:
Perlove,  Nina.  "Musical  Instruments:  First  Flute."  American  Music  (2002):  50-­‐57.  

Print  

Web Sites
Last,  First  M.  "Document's  Title."  Web  Site  Title.  Sponsoring  Organization,  Year.  (if  

no  date  is  found,  write  n.d.)  Medium.  Access date✝.  <Full  URL:  http://  etc.>.    

Example:
"Musical  Instruments."  McGraw-­‐Hill  Science  and  Technology  Encyclopedia.  
Answers.com  n.d.  Web.  14  Apr.  2011.  
<http://www.answers.com/topic/musical-­‐instrument>.    

  36  
Works  Cited  

Ardley,  Neil.  Eyewitness  Books:  Music.  New  York:  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  1989.  18-­‐19.  Print.    

Dearling,  Robert,  ed.  The  Illustrated  Encyclopedia  of  Musical  Instruments.  New  York:  

Schirmer  Books,  1996.  19-­‐21.  Print.    

Diettrich,  Brian.  "The  Nose  Flute  Breaths  Again,  with  Calvin  Rose."  Contemporary  

Pacific  1.I  (2008):  n.  pag.  eLibrary.  Web.  14  Apr.  2011.    

Donington,  Robert.  "Musical  Instruments."  The  New  Book  of  Knowledge.  2006.  549-­‐

50.  Print.    

Galway,  Sir  James.  "Art  of  Music-­‐Making."  WETA.  Arlington.  15  Jan.  2008.  Lecture.    

Helsby,  Genevieve,  and  Marin  Alsop.  Those  Amazing  Musical  Instruments.  Naperville:  

Sourcebooks,  Incorporated,  2007.  54-­‐59.  Print.    

"Musical  Instruments."  McGraw-­‐Hill  Science  and  Technology  Encyclopedia.  

Answers.com,  n.d.  Web.  14  Apr.  2011.  

<http://www.answers.com/topic/musical-­‐instrument>.      

"Musical  Instruments."  Scott,  Foresman  Advanced  Dictionary.  Glenview:  Scott,  

Foresman  and  Company,  1979.  678.  Print.    

Perlove,  Nina.  "Musical  Instruments:  First  Flute."  American  Music  18.1  (2002):  50-­‐57.  

Print  

  37  
✔Checklist  for  Revising  
Ideas  
1. I  stayed  on  topic  and  focused  on  an  interesting  idea.  
2. I  have  included  sensory  details.  
3. I  have  used  enough  specific  details.  
4. I  have  a  clear  thesis.  
5. I  have  written  informative  topic  sentences.  
Organization  
1. I  have  started  in  the  correct  way  with  a  catchy  beginning  or  a  strong  
introduction/  topic  sentence.  
2. I  have  used  appropriate  transition  words  within  and  between  paragraphs.  
3. I  have  cut  unnecessary  details.  
4. I  have  reorganized  parts  that  were  out  of  place.  
5. I  have  finished  with  a  strong  ending  or  powerful  conclusion.    
Voice  
1. My  voice  sounds  natural  and  fits  my  audience,  my  purpose,  and  my  topic.  
2. I  show  interest  in-­‐and  knowledge  of  –  my  topic.  
Word  Choice  
1. I  have  replaced  overused  words.  
2. I  have  replaced  repeating  words  with  synonyms  and  pronouns.  
3. I  use  specific  nouns  and  active  verbs.  
4. I  use  colorful  adjectives  and  adverbs.    
5. I  define  or  explain  any  unfamiliar  words.  
Sentence  Fluency  
1. My  sentences  are  clear  and  I  have  no  fragments.  
2. I  have  sentences  that  are  of  various  lengths  and  types.  
3. I  have  fixed  short,  choppy  sentences  by  combining  them.  
4. My  sentences  begin  with  different  words.  
5. I  have  fixed  rambling  sentences.  
 

