Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Section 1: Reading
Section 2: Parts of Speech
Section 3: Spelling Rules
Section 4: Conventions - capitalization and
punctuation
Section 5: Writing
Section 6: Revising
Section 7: Speech
Section 8: Testing Tips
1
Reading
Terms
to
Know
Allegory:
symbolic
representation
Alliteration:
repetition
of
beginning
consonant
sounds
(tongue
twister)
Allusion:
reference
to
someone
Analogy:
comparison
of
two
unlike
things
Assonance:
repetition
of
beginning
vowel
sounds
Autobiography:
story
of
writer’s
own
life,
told
by
the
writer
in
first-‐person
narration
Bandwagon:
appeals
to
the
audience’s
desire
not
to
be
left
out
because
“everyone”
has
it.
Bias:
giving
only
one
side
of
the
argument
Biography:
story
of
someone
else’s
life;
written
in
third-‐person
narration
Character:
a
person
or
an
animal
who
takes
part
in
a
literary
work
Climax:
also
known
as
the
turning
point,
is
the
high
point
in
the
action
of
the
plot.
It
is
the
moment
of
greatest
tension,
when
the
outcome
of
the
story
hangs
in
the
balance.
Conflict:
a
struggle
between
opposing
forces
Connotation/Denotation
Connotation:
set
of
ideas
or
emotions
associated
with
a
word
in
addition
to
its
dictionary
meaning
Denotation:
the
dictionary
definition
of
a
word
Context
Clues
Direct
definition:
Direct
definitions
or
explanations
are
the
most
obvious
type
of
context
clue.
Words
such
as
is
and
means
signal
that
a
definition
or
explanation
of
an
unfamiliar
word
will
follow.
2
Example:
To
many
proud
descendants
of
the
Incas,
that
statue
is
a
painful
reminder
of
the
destruction
of
the
once-‐mighty
empire
of
their
ancestors.
An
ancestor
is
a
family
member
who
lived
long
ago.
Restatement:
Restatements
are
a
type
of
context
clue
that
uses
different
words
to
say
the
same
thing.
A
restatement
is
often
signaled
by
or,
that
is,
and
in
other
words,
and
is
usually
set
off
by
commas.
Example:
Jefferson
asked
Meriwether
Lewis
to
lead
an
expedition,
or
exploring
party,
into
the
Louisiana
Territory.
Compare/contrast:
Comparisons
or
contrasts
are
a
kind
of
context
clue
that
likens
or
contrasts
an
unfamiliar
word
or
concept.
Words
and
phrases
such
as
like
just
as,
similar,
different,
in
contrast,
and
on
the
other
hand,
signal
that
a
comparison
or
contrast
of
an
unfamiliar
word
will
follow.
Example:
Unlike
the
indigenous
people
of
North
America,
the
new
settlers
from
England
were
unaccustomed
to
using
the
plants
that
grew
along
the
East
Coast.
Dialect:
the
form
of
language
spoken
by
people
in
a
particular
region
or
group.
Pronunciation,
vocabulary,
and
sentence
structure
are
affected
by
dialect.
This
may
include
idioms
and
colloquialisms.
Dialogue:
A
conversation
between
characters.
It
is
used
to
reveal
character
and
advance
action.
In
a
story
or
novel,
quotation
marks
are
generally
used
to
indicate
a
speaker’s
exact
words.
Quotation
marks
are
not
used
in
a
script,
which
is
the
printed
version
of
a
play.
Essays:
Nonfiction
piece
of
writing
based
on
facts
about
a
particular
subject
Response
to
Literature:
expresses
writer’s
feelings
and
thoughts
about
a
book,
short
story,
essay,
article,
or
poem.
Persuasive:
try
to
convince
the
reader
to
think
or
act
in
a
certain
way
Informative:
give
and
explain
facts
Research
Report:
presents
facts
about
a
subject
Narrative:
tell
a
true
story
Exposition:
In
the
plot
of
a
story
or
drama,
the
exposition
is
the
part
of
the
work
that
introduces
the
characters,
the
setting,
and
the
basic
situation.
Fact:
An
idea
that
can
be
proven
true
or
false
3
Figurative
Language:
writing
or
speech
that
is
used
to
create
vivid
impressions
by
setting
up
comparisons
between
unlike
things.
Foreshadowing:
the
use
of
clues
that
suggest
events
that
have
yet
to
occur.
The
use
of
this
technique
helps
to
create
suspense.
Free
Verse:
poetry
that
has
no
form;
written
to
sound
like
conversation
Glittering
Generality:
association
with
something
recognized
as
desirable
Genre:
a
category,
or
type,
of
literature.
Literature
is
commonly
divided
into
three
major
genres:
poetry,
prose,
and
drama.
Historical
Essay:
Gives
facts
and
ideas
about
an
event
or
series
of
events
in
history
Hyperbole:
great
exaggeration
Idiom:
an
expression
that
has
a
meaning
apart
from
the
meanings
of
its
individual
words
Imagery:
words
or
word
phrases
that
appeal
to
one
or
more
of
the
five
senses
Irony:
a
writing
technique
that
shows
the
differences
between
appearance
and
reality,
expectation
and
result,
or
meaning
and
intention.
Journal:
regular
account
of
events
and
the
writer’s
thoughts
and
feelings
Letter:
written
communication
from
one
person
to
another
Literal
language:
Uses
words
in
the
ordinary
senses.
It
is
the
opposite
of
figurative
language.
Loaded
Words:
words
that
have
an
emotional
impact
Metaphor:
comparing
two
unlike
objects
by
saying
one
is
the
other.
DOES
NOT
use
like
or
as
Meter:
combining
accented
syllables
with
unaccented
syllables
to
make
a
regular
pattern
Mood:
the
feeling
a
reader
gets
after
reading
a
literary
work
or
passage.
It
is
often
suggested
by
descriptive
details.
Moral:
the
lesson
aught
by
a
literary
work.
A
fable
usually
ends
with
a
moral
that
is
directly
stated.
4
Myth:
a
fictional
tale
that
explains
the
actions
of
gods
or
the
causes
of
natural
phenomena
Name
Calling:
Stating
or
suggesting
that
the
competition
is
wrong
or
inferior
Narrator:
a
speaker
or
character
that
tells
a
story
First
person:
one
who
tells
the
story
and
participates
in
the
action
Third
person:
one
who
stands
outside
the
action
and
speaks
about
it.
Nonfiction:
Literature
that
deals
with
the
real
world.
It
tells
about
actual
events
or
people
and
addresses
the
world
of
ideas.
Onomatopoeia:
words
that
sound
like
what
they
mean
Opinion:
Can
be
supported
but
not
proven
Ordinary
folks:
association
with
common
people
and
common
needs
rather
than
with
rich
celebrities
or
privileged
politicians
Oxymoron:
ironic
comparisons
Personification:
giving
human
qualities
to
a
nonhuman
thing
Plot:
the
sequence
of
events
in
a
literary
work.
Begins
with
an
exposition
that
introduces
the
setting,
the
characters,
and
the
basic
situation.
This
is
followed
by
the
iniating
action,
which
introduces
the
central
conflict.
The
conflict
then
increases
until
it
reaches
a
climax.