  38  
Overused  and  Dead  Words  
 
Fine   Do  not  use  contractions  in  formal  writing    
Fun   -­‐  no  can’t,  won’t,  don’t,  didn’t,  etc.  
Get  –  got  –  getting  *See  synonym  page    
Gonna    
Good    
Great    
Happy    
Help    
Like    
Much    
Nice    
Really    
Said*  See  page  of  synonyms    
So    
Stuff    
Tell    
That  =  who  or  which    
The  end    
Things    
Very    
Well    
Whatever    
You  –  your  –  you’re  –  do  not  use  second    
person  pronouns  in  formal  writing  
 

  39  
Get rid of Get/Got

accomplish dunk matter reach


achieve earn murder reap
acquired eat obtain receive
act escape overcome regain
annoy established perceive remember
approach fetch persuade remove
arrive find prepare rent
ask fix procure retrieve
attain gain profit run
bag generate purchase take
be give pursue thrill
begat grab puzzle understand
borrow grasp salvage win
bribe hand score
bring help secure
build hire see
buy hit seize
capture hook serve
catch induce shoot
collect influence slip
come inform snare
comprehend inherit snatch
conceive kill steal
contract learn strike
cook locate support
do make survive
drive manage raise

  40  
SYNONYMS  FOR  SAID  
 
acknowledged   demurred   maintained   responded  
acquiesced   denied   mentioned   restated  
added   denounced   mimicked   resumed  
addressed   described   moaned   retorted  
admitted   dictated   mumbled   returned  
admonished   directed   murmured   reveal  
advised   disclosed   mused   roared  
advocated   disrupted   muttered   ruled  
affirmed   divulged   nagged   sanctioned  
agreed   drawled   narrated   scoffed  
alleged   droned   noted   scolded  
allowed   elaborated   notified   screamed  
announced   emphasized   objected   shouted  
answered   enjoined   observed   shrieked  
argued   enunciated   orated     sneered  
assented   estimated   ordered   sobbed  
asserted   exclaimed   petitioned   solicited  
assumed   explained   pleaded   specified  
assured   exposed   pled   spoke  
asked   expressed   pointed  out   sputtered  
attested   faltered   prayed   stammered  
avowed   feared   predicted   stated  
babbled   foretold   proclaimed   stipulated  
bantered   fumed   professed   stormed  
bargained   giggled   prompted   stressed  
began   grinned   propounded   suggested  
boasted   grunted   publicized   taunted  
called   held   quibbled   thought  
claimed   implied   ranted   threatened  
commented   indicated   reassured   told  
complained   inferred   reciprocated   twitted  
confided   instructed   refuted   urged  
contradicted   itemized   related   uttered  
cried   laughed   remonstrated   vowed  
debated   lectured   repeated   wailed  
decided   lied   replied   warned  
 
 
 
 

  41  
TRANSITIONS  
WORDS  TO  SHOW  LOCATION:  
above     behind     by     near     throughout     around  
across     below     down     off     to  the  right                            beyond  
against     beneath   in  back  of   onto     under       into  
along     beside     in  front  of   on  top  of   over  
among     between   inside     outside  
WORDS  TO  SHOW  TIME:  
while     first     meanwhile   soon     then     suddenly  
after     second     today     later     next     finally  
at     third     tomorrow   afterward   as  soon  as   until  
before     now     next  week   immediately   when  
during         yesterday  
WORDS  TO  COMPARE  TWO  THINGS:  
like     likewise   similar  to   equally       also   similarly  
comparable   as     while     correspondingly   in  the  same  way  as  
WORDS  TO  CONTRAST  THINGS:  
but       still     although     on  the  other  hand  
otherwise   even  though   on  the  contrary     in  contrast  to  this  
in  spite  of   nevertheless   although  this  may  be  true  
unlike     dissimilar  to   conversely     despite  this  fact  
however   yet  
WORDS  TO  EMPHASIZE  A  POINT:  
again     truly     especially     for  this  reason  
to  repeat   in  fact     to  emphasize      
WORDS  TO  CONCLUDE  OR  SUMMARIZE:  
finally     as  a  result   to  sum  up   in  conclusion     thus  
lastly     therefore   all  in  all   because     as  stated  
accordingly   thus     in  brief     in  short     for  this  reason  
consequently  
WORDS  TO  ADD  INFORMATION:  
again     another     for  instance   for  example     also  
and     moreover   additionally   as  well       besides  
along  with   other     next     finally       in  addition  
further     hence      
WORDS  TO  SHOW  EXAMPLES  OR  CLARIFY:  
for  example   for  instance   to  clarify   that  is      
to  cite     to  illustrate   thus     namely  
WORDS  FOR  ADDING  A  POINT:  
in  addition   besides     again  next   further     moreover  
hence     on  this  account   it  follows  then  
WORDS  TO  ADD  EMPHASIS:  
undoubtedly   in  truth  very  likely   assuredly   perhaps    
certainly   without  fail   obviously   to  be  sure   naturally   surely  
really     without  a  doubt  