All
the
events,
leading
up
to
the
climax,
make
up
the
rising
action.
The
climax
is
followed
by
the
falling
action,
which
leads
to
the
resolution,
or
end,
of
the
central
conflict.
Propaganda:
Misuse
of
information
in
order
to
persuade
people.
Prose:
the
ordinary
form
of
written
language.
Most
writing
that
is
not
poetry,
drama,
or
song
is
considered
prose.
Pun:
a
word
with
two
meanings,
usually
humorous
Refrain:
repetition
of
a
word,
phrase,
or
sentence
Rhyme:
words
that
sound
alike
Rhythm:
the
pattern
of
beats
or
stresses
in
spoken
or
written
language
5
Rhyme
Scheme:
pattern
of
rhyming
sounds
at
the
end
of
lines
in
a
poem
End
Rhyme:
pairing
the
last
word
in
one
line
with
the
last
word
in
the
next
line
Internal
Rhyme:
the
last
word
in
a
line
is
echoes
by
a
word
placed
at
the
beginning
or
in
the
middle
of
the
following
line
Science
fiction:
writing
that
tells
about
imaginary
events
that
involve
science
or
technology.
Many
science-‐fiction
stories
are
set
in
the
future.
Sensory
language:
writing
or
speech
that
appeals
to
one
or
more
of
the
senses
Setting:
where
and
when
a
story
takes
place
Simile:
Comparing
two
unlike
objects
using
like,
as,
or
than
Speaker:
the
imaginary
voice
assumed
by
the
writer
of
a
poem.
In
many
poems,
the
speaker
is
not
identified
by
name.
The
speaker
may
be
a
person,
an
animal,
a
thing,
or
an
idea.
Stage
directions:
Notes
included
in
a
drama
to
describe
how
the
work
is
to
be
performed
or
staged.
They
are
used
to
describe
sets,
lighting,
sound
effects,
and
the
appearance,
personalities,
and
movements
of
characters.
Stanza:
a
formal
division
of
lines
in
a
poem,
considered
a
unit.
Often
stanzas
are
separated
by
spaces.
They
are
like
the
paragraph
in
prose.
Suspense:
a
feeling
or
curiosity
or
uncertainty
about
the
outcome
of
events
in
a
literary
work
Symbol:
Anything
that
stands
for
or
represents
something
else.
An
object
that
serves
as
a
symbol
has
its
own
meaning,
but
it
also
represents
abstract
ideas.
Testimonial:
Also
known
as
endorsement.
A
respected
organization
or
well-‐known
person
introduces
the
product
and
so
the
audience
assumes
it
must
be
good.
Theme:
the
central
message,
concern,
or
purpose
in
a
literary
work.
It
may
be
the
life
lesson
or
the
moral
of
the
story.
The
theme
is
the
writer’s
central
idea.
It
is
NOT
the
summary
of
the
plot.
Tone:
the
writer’s
attitude
toward
his
or
her
audience
and
subject.
6
Unsupported
inference:
Conclusions
that
do
not
have
the
right
kind
of
evidence
to
back
them
up
7
Character
Traits
Humble
Brave
Courageous
Serious
Funny
Humorous
Sad
Resourceful
Stubborn
Loyal
Gullible
Handsome
Caring
Carefree
Selfish
Unselfish
Generous
Self-‐confident
Respectful
Considerate
imaginative
Inventive
Creative
Independent
Studious
Intelligent
Honest
Mischievous
Friendly
Adventurous
Hard-‐working
Timid
Shy
Bold
Daring
Dainty
Busy
Lazy
Patriotic
Fun-‐loving
Successful
Responsible
Helpful
Dreamer
Happy
Disagreeable
Conceited
Leader
Demanding
Bossy
Gentle
Loving
Proud
wild
Messy
Neat
Joyful
Cooperative
Lovable
Ambitious
Quiet
Curious
Witty
Fighter
Determined
Energetic
Cheerful
Thoughtful
Calm
Mannerly
Rude
mean
8
Parts
of
Speech
Noun:
The
name
of
a
person,
place,
thing,
or
idea.
a. Proper
nouns
are
specific
persons,
places,
or
things
and
are
capitalized.
b. Common
nouns
do
not
name
specific
persons,
places,
or
things
and
are
not
capitalized.
Pronouns:
A
pronoun
is
a
word
that
stands
for
a
noun
or
for
a
word
that
takes
the
place
of
a
noun.
The
antecedent
is
the
noun
that
the
pronoun
refers
to
or
replaces.
1.
Personal
Pronouns
Singular
Plural
First
Person
I,
me,
my,
mine
we,
us,
our,
ours
Second
Person
you,
your,
yours
you,
your,
yours
Third
Person
he,
him,
his,
they,
them
she,
her,
hers,
their,
theirs
it,
its
2. Demonstrative
pronouns
point
out
a
person,
place,
or
thing.
There
are
four
of
them:
this,
that,
these,
those.
3. Reflexive
pronouns
direct
the
action
of
the
verb
back
to
the
subject.
First
Person:
myself,
ourselves
Second
Person:
yourself,
yourselves
Third
Person:
himself,
herself,
itself,
themselves
4. Interrogative
pronouns
introduce
a
question:
what,
which,
who,
whom,
whose,
whom,
whose.
5. Relative
pronouns
introduce
a
subordinate
clause:
that,
what,
which,
who,
whom,
whose.
6. Indefinite
pronouns
refer
to
a
person,
place,
or
thing
that
is
not
specifically
named:
all
both
few
nobody
several
another
each
many
none
some
any
either
more
no
one
somebody
anybody
everybody
most
nothing
someone
anyone
everyone
much
one
something
anything
everything
neither
other
such
9
Verbs:
A
verb
is
a
word
that
expresses
time
while
showing
an
action,
a
condition,
or
the
fact
that
something
exists.
1.
An
action
verb
may
express
physical
action
or
mental
action.
2.
A
linking
verb
links
or
connects,
the
subject
with
a
noun,
a
pronoun,
or
an
adjective
in
the
predicate.
Linking
Verbs
Formed
from
the
Verb
Be
am
be
being
are
been
is
has
been
may
be
was
have
been
could
be
were
will
be
should
be
should
have
been
was
being
would
be
will
have
been
Other
Linking
Verbs
appear
look
sound
become
remain
stay
feel
seem
taste
grow
smell
turn
3.
Helping
verbs
help
the
main
verb
to
express
an
action
or
a
state
of
being.
There
are
23
helping
verbs
commonly
used.
am
is
are
was
were
be
being
been
do
does
did
have
has
had
can
could
shall
should
will
would
may
might
must
A
verb
has
four
principal
parts:
the
present,
the
present
participle,
the
past,
and
the
past
participle.
Example:
Present
Present
Past
Past
Participle
Participle
walk(s)
(am/is)walking
walked
(have/has/had)
walked
10
Regular
verbs
have
a
past
and
past
participle
formed
according
to
a
pattern.
Irregular
verbs
are
formed
in
various
ways.
In
some
cases
the
verb
remains
exactly
the
same.
Verb
Tenses
The
tense
of
a
verb
indicates
the
time
of
the
action
or
state
of
being
expressed
by
the
verb.
The
six
tenses
of
the
verbs:
Past
Present
Future
Existing
or
Existing
or
Existing
or
happening
happening
in
happening
in
the
future.
the
past.
now.
Past
Perfect
Present
Perfect
Future
Perfect
Existing
or
Existing
or
Existing
or
happening
happening
happening
before
a
specific
sometime
before
a
time
in
the
past.
before
now.
in
the
future.
Helping
Verb
Helping
Verb
Helping
Verb
had
have
or
has
will
have
Adjectives:
An
adjective
describes
a
noun
or
a
pronoun,
gives
more
specific
meaning.
Adverbs:
An
adverb
modifies
a
verb,
an
adjective,
or
another
adverb.
11
Prepositions:
A
preposition
relates
a
noun
or
a
pronoun
following
it
to
another
word
in
a
sentence.
aboard
considering
onto
about
despite
opposite
above
down
out
according
to
down
from
out
of
across
during
outside
across
from
except
outside
of
after
except
for
over
against
excepting
over
to
along
for
owing
to
alongside
from
past
alongside
of
from
among
prior
to
along
with
from
between
regarding
amid
from
under
round
among
in
round
about
apart
from
in
addition
to
save
around
in
behalf
of
since
aside
from
in
front
of
through
at
in
place
of
throughout
away
from
in
regard
to
till
back
of
in
spite
of
to
because
of
inside
together
with
before
inside
of
toward
behind
instead
of
under
below
into
underneath
beneath
like
until
beside
near
unto
besides
near
to
up
between
of
up
to
beyond
off
upon
by
means
of
on
with
concerning
on
top
of
Conjunctions:
A
conjunction
connects
other
words
or
groups
of
words.
FANBOYS:
for,
and,
nor,
but,
or,
yet,
so
12
Interjections:
An
interjection
is
a
word
that
expresses
a
feeling
or
emotion
and
functions
independently
of
a
sentence.
Phrases,
Clauses,
and
Sentences:
Phrases:
A
group
of
words
without
a
subject
and
a
verb.
Clause:
A
group
of
words
with
its
subject
and
verb.
Independent
Clause:
Can
stand
alone
by
itself
as
a
complete
sentence.
Dependent
or
Subordinate:
Has
a
subject
and
a
verb
but
cannot
stand
alone
as
a
sentence.
Sentence:
A
group
of
words
with
two
main
parts:
a
complete
subject
and
a
complete
predicate.
Together
these
parts
express
a
complete
thought.
Subject:
Who
or
what
the
sentence
is
about.
Predicate:
Tells
what
the
subject
is
doing
or
thinking.
Sentence
Fragment:
A
group
of
words
that
does
not
express
a
complete
thought.
Sentence
Types:
Simple:
Contains
one
subject
and
one
predicate
that
create
an
independent
clause.
Compound:
Contains
two
or
more
independent
clauses,
joined
by
either
a
FANBOY
or
a
semi-‐colon.
Complex:
Contains
two
or
more
clauses,
one
of
which
is
a
subordinate
clause.
13
Preposition
Song
–
sung
to
Mine
Eyes
Have
Seen
the
Glory
–
Read
down
the
columns.
Aboard
Among
Beside
For
About
Around
Between
From
Above
At
Beyond
In
Across
Before
By
Into
After
Behind
Down
Like
Against
Below
During
Of
Along
Beneath
Except
Off
Chorus:
Prepositions
come
in
phrases,
the
phrases
always
end
in
objects,
Prepositions
never
work
alone,
or
they
are
called
adverbs.
Over
Underneath
Since
Up
Past
Until
Through
Upon
To
With
Throughout
Without
Toward
Within
Under
Repeat
Chorus.
Subject – Predicate Song: Sung to the tune of "A Tisket, a Tasket, a Green and Yellow
Basket"
A subject, a predicate-
These are quite important!
Combine the two, and you will see
That you have formed a sentence.
14
Spelling
Rules
ie
and
ei
1.
Except
after
c,
write
ie
when
the
sound
is
long
e.
2.
Write
ei
when
the
sound
is
not
long
e,
especially
when
the
sound
is
long
a.
-‐-‐cede,
-‐-‐ceed,
and
-‐-‐sede
3.
The
only
word
ending
in
-‐-‐sede
is
supersede.
Most
other
words
with
this
sound
end
in
-‐-‐cede.
Adding
Prefixes
4.
When
adding
a
prefix
to
a
word,
do
not
change
the
spelling
of
the
word
itself.
Adding
Suffixes
5.
When
adding
the
suffix
-‐-‐ly
or
-‐-‐ness
to
a
word,
do
not
change
the
spelling
of
the
word
itself.
6.
Drop
the
final
silent
e
before
a
suffix
beginning
with
a
vowel.
7.
Keep
the
final
silent
e
before
a
suffix
beginning
with
a
consonant.
8.
For
words
ending
in
y
preceded
by
a
consonant,
change
the
y
to
i
before
any
suffix
that
does
not
begin
a
vowel.
9.
For
words
ending
in
y
preceded
by
a
vowel,
keep
the
y
when
adding
a
suffix.
10.
Double
the
final
consonant
before
a
suffix
beginning
with
a
vowel
if
the
word
(1) has
only
one
syllable
or
has
the
accent
on
the
last
syllable
and
(2)
ends
in
a
single
consonant
preceded
by
a
single
vowel.
Forming
the
Plurals
of
Nouns
11.
The
plural
form
of
most
nouns
is
made
by
adding
-‐s
to
the
end
of
the
word.
chair
chairs
floor
floors
president
presidents
desk
desks
face
faces
drill
drills
15
12.
If
the
word
ends
in
-‐s,
-‐h,
-‐ch,
-‐x,
or
-‐z,
the
plural
is
formed
by
adding
-‐es.
boss
bosses
dish
dishes
bench
benches
fox
foxes
waltz
waltzes
tax
taxes
13.
If
the
word
ends
in
a
consonant
followed
by
-‐y,
the
plural
is
formed
by
changing
the
-‐y
to
-‐i
and
adding
-‐es.
city
cities
country
countries
variety
varieties
candy
candies
family
families
cherry
cherries
14.
If
the
word
ends
in
a
vowel
followed
by
-‐y,
the
plural
is
formed
by
adding
-‐s.
valley
valleys
turkey
turkeys
key
keys
play
plays
journey
journeys
boy
boys
15.
The
plurals
of
most
nouns
ending
with
-‐f
or
-‐fe
are
formed
by
adding
-‐s.
gulf
gulfs
belief
beliefs
cuff
cuffs
roof
roofs
cliff
cliffs
dwarf
dwarfs
16.
Some
words
that
end
in
-‐f
or
-‐fe
are
formed
by
changing
the
-‐f
to
-‐v
and
adding
-‐
es.
knife
knives
wife
wives
leaf
leaves
elf
elves
thief
thieves
life
lives
loaf
loaves
wolf
wolves
half
halves
self
selves
calf
calves
17.
If
the
word
ends
in
a
consonant
followed
by
-‐o,
form
the
plural
by
adding
-‐es.
hero
heroes
potato
potatoes
tomato
tomatoes
echo
echoes
zero
zeroes
cargo
cargoes
18.