  42  
Imagery:  Using  the  Five  Senses  
 
  Smell  Words  
  acidic     earthy     mildewed   odorous     rancid     scented     spicy    
aromatic     fishy     minty     perfumed   reeking     sharp     spoiled    
  burnt     fragrant     moldy     piney     rotten     sickly     stagnant  
  damp     fresh     musty     pungent     savory     sour     sweet  
                          tempting    
   
Sound  Words  
Adjectives  
bang   average  
    buzz   giant  
    faint   immense  
  mutter   mammoth  
  rumble   puny  
  squawk     whine  
bark   big       clamor   gigantic  
    gurgle   large  
    patter   massive  
    rustle   short  
  stamp     whisper  
bawl     clap     hiss     peep     scream     still     whistle  
colossal     great     little     miniature   small  
bedlam     clash     hubbub     piercing     screech     stomp     whit  
blare   fat  
    huge  
crackle       hum   long  
    petite  
racket       shout   tall  
  swish     yell  
 
blatant        
crash        
inaudible     rage         sigh   tiny  
  thud     zing  
bleat       deafening   jangle     rasp     slam     thump  
boom     discord     melody     raucous     smash     thunder  
brawl     disorderly   murmur     riot     snap     tumult  
bump     explode     mute     rowdy     speechless   twitter    

Touch  Words  
cold     elastic     gritty     oily     satiny     tender     wet  
cool     feathery     hairy     prickly     sharp     tepid  
crisp     fleshy     icy     pulpy     silky     thick  
damp     fragile     leathery     rough     slippery     think  
dry     furry     lukewarm   rubbery     smooth     tough  
dull     fuzzy     mush     sandy     steamy     warm  
                         

Taste  Words  
alkaline     buttery     gingery     mellow     raw     sour     tangy  
bitter     crispy     hearty     oily     ripe     spicy     tasteless  
bland     fishy     hot     overripe     rotten     spoiled     unripe  
burnt     fruity     medicinal   peppery     salty     sugary     vinegary  

Sight  Words  
angular     crinkled     foggy     lean     quaint     sickly     tied  
awkward   crooked     forked     lively     radiant     skinny     timid  
billowy     crowded     formal     loose     rectangular   slender     tiny  
blazing     crystalline   fragile     lumpy     reddish     soaring     tired  
blonde     curved     frail     messy     rigid     split     translucent  
blushing     dark     fresh     miniature   rippling     spotless     triangular  
branching   deep     frightened   misty     robust     square     tubular  
bright     dim     frilled     motionless   rolled     steep     tufted  
brilliant     distinct     fuzzy     muddy     rotund     stormy     twiggy  
broad     dull     gigantic     murky     raffled     stout     ugly  
broken     elegant     glamorous   narrow     scalloped   straight     unruffled  
brunette     enormous   gleaming     nervous     scrolled     strange     unsightly  
bulky     exhausted   glistening   old     scrubbed     strong     unusual  
calm     fancy     glowing     orderly     shabby     sturdy     verdant  
cheap     fat     graceful     outrageous   shadowy     sunny     weird  
chubby     fearful     grotesque   oval     shallow     swollen     wide  
circular     fiery     hardy     packed     shapeless   swooping   wild  
clean     filthy     hazy     padded     shapely     tall     winged  
cloudy     flared     healthy     pale     sheer     tapered     wiry  
clustered     flashy     heavy     pasty     shimmering   tapering     wispy  
colossal     flat     hollow     petite     shiny     tearful     wizened  
craggy     flickering   irregular     pleasant     short     terrified     worn  
  crimped     fluffy     jutting     portly     shy     thin   43  
     