If
the
word
ends
in
a
vowel
followed
by
-‐o,
form
the
plural
by
adding
-‐s.
video
videos
radio
radios
studio
studios
patio
patios
16
19.
To
form
the
plural
of
a
compound
word,
make
the
base
noun,
or
second
noun,
plural.
brother-‐in-‐law
brothers-‐in-‐law
bucket
seat
bucket
seats
sandbox
sandboxes
passer-‐by
passers-‐by
20.
Some
words
are
used
for
both
singular
and
plural
meanings:
cod
deer
trout
sheep
moose
bass
corps
wheat
barley
mackerel
rye
series
traffic
dozen
fish
gross
21.
Some
words
have
irregular
plural
forms:
child
children
foot
feet
ox
oxen
mouse
mice
louse
lice
radius
radii
piano
pianos
Eskimo
Eskimos
sheep
sheep
tooth
teeth
trout
trout
deer
deer
salmon
salmon
woman
women
man
men
goose
geese
series
series
species
species
basis
bases
stimulus
stimuli
crisis
crises
medium
media
index
indices
criterion
criteria
solo
solos
auto
autos
axis
axes
focus
foci
oasis
oases
parenthesis
parentheses
Writing
Numbers
22.
Spell
out
a
number
that
begins
a
sentence.
23.
If
you
use
several
numbers,
some
short
and
some
long,
write
them
all
the
same
way.
Usually,
it
is
better
to
write
them
all
as
numerals.
24.
Spell
out
numbers
used
to
indicate
order.
25.
Spell
out
numbers
under
100
in
sentences.
17
Common
spelling
mistakes:
1. Write
out
the
word
and
–
not
&
or
2.
Spell
out
numbers
one
through
one
hundred
(one,
two,
three,
four,
five,
six,
seven,
eight,
nine,
ten)
3.
List
yourself
last.
(“My
friends
and
I
went
to
the
store.”
“Ryan,
Jake,
and
I
played
ball.”
“It
is
for
my
friends
and
me.”
“It
is
for
Ryan,
Jake,
and
me.”
A
lot
2
words
“I
like
you
a
lot.”
Are
verb
“We
are
going.”
Our
ownership
“This
is
our
car.”
Because
not
cuz
or
cause
Here
place
“Come
here.”
Hear
listen
“I
can
hear
you.”
Know
=
understanding;
knowledge
“I
know
that
for
a
fact.”
No
=
negative
“No,
I
won’t.”
Now
=
time
“I
will
go
now.”
They
not
thay
“They
are
my
friends.”
They’re
=
they
are
“They’re
going
to
school
today.”
Their
=
ownership
“This
is
their
house.”
There
=
place
“They
live
over
there.”
To
=
toward
Too
=
also
or
to
a
greater
degree
Two
=
2
(Number)
Your
=
ownership
“That
is
your
book.”
You’re
=
you
are
“You’re
great!”
18
Capitalization
Rules
1. Always
capitalize
the
first
word
of
a
sentence.
The
cat
ran
up
the
tree.
2. Capitalize
the
first
word
of
a
direct
quotation
when
it
is
used
as
part
of
a
larger
sentence.
Steve
inquired,
“Is
it
lunchtime
yet?”
3. The
word
I
is
always
capitalized.
When
I
am
tired,
I
close
my
eyes.
4. Capitalize
the
name
of
a
specific
person,
place,
event,
date,
thing,
and
document.
Susan
Thomas,
San
Bernardino,
Fourth
of
July,
Thanksgiving,
September,
the
Constitution,
the
space
shuttle
Challenger.
5. Capitalize
a
social
or
professional
title
before
a
person’s
name
or
in
direct
address.
Ms.
Cox,
Mr.
Goebel,
Mrs.
Thompson
6. Capitalize
a
title
showing
a
family
relationship
when
used
before
a
person’s
name
or
in
direct
address.
Uncle
Fred,
Aunt
Lisa
7. Capitalize
a
title
showing
a
family
relationship
when
it
refers
to
a
specific
person,
except
when
it
follows
a
possessive
noun
or
a
possessive
pronoun.
Hey,
Mom!
But
not
She’s
my
mom.
8. Capitalize
the
first
word
and
all
other
key
words
in
the
titles
of
books,
newspapers,
magazines,
short
stories,
poems,
plays,
movies,
songs,
and
artworks.
9. Capitalize
the
title
of
a
school
course
when
it
is
followed
by
a
number,
or
it
refers
to
a
language.
Otherwise
do
not
capitalize
school
subjects.
Next
year
I
am
planning
to
take
Spanish,
math,
and
Music
II.
10. In
a
letter
capitalize
the
following
parts:
heading
(street,
city,
state,
month),
salutation
(the
first
word,
title,
and
name
of
person),
and
closing
(first
word).
19
Punctuation
Rules
Apostrophes
1. Use
them
to
form
possessives.
Example:
Sue’s
house
2. Use
them
to
omit
letters
in
contractions.
Example:
can’t
=
cannot
3. Use
them
in
plurals
of
symbols.
Example:
1900’s,
two
A’s
****Apostrophes
are
NEVER
used
in
plurals
of
words.
****
Commas
1. Use
a
comma
before
a
conjunction
to
separate
two
independent
clauses
in
a
compound
sentence.
2. Use
a
comma
to
separate
a
series
of
words
or
a
series
of
phrases.
3. Use
a
comma
after
an
introductory
word
or
phrase.
4. Use
a
comma
to
set
off
interrupting
words
and
phrases
from
the
rest
of
the
sentence.
5. Use
a
comma
after
each
item
in
an
address
made
up
of
two
or
more
parts.
6. Use
a
comma
after
the
salutation
in
a
friendly
letter.
7. Use
a
comma
after
the
closing.
8. Use
commas
with
numbers
of
more
than
three
digits.
9. Use
commas
with
three
or
more
umbers
written
in
a
series.
Semicolons
Use
a
semicolon
to
connect
two
independent
clauses
that
are
closely
connected
in
meaning.
Colons
1. Use
a
colon
after
an
independent
clause
to
introduce
a
list
of
items.
Note:
DO
NOT
use
a
colon
after
a
verb
or
a
preposition.
2. Use
a
colon
to
separate
hours
and
minutes.
3. Use
a
colon
after
the
Salutation
in
a
business
letter.
4. Use
a
colon
on
warnings
and
labels.
20
Writing
Terms
to
Know
Expository
writing
deals
with
factual
material.
Examples
include
essays
(persuasive,
problem/solution,
cause/effect),
reports,
letters,
memos,
and
newspaper
articles.
Narrative
writing
deals
with
writing
a
story.
The
narrative
can
either
be
fiction
or
nonfiction.
Essay
Terminology
Essay:
A
piece
of
writing
that
gives
your
thoughts
(commentary)
about
a
subject.
Introduction/Introductory
paragraph:
The
first
paragraph
in
an
essay.
It
includes
a
hook,
a
bridge,
and
a
thesis
sentence
at
the
end.
Thesis:
A
sentence
with
a
subject
and
opinion.
This
is
stated
in
your
introductory
paragraph
and
is
repeated
in
different
words
in
your
conclusion.
Body
paragraph:
A
middle
paragraph
in
an
essay.
It
develops
a
point
you
want
to
make
that
supports
your
thesis.
Concrete
Details:
Specific
details
that
form
the
backbone
or
core
of
your
body
paragraphs.
Examples
include
facts,
specifics,
examples,
descriptions,
illustrations,
support,
proof,
evidence,
quotations,
paraphrasing,
or
plot
references.
Commentary:
Your
opinion
or
comment
about
something.
You
“comment”
on
your
concrete
detail.
Examples
include
opinion,
insight,
analysis,
interpretation,
inference,
personal
response,
feelings,
evaluation,
explication,
and
reflection.
Topic
Sentence:
The
first
sentence
in
a
body
paragraph.
It
must
have
a
subject
and
opinion
for
the
paragraph.
It
does
the
same
thing
for
the
paragraph
that
the
thesis
does
for
the
whole
essay.
Concluding
Sentence:
The
last
sentence
in
a
body
paragraph.
It
is
all
commentary,
does
not
repeat
key
words,
and
gives
a
finished
feeling
to
the
paragraph.
Concluding
paragraph:
The
last
paragraph
in
your
essay.
It
may
sum
up
your
ideas,
reflect
on
what
you
said
in
your
essay,
say
more
commentary
about
your
subject,
or
give
a
personal
statement
about
the
subject.
Your
conclusion
is
all
commentary
and
does
not
include
concrete
detail.
It
does
not
repeat
key
words
from
your
paper
and
especially
not
from
your
thesis
and
introductory
paragraph.
It
gives
a
finished
feeling
to
your
whole
essay.
21
Ways
to
Organize
Writing
Spatial
order:
Present
details
from
left
to
right,
top
to
bottom,
or
back
to
front.
Use
for
descriptions
of
places
or
objects.
Order
of
importance:
Present
least
important
details
at
the
beginning
and
the
most
important
at
the
end.
Use
for
descriptions
that
will
be
used
to
evaluate
the
thing
being
described
or
to
show
its
significance
(persuasive
essays,
problem/solution
essays,
cause/effect
essays).
Chronological
order:
Present
the
events
in
the
order
in
which
they
occur.
Use
for
a
story,
summary,
and
explanation.
22
Six
Traits
of
Quality
Writing
Use
the
checklist
below
to
help
you
revise
your
rough
draft.
Ideas
and
Content
• My
paper
has
a
clear
purpose
or
makes
a
point.
• I
choose
clear
details
and
examples
to
help
the
reader
understand
my
message.
• I
am
writing
about
something
I
know
Organization
• My
introduction
would
make
a
reader
want
to
keep
reading.
• I
tell
things
in
an
order
that
makes
sense
• Details
in
my
paper
go
together
• My
paper
ends
in
a
good
spot.
It
doesn’t
stop
suddenly
or
drag
on
too
long.
• I
use
academic
transition
words.
Voice
• My
writing
shows
what
I
really
think
and
feel.
• I
like
what
I’ve
written
• My
writing
sounds
like
me
and
not
someone
else
• I
have
considered
my
audience
• I
have
tried
to
make
my
writing
clear
to
the
reader.
• My
“fingerprint”
is
on
my
writing.
Word
Choice
• I
choose
words
that
will
help
make
my
meaning
clear.
• My
words
paint
a
picture
in
the
reader’s
mind.
I
use
imagery.
• I
have
tried
to
find
my
own
way
to
say
things.
• Sometimes
I
have
tried
to
say
something
in
a
new
or
different
way.
• I
use
academic
language.
Sentence
Fluency
• My
sentences
make
sense.
They
are
clear.
• Some
sentences
are
longer
than
others.
• Sentences
begin
in
different
ways.
They
do
not
all
begin
with
the
same
words.
• My
paper
is
easy
to
read
out
loud
and
it
flows
when
read
aloud.
• Someone
else
has
read
your
paper
aloud
to
you
while
you
listen.
Conventions
or
Mechanics
–
CUPS.
• My
paragraph
begins
in
the
right
spots.
• My
punctuation
is
correct.
• I
use
capital
letters
on
proper
names
of
people,
places,
or
things.
23
• My
spelling
is
correct.
• I
have
proofread
my
paper.
24
Twelve
ways
to
write
topic/thesis
sentences
–
from
Step
Up
to
Writing
1. Occasion/Position
Statements
–
complex
sentence
Use
one
of
these
words
or
phrases
to
begin
your
sentence
After
As
soon
as
Even
though
So
that
Whenever
Although
Because
If
Though
Where
As
Before
In
order
to
In
order
that
Unless
Wherever
As
if
Even
Until
Whether
As
long
as
Even
if
Since
When
While
Examples:
1. Although
my
family
and
I
have
taken
many
wonderful
vacations,
none
was
more
fun
and
exciting
than
our
camping
trip
to
the
Grand
Canyon.
2. Before
a
person
makes
the
decision
to
light
up
a
cigarette,
he
should
consider
the
problems
caused
by
smoking.
3. If
you
are
ever
fortunate
enough
to
capture
an
anole,
William
White’s
book,
“The
American
Chameleon,”
offers
important
rules
for
keeping
your
new
pet
healthy
and
happy.
4. Unless
a
person
is
willing
to
take
risks,
she
may
not
reach
her
goals.
2. Power
(number)
statements
A
Power
(Number)
Statement
is
a
sentence
that
contains
a
number
word.
The
number
word
is
the
focus
of
the
sentence;
it
tells
your
reader
that
a
list
of
information
will
follow.
Power
(Number)
Statements
can
be
short
or
long;
in
fact,
they
can
be
any
grammatical
structure
that
you
need
or
want.
A
couple
of
a
number
of
numerous
some
various
A
few
plenty
of
many
a
myriad
of
several
Examples:
1. The
winter
season
has
several
different
types
of
sports.
25
2. Like
most
American
cities,
Los
Angeles
is
faced
with
many
problems
including
homelessness,
gang
violence,
and
unemployment.
3. The
architect
presented
numerous
problems
to
the
committee.
Do
not
fall
into
the
“There
are”
trap.
Start
your
power
statement
with
a
who,
what,
where,
or
when.
Examples:
Who
Mary
and
her
sister
Margaret
are
her
two
best
friends.
What
The
word
friendship
means
two
things.
Where
At
school
Sam
had
several
good
friends.
When
During
the
school
year,
Sam
developed
many
good
friends.
3.However
Statements
However
is
one
of
several
conjunctive
adverbs
that
can
help
organize
your
thoughts
into
a
topic
sentence
or
a
thesis
sentence.
Use
however
in
the
middle
of
the
sentence.
Place
a
semi-‐colon
(;)
before
the
word
however
and
a
comma
(,)
after
the
word
however.
This
method
creates
a
compound
sentence.
Usually,
the
first
part
will
be
the
occasion
(reason
for
writing);
the
second
part
will
state
the
position
(what
you
plan
to
prove
or
explain).
Examples:
1. The
rules
for
the
school
cafeteria
seemed
unfair
to
the
students;
however,
the
rules
have
made
the
cafeteria
a
better
place
to
eat
lunch.
2. Some
of
the
citizens
in
Springfield
protested
when
the
city
council
voted
to
close
the
old
theater;
however,
one
man
was
able
to
settle
the
argument
by
suggesting
a
way
to
rebuild
the
theater
without
having
to
ask
the
taxpayers
for
more
money.