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Shape  
  chubby     deep     hollow     round     square  
  crooked     flat     low     shallow     steep  
  curved     high     narrow     skinny     straight  
                  wide      
 
  Time  
  ancient     fast     modern     quick     slow  
  brief     late     old     rapid     swift  
  early     long     old-­‐fashioned   short     young      
 
  Quantity  
abundant   few     light     many     numerous  
  empty     heavy  
 
       
  Feelings  
  agreeable   fine     smiling     confused   jealous  
  amused     friendly     splendid   creepy     lonely  
  brave     funny     successful   cruel     mysterious  
calm     gentle     thoughtful   dangerous   naughty  
 
charming   glorious     victorious   defeated   nervous  
  cheerful     good     vivacious   defiant     obnoxious  
  comfortable   happy     witty     depressed   outrageous  
  cooperative   healthy     wonderful   disgusted   panicky  
  courageous   helpful     zealous     disturbed   repulsive  
delightful   hilarious   zany     embarrassed   scary  
 
determined   jolly     afraid     envious     selfish  
  eager     joyous     angry     evil     sore  
  elated     kind     annoyed   fierce     tense  
  enchanting   lively     anxious     foolish     terrible  
  encouraging   lovely     arrogant   frantic     thoughtless  
energetic   lucky     ashamed   frightened   tired  
 
enthusiastic   obedient   awful     grieving     troubled  
  excited     perfect     bad     helpless     upset  
  exuberant   pleasant   bewildered   homeless   uptight  
  fair     proud     bored     hungry     weary  
  faithful     relieved     combative   hurt     wicked  
fantastic   silly     condemned   ill     worried  
 
 
  Condition  
alive     crazy     fragile     open     sleepy  
  brainy     curious     helpful     outstanding   super  
  breakable   dead     helpless     poor     tame  
  busy     different   important   powerful   uninterested  
careful     difficult     impossible   puzzled     wandering  
cautious   doubtful   innocent   real     wild  
  clever     easy     inquisitive   rich     wrong   44  
concerned   famous     modern     shy  
 
 
  Appearance  
  adorable   clear     elegant     misty     spotless  
  alert     cloudy     fancy     motionless   stormy  
average     colorful     filthy     muddy     strange  
beautiful   crowded   glamorous   plain     ugly  
blonde     cute     gleaming   poised     unsightly  
bloody     dark     graceful     quaint     unusual  
blushing   drab     grotesque   shiny  
bright     distinct     homely     smoggy  
clean     dull     light     sparkling  
 

Adverbs  
accidentally   doubtfully   irritably     promptly   sometimes  
afterwards   easily     joyously     punctually   soon  
almost     elegantly   justly     quickly     speedily  
always     enormously   kindly     quietly     stealthily  
angrily     enthusiastically   lazily     rapidly     sternly  
annually   equally     less     rarely     successfully  
anxiously   even     loosely     recklessly   suddenly  
awkwardly   eventually   loudly     regularly   suspiciously  
badly     exactly     madly     regularly   swiftly  
blindly     faithfully   merrily     reluctantly   tenderly  
boastfully   far     monthly     repeatedly   tensely  
boldly     fast     more     rightfully   thoughtfully  
bravely     fatally     mortally   roughly     tightly  
briefly     fiercely     mysteriously   rudely     tomorrow  
brightly     fondly     nearly     sadly     too  
busily     foolishly   neatly     safely     truthfully  
calmly     fortunately   nervously   seldom     unexpectedly  
carefully   frantically   never     selfishly     very  
carelessly   gently     noisily     seriously   victoriously  
cautiously   gladly     not     shakily     violently  
cheerfully   gracefully   obediently   sharply     vivaciously  
clearly     greedily     obnoxiously   shrilly     warmly  
correctly   happily     often     shyly     weakly  
courageously   hastily     only     silently     wearily  
crossly     honestly   painfully   sleepily     well  
cruelly     hourly     perfectly   slowly     wildly  
daily     hungrily   politely     smoothly   yearly  
defiantly   innocently   poorly     softly     yesterday  
deliberately   inquisitively   powerfully   solemnly  
 