3. Most
Americans
want
to
eliminate
crime;
however,
it
will
take
a
great
deal
of
money,
time,
and
effort
to
reach
this
goal.
4.
And,
But,
and
Or
Statements
Use
coordinating
conjunctions-‐for,
and,
nor,
but,
or,
yet,
so
1. Some
people
find
it
difficult
to
program
a
VCR,
but
most
will
succeed
if
they
just
remember
to
follow
these
guidelines.
2. Reptiles
are
all
alike
because
they
have
backbones,
breathe
with
lungs,
and
have
scales,
yet
reptiles
come
in
a
variety
of
sizes
and
shapes.
26
3. School
boards
should
not
cut
art
and
music
programs,
nor
should
they
sacrifice
the
industrial
arts
electives
offered
in
most
high
schools.
5.A
Few
Good
Prepositions
Once
you
have
learned
to
write
Occasion/Position
Statements
and
However,
Statements,
try
this
list.
Like
the
Occasion/Position
list,
the
words
on
the
preposition
chart
in
your
toolkit
can
jog
your
thinking
and
push
you
into
a
good
topic
sentence.
Not
all
prepositions
will
work
for
your
topic.
Read
your
sentence
out
loud
and
make
your
decision
once
you
hear
the
sentence.
Remember
that
your
topic
sentence
gives
your
audience
a
quick
glance
at
your
reason
for
writing
and
tells
them
what
you
intend
to
prove
or
explain.
Some
of
the
words
on
the
preposition
list
are
the
same
as
words
on
the
Occasion/Position
list.
Words
like
since,
until,
before,
and
after
are
prepositions
if
there
is
no
verb
(action
word).
Examples:
1. After
the
game
there
were
several
fights
in
the
parking
lot.
(preposition)
After
the
game
ended,
fights
broke
out
in
the
parking
lot.
(clause)
2. According
to
Current
Events,
many
high
schools
have
banned
pagers.
3. Throughout
the
game,
the
defense
made
incredible
sacrifices.
6.To,
Plus
a
Verb
Try
using
an
infinitive
to
start
your
paper.
An
infinitive
is
the
main
verb
b
preceded
by
the
word
to.
Some
examples
of
infinitives
are
to
succeed,
to
accomplish,
to
finish,
to
win,
and
to
teach.
Topic
sentences
with
infinitives
are
clear
and
direct.
They
won’t
confuse
your
reader.
Examples:
1. To
win,
at
chess,
players
need
to
master
three
skills.
2. To
succeed
in
business,
a
person
must
establish
clear
but
realistic
goals.
3. To
prepare
for
college,
high
school
students
should
take
several
math,
science,
and
English
classes.
7.The
List
Statements
A
common
method
for
writing
a
topic
sentence
is
to
list
the
categories
that
you
will
address
in
your
paper.
There
are
several
types
of
lists
you
can
use.
A
list
of
words:
27
• All
college
students
need
money,
friends,
and
encouragement.
• The
corner
café
offers
the
best
in
service,
food,
and
atmosphere.
A
list
of
phrases:
• The
Smiths
love
their
new
home
but
are
having
trouble
with
the
garage
door
and
with
the
new
sprinkler
system.
A
list
of
dependent
(cannot
stand
alone)
clauses:
• When
she
found
her
lost
puppy,
when
she
won
the
trip
to
Florida,
and
When
she
met
a
group
of
teachers
from
Russia,
Mary
realized
that
life
is
great
and
full
of
surprises.
A
list
of
independent
(can
stand
alone)
clauses:
• Run
for
office;
join
a
club;
march
in
the
band.
Activities
like
these
will
make
high
school
more
rewarding.
Be
careful.
Do
not
mix
words,
phrases,
and
clauses.
If
you
start
with
a
phrase,
all
parts
of
the
list
should
be
phrases.
If
you
start
with
a
noun,
all
parts
of
the
list
should
be
nouns.
This
is
called
keeping
the
list
parallel.
Think
of
similar
endings
like
ed
and
ing
when
you
make
your
list.
8.Get
Their
Attention
A
Declarative
Statement
uses
a
strong
verb
(action
word).
Examples:
1. Children
love
the
new
flavored
cereals.
2. Clay’s
gas
station
offers
the
best
service.
9.
Side-‐by-‐Side
Statements
Sometimes
using
two
simple
sentences-‐one
for
the
occasion
and
one
for
the
position-‐is
the
right
way
to
go.
This
technique
is
especially
powerful
if
your
goal
is
to
put
emphasis
on
your
position.
Examples:
1. A
little
stress
may
be
good.
Too
much
is
dangerous.
2. Young
children
belong
in
car
seats.
The
car
seat
belongs
in
the
back
of
the
car,
not
in
the
front.
28
10.
Semicolon
Topic
Sentence
This
kind
of
topic
sentence
is
just
like
a
Side-‐by-‐Side
Statement.
The
main
ideas,
however,
are
connected
by
a
semicolon
(;)
This
method
is
another
way
to
write
a
compound
sentence.
Use
this
method
when
you
want
to
emphasize
the
relationship
between
the
occasion
(your
reason
for
writing)
and
the
position
(what
you
plan
to
prove
or
explain.)
Examples:
1. The
football
team
deserves
the
state
championship;
the
players
and
the
coach
are
talented
and
dedicated.
2. Burying
a
new
car
is
exciting;
it’s
also
stressful.
11.Two
Nouns
and
Two
Commas
When
we
set
off
a
noun
or
a
noun
phrase
with
commas,
we
call
it
an
appositive.
An
appositive
does
not
have
a
verb;
it
is
simply
a
noun
followed
by
a
description
that
tells
more
about
the
noun.
Examples:
1. Deckers,
a
small
town
nestled
in
the
Colorado
Rockies,
is
a
fishing
haven
for
many
serious
anglers.
2. The
medulla,
an
important
part
of
the
brain,
controls
your
breathing.
12.
Using
a
quotation
Using
a
quotation
in
the
topic
sentence
is
an
easy,
yet
powerful,
way
to
start
a
paper.
Example:
1. Although
I
usually
appreciate
the
advice
I
receive
from
my
grandmother,
I
wish
that
she
would
follow
the
advice
of
Horace:
“Whatever
advice
you
give,
be
short.”
2. When
I
visited
my
relatives
in
Michigan,
I
learned
very
quickly
that
the
old
German
proverb,
“Never
give
advice
unless
asked,”
is
true.
29
Writing
an
Introduction
Your
introduction
should
get
your
reader’s
attention.
There
are
many
different
ways
to
begin
your
essay.
Narrative
1. Start
in
the
middle
of
the
action.
Suddenly,
I
heard
a
crash
downstairs
and
the
sound
of
breaking
glass.
“Hey,
who’s
down
there?”
I
yelled.
2. Have
the
characters
talk
and
use
dialogue.
My
brother’s
lips
were
so
swollen,
it
sounded
like
he
said,
“Mine
guess
who
fur
his!”
“What?”
I
said.
He
glared
at
me
and
said
louder,
“I’ll
get
you
for
this!”
3. Begin
with
a
surprising
statement
or
fact.
When
I
was
nine,
I
started
my
dad’s
car
and
drove
onto
the
street.
I
thought
I
was
going
to
New
Jersey.
4. Give
some
important
background
information.
Mr.
Brown
was
in
the
marines
before
he
became
a
teacher
and
a
coach.
He
does
not
allow
any
fooling
around
in
his
classroom
or
in
the
gym.
I
learned
that
the
hard
way
during
basketball
tryouts.
30
Nonfiction
1.
Startling
information:
Recent
research
has
shown
that
the
color
pink
has
a
calming
effect
on
people.
2.
Anecdote:
Dale
Ching
was
a
teenager
in
1937
when
he
rode
on
a
steamer
bound
for
America
from
China.
For
22
days,
he
dreamed
about
San
Francisco,
fortified
by
the
knowledge
that
his
father
was
waiting
for
him
there.
3.
Quotation:
Praise
from
the
chief
wife
of
the
king,
his
beloved
...
Nefertiti,
living,
healthy,
and
youthful
forever
and
ever.”
This
hymn
to
the
god
Aten
with
a
prayer
on
behalf
of
a
beautiful
queen
of
3,
300
years
ago
expresses
the
primary
hope
of
her
people.
The
ancient
Egyptians
sought
eternal
life
above
all
else.
4. Definition:
While
the
Internet
boom
has
lent
some
respectability
to
the
term,
narrow
minded
stereotypes
still
linger.
Nerds
are
supposedly
friendless,
book-‐smart
sissies
who
suck
up
to
authority
figures.
5. Move
from
general
to
specific.
They
are
big,
they
are
ugly,
they
are
vicious,
and
the
only
good
one
is
a
dead
one.
That
is
what
some
people
say
about
sharks.
6.
Summary
Information:
Caught
up
in
battle
or
ritual
dance,
these
mythic
catlike
creatures
have
faced
each
other
on
a
cliff
in
Libya
for
perhaps
8,000
years.
During
that
time
northern
Africa’s
broad
savannas
became
a
vast
desert,
and
most
of
its
people
moved
south.
Civilizations
vanished,
but
their
words
of
art
remain.
7. Example:
The
skull
roars
from
the
darkness,
its
thick-‐boned
snout
and
dagger
teeth
emerging
then
melting
away
like
a
ghostly
nightmare.
31
Creating
a
Great
Hook
I. Background
• May
include
historical
or
chronological
information
that
helps
the
reader
understand
the
main
ideas
of
your
paper.
• Example:
The
end
of
World
War
II
introduced
the
world
to
the
atomic
bomb
with
devastating
consequences.
Although
atomic
energy
is
our
most
promising
energy
alternative,
critics
have
drastically
reduced
its
production.
II. Definitions
• This
strategy
is
useful
for
papers
about
abstract
themes
such
as
love
or
subjects
with
a
variety
of
meanings
because
you
can
define
your
subject
at
the
beginning.
Avoid
dictionary
definitions!
• Example:
Courage
is
defined
as
the
selfless
act
of
caring
for
another
when
there
is
no
expectation
of
personal
reward.
When
George
decided
to
take
responsibility
for
Lenny
regardless
of
the
circumstances,
he
did
so
without
thinking
of
the
negative
consequences
this
might
have
on
his
own
life.
In
John
Steinbeck’s
novel,
Of
Mice
and
Men,
George
is
the
most
courageous
character.
III. Quotation
• A
brief,
significant
quote
can
summarize
the
point
of
a
paper.
The
significance
should
be
discussed
immediately
after
the
quote.
• Example:
“Habit
is
second
nature!
Habit
is
ten
times
nature,”
the
Duke
of
Wellington
is
said
to
have
exclaimed.
The
degree
to
which
this
is
true
no
one
can
probably
appreciate
as
well
as
one
who
has
been
a
veteran
soldier.
The
daily
drill
and
the
years
of
discipline
in
the
military
end
by
creating
a
new
person.
IV. Anecdote
• An
anecdote
is
a
short,
entertaining
story
with
a
point.
This
dramatic
type
of
introduction
is
often
used
with
narratives
or
character
sketches
to
make
a
point
related
to
the
thesis.
This
is
also
described
as
“setting
the
scene.”
• Example:
Walking
down
the
street,
I
was
confronted
by
a
large,
ferocious
looking
dog.
He
galloped
toward
me
and
my
heart
began
to
pound.
I
knew
that
I
was
in
trouble.
When
he
reached
my
side,
he
stopped,
sniffed,
and
licked
my
hand.
This
proves
it
is
important
to
know
all
of
the
details
before
drawing
a
conclusion.
32
V. Description
• Use
a
brief
but
vivid
picture
to
set
a
scene,
place
the
reader
in
the
center
of
the
action,
and
serve
as
an
attention
grabber.
• Example:
The
school
was
a
big
brick
cube
set
in
a
square
of
black
soil
scuffed
by
the
feet
of
hundreds
of
children.
The
smell
of
the
nearby
landfill
wafted
through
the
chain
link
fence
to
penetrate
the
noses
of
the
students
as
they
played.
They
were
not
aware
of
the
danger
lying
just
outside
the
realm
of
their
experience.
VI. Statistics
• Use
striking
facts
or
statistics
to
pique
the
interest
of
the
reader
and
lead
them
into
exploring
the
paper
for
more
information.
• Example:
More
than
850
whales
are
slaughtered
by
fisherman
each
year
in
the
North
Atlantic.
Their
value
lies
in
whale
oil,
meat,
and
ambergris.
Although
some
products
can
be
produced
by
other
means,
whales
are
still
prized
for
their
contribution
to
perfume
and
engine
fluids.
However,
the
whale
population
is
decreasing
at
an
alarming
rate
and
the
whaling
industry
must
be
curtailed.
33
Writing
a
Conclusion
Just
as
every
essay
has
a
clear
beginning,
it
should
have
a
clear
ending.
The
last
paragraph,
also
known
as
the
conclusion,
should
make
your
essay
sound
finished.
1.
The
summary
statement
is
one
or
two
sentences
which
restate
the
thesis
in
a
fresh
way
to
reinforce
the
essay's
main
idea.
Examples
of
thesis
statements
and
summary
statements
that
restate
the
main
ideas
of
the
thesis:
Thesis
Statement:
Many
Americans
are
buying
the
Toyota
Corolla
because
of
its
competitive
price,
fuel
economy,
and
high
resale
value.
Summary
Statement:
Reasonable
pricing,
low
miles
per
gallon,
and
an
attractive
resale
value
have
all
contributed
to
the
popularity
of
the
Toyota
Corolla
in
today's
market.
Thesis
Statement:
San
Francisco
is
a
stimulating
place
to
visit
because
of
its
magnificent
location,
its
theaters
and
art
galleries,
and
its
many
fine
restaurants.
2.
The
clincher
is
a
final
thought
which
should
create
a
lasting
impression
on
the
reader.
You
can
use
one
of
the
following:
B.
Call
for
action/What
you
can
do:
Kind
of
like
a
call
for
awareness,
but
with
specific
directions
for
the
audience
on
how
they
can
get
involved
and
combat
this
problem.
C.
Use
a
quotation.
D.
Evoke
a
vivid
image.