  45  
✔Checklist  for  Editing  
 
Form  
1. I  have  checked  my  paper  to  be  sure  it  is  neat.  
2. I  have  checked  my  paper  to  be  sure  that  the  margins  are  correct.      
3. I  have  checked  my  paper  to  make  sure  there  is  a  space  after  each  punctuation  
mark.  
4. I  have  checked  my  paper  to  be  sure  I  indented  the  first  line  of  each  paragraph.  
Usage  (CUPS)  
1. I  used  correct  forms  of  verbs  (had  gone  not  had  went).  
2. My  subjects  and  verbs  agree.    Singular  subjects  have  singular  verbs  and  
plural  subjects  have  plural  verbs.  (She  and  I  were  going,  not  She  and  I  was  
going.)  
Capitalization  (CUPS)  
1. I  have  checked  all  sentences  to  be  sure  they  begin  with  a  capital.  
2. I  have  checked  all  proper  nouns  for  capitals.  
Punctuation  (CUPS)  
1. I  have  checked  all  sentences  to  make  sure  they  end  with  appropriate  
punctuation.      
2. I  have  checked  all  sentences  to  make  sure  that  commas  are  used  after  
introductory  word  groups.  
3. I  have  checked  all  compound  sentences  for  commas  before  the  conjunctions.  
4. I  have  checked  to  be  sure  all  series  of  words  or  phrases  have  been  separated  
by  commas.  
Spelling  (CUPS)  
1. I  have  checked  all  sentences  to  be  sure  that  all  words  are  spelled  correctly.  
2. I  have  double-­‐checked  all  words  that  my  spell-­‐checker  may  have  missed.  
3. I  have  used  commonly  misused  words  correctly.  (there,  their,  they’re  etc.)  
 
 

  46  
Listening  and  Speaking  Skills  
Organizing  and  Delivering  a  Speech  
 
I.      Organize  information  using  an  outline  –  think  about  the  background  and  
interests  of  audience  –  how  will  you  get  them  to  listen  and  learn  
  A.    Introduction  
    1.    Attention  getter  –  lead  or  hook  
2.    Thesis  sentence  –  tell  the  audience  exactly  what  you  will  be  
talking  about  and/or  describing  
  B.    Body  of  speech  
    1.    Arrange  information  in  a  logical  order  
2.    Support  each  main  point  with  at  least  one  or  more  reason  
3.    Give  one  or  more  example  to  support  or  explain  each  point.  
  a.    Use  stories  
  b.    Use  situations  
  c.    Use  statistics  
4.    Use  effective  transition  words  
  C.    Conclusion  
    1.    Summarize  main  points  of  speech  
    2.    Tie  the  last  sentence  to  the  introduction    
 
II.    Delivery  
A. Voice  modulation  –  Be  expressive  not  monotone    
 
B. Inflection  
• Get  louder  and  go  softer  to  emphasize  points.  
C.  Tempo/Pace  
• Do  not  go  too  fast  or  too  slow  
D. Enunciation  
• Speak  clearly  and  pronounce  each  word    
  E.    Eye  Contact  
• Look  up  at  the  audience.      
• If  you  are  nervous  –  look  above  them  at  the  wall  behind  
them  
  F.    Word  Choice  
• Precise  language  
• Active  voice  

  47  
Use the Funnel Approach  
 

  48  
Listening and Speaking 1.4: Organize information to achieve particular purposes
and to appeal to the background and interests of the audience.

Expository Speech Signal Outline


Sample Topic: How to paint a room

I. Introduction (45 seconds – 1 minute)

A. Attention Getter: Looking new again

1. Cars are washed, waxed, detailed

2. Clothes are laundered, pressed, hemmed

3. Same is true for a room

B. Development of Attention Getter

1. A room starts to look drab and dreary

2. Paint can make a room look new again

C. Topic Sentence

1. State your topic: “How to paint a room”

2. State your three subtopics: materials/tools, preparation, procedure

II. Body (3 minutes)

A. Subtopic #1: Materials/Tools (1 minute)

1. Drop cloth

2. Primer

3. Paint

4. Roller

5. Brushes

6. Paint tray

7. Painter’s tape

8. Old rags/sponges

9. Ladder/step stool

  49  
Listening and Speaking 1.4: Organize information to achieve particular purposes
and to appeal to the background and interests of the audience.

B. Subtopic #2: Preparation (1 minute)

1. Clean the walls

a. Remove old nails

b. Patch holes

c. Wipe down the walls

2. Tape off trim and windows

3. Lay down drop cloths

4. Open paint cans; stir

5. Pour primer and paint into trays

C. Subtopic #3: Procedure (1 minute)

1. Load roller with primer/paint

2. Prime/paint the walls in “v” pattern

3. Use a thin brush for trim work

4. Allow for drying time

5. Paint a second coat, if needed

6. Remove tape

III. Conclusion (45 seconds – 1 minute)

A. Restate topic sentence

B. State your topic: “How to paint a room”

C. State your three subtopics: materials/tools, preparation, procedure

D. Tie back to your attention getter: For a new look, a fresh coat of paint will

do the trick.

  50  
STAR  Writing  Test  Reminders  
 
ü Get  a  good  night’s  rest  the  night  before.  
 
ü Eat  healthy  snacks/meals  before  class:  
• Period  1/2:  Breakfast  
• Period  3/4:  Nutrition  Break  
• Period  5/6:  Lunch  
 
ü Go  to  the  restroom  before  class  
 
ü Be  on  time  to  class.  
 
ü Leave  backpacks  outside  since  you  will  be  given  a  pencil.  
 
ü Bring  your  AR  book  to  read.  
 
ü Study  the  scoring  models,  genres,  and  outlines.  
 
ü Take  your  time  and  DO  NOT  RUSH!  
 
ü Remember  that  writing  is  a  process:  
o 10  minutes          Read  prompt  carefully  
o 20  minutes          Complete  brainstorm/bubble  cluster    
o 30  minutes          Complete  outline  
o 30  minutes          Complete  rough  draft  
o 10  minutes          Edit,  Revise,  Proofread  
o 100  minutes    Total  
   
 
Always  try  your  best  and  continue  the  tradition  of  excellence  at  Richardson  
PREP  HI!  

  51  
Testing  Taking  Tips  
 
ü Read  each  answer  choice  before  marking  your  answer.  
 
ü Read  each  sentence  carefully.    Remember  what  the  directions  are  
asking  you  to  do.  
 
ü Read  the  directions  carefully.  If  you  read  too  fast,  you  might  miss  
some  important  information.    Ask  your  proctor  if  you  don’t  
understand  the  directions.  
 
ü Read  each  answer  choice  carefully.  If  you  are  not  sure  of  the  answer,  
move  on  to  the  next  question.    After  you  answer  all  the  questions  
you  are  sure  of,  go  back  and  do  any  that  you  skipped.  
 
ü When  you  are  finished,  check  your  work.    Do  not  change  an  answer  
unless  you  have  a  good  reason.    Many  times,  your  first  choice  is  the  
correct  choice.  
 
ü Read  each  answer  choice  carefully.    Eliminate  one  or  two  answers  
that  you  know  are  wrong.    Then  choose  the  correct  answer  from  the  
remaining  answer  choices.  
 
ü Remember:  Each  sentence  in  a  paragraph  must  contain  details  that  
help  support  the  topic  sentence.  
 
ü Use  each  answer  choice  instead  of  the  blank  to  read  each  sentence.    
Listen  for  the  sentence  that  sounds  correct  to  you.  
 

  52  

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