34
MLA Style
Works Cited
Examples
Example:
Ardley, Neil. Eyewitness Books: Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. 18-19. Print.
Example:
Dearling, Robert, ed. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments. New York: Schirmer
(s). Medium.
Example:
Helsby, Genevieve, and Marin Alsop. Those Amazing Musical Instruments. Naperville:
Dictionary
"Entry."
Book
Title.
Publishing
City:
Published
by,
Year.
Page
(s).
Medium.
Encyclopedia
Last, First M. "Entry." Book Title. Year. Page (s). Medium.
Examples:
Donington, Robert. "Musical Instruments." The New Book of Knowledge. 2006. 549-50. Print.
35
*All Date of Publication or last update are written Day Month (abbreviated) Year, whatever is available.
✝Access Date is written Day Month (abbreviated) Year.
eLibrary
Last,
First
M.
"Book
Title."
Journal
Vol.Issue
(Year):
Page
(s).
Database.
Web.
Access
date✝.
Example:
Diettrich,
Brian.
"The
Nose
Flute
Breaths
Again,
with
Calvin
Rose."
Contemporary
Lecture
Last, First M. "Title of Lecture." Sponsoring Organization. City. Year. Type of
Presentation.
Example:
Galway, Sir James. "Art of Music-‐Making." WETA. Arlington. 15 Jan. 2008. Lecture.
Magazine
Example:
Perlove,
Nina.
"Musical
Instruments:
First
Flute."
American
Music
(2002):
50-‐57.
Web Sites
Last,
First
M.
"Document's
Title."
Web
Site
Title.
Sponsoring
Organization,
Year.
(if
no date is found, write n.d.) Medium. Access date✝. <Full URL: http:// etc.>.
Example:
"Musical
Instruments."
McGraw-‐Hill
Science
and
Technology
Encyclopedia.
Answers.com
n.d.
Web.
14
Apr.
2011.
<http://www.answers.com/topic/musical-‐instrument>.
36
Works
Cited
Ardley, Neil. Eyewitness Books: Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. 18-‐19. Print.
Dearling, Robert, ed. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments. New York:
Diettrich, Brian. "The Nose Flute Breaths Again, with Calvin Rose." Contemporary
Pacific 1.I (2008): n. pag. eLibrary. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.
Donington, Robert. "Musical Instruments." The New Book of Knowledge. 2006. 549-‐
50. Print.
Galway, Sir James. "Art of Music-‐Making." WETA. Arlington. 15 Jan. 2008. Lecture.
Helsby, Genevieve, and Marin Alsop. Those Amazing Musical Instruments. Naperville:
<http://www.answers.com/topic/musical-‐instrument>.
Perlove, Nina. "Musical Instruments: First Flute." American Music 18.1 (2002): 50-‐57.
37
✔Checklist
for
Revising
Ideas
1. I
stayed
on
topic
and
focused
on
an
interesting
idea.
2. I
have
included
sensory
details.
3. I
have
used
enough
specific
details.
4. I
have
a
clear
thesis.
5. I
have
written
informative
topic
sentences.
Organization
1. I
have
started
in
the
correct
way
with
a
catchy
beginning
or
a
strong
introduction/
topic
sentence.
2. I
have
used
appropriate
transition
words
within
and
between
paragraphs.
3. I
have
cut
unnecessary
details.
4. I
have
reorganized
parts
that
were
out
of
place.
5. I
have
finished
with
a
strong
ending
or
powerful
conclusion.
Voice
1. My
voice
sounds
natural
and
fits
my
audience,
my
purpose,
and
my
topic.
2. I
show
interest
in-‐and
knowledge
of
–
my
topic.
Word
Choice
1. I
have
replaced
overused
words.
2. I
have
replaced
repeating
words
with
synonyms
and
pronouns.
3. I
use
specific
nouns
and
active
verbs.
4. I
use
colorful
adjectives
and
adverbs.
5. I
define
or
explain
any
unfamiliar
words.
Sentence
Fluency
1. My
sentences
are
clear
and
I
have
no
fragments.
2. I
have
sentences
that
are
of
various
lengths
and
types.
3. I
have
fixed
short,
choppy
sentences
by
combining
them.
4. My
sentences
begin
with
different
words.
5. I
have
fixed
rambling
sentences.
38
Overused
and
Dead
Words
Fine
Do
not
use
contractions
in
formal
writing
Fun
-‐
no
can’t,
won’t,
don’t,
didn’t,
etc.
Get
–
got
–
getting
*See
synonym
page
Gonna
Good
Great
Happy
Help
Like
Much
Nice
Really
Said*
See
page
of
synonyms
So
Stuff
Tell
That
=
who
or
which
The
end
Things
Very
Well
Whatever
You
–
your
–
you’re
–
do
not
use
second
person
pronouns
in
formal
writing
39
Get rid of Get/Got
40
SYNONYMS
FOR
SAID
acknowledged
demurred
maintained
responded
acquiesced
denied
mentioned
restated
added
denounced
mimicked
resumed
addressed
described
moaned
retorted
admitted
dictated
mumbled
returned
admonished
directed
murmured
reveal
advised
disclosed
mused
roared
advocated
disrupted
muttered
ruled
affirmed
divulged
nagged
sanctioned
agreed
drawled
narrated
scoffed
alleged
droned
noted
scolded
allowed
elaborated
notified
screamed
announced
emphasized
objected
shouted
answered
enjoined
observed
shrieked
argued
enunciated
orated
sneered
assented
estimated
ordered
sobbed
asserted
exclaimed
petitioned
solicited
assumed
explained
pleaded
specified
assured
exposed
pled
spoke
asked
expressed
pointed
out
sputtered
attested
faltered
prayed
stammered
avowed
feared
predicted
stated
babbled
foretold
proclaimed
stipulated
bantered
fumed
professed
stormed
bargained
giggled
prompted
stressed
began
grinned
propounded
suggested
boasted
grunted
publicized
taunted
called
held
quibbled
thought
claimed
implied
ranted
threatened
commented
indicated
reassured
told
complained
inferred
reciprocated
twitted
confided
instructed
refuted
urged
contradicted
itemized
related
uttered
cried
laughed
remonstrated
vowed
debated
lectured
repeated
wailed
decided
lied
replied
warned
41
TRANSITIONS
WORDS
TO
SHOW
LOCATION:
above
behind
by
near
throughout
around
across
below
down
off
to
the
right
beyond
against
beneath
in
back
of
onto
under
into
along
beside
in
front
of
on
top
of
over
among
between
inside
outside
WORDS
TO
SHOW
TIME:
while
first
meanwhile
soon
then
suddenly
after
second
today
later
next
finally
at
third
tomorrow
afterward
as
soon
as
until
before
now
next
week
immediately
when
during
yesterday
WORDS
TO
COMPARE
TWO
THINGS:
like
likewise
similar
to
equally
also
similarly
comparable
as
while
correspondingly
in
the
same
way
as
WORDS
TO
CONTRAST
THINGS:
but
still
although
on
the
other
hand
otherwise
even
though
on
the
contrary
in
contrast
to
this
in
spite
of
nevertheless
although
this
may
be
true
unlike
dissimilar
to
conversely
despite
this
fact
however
yet
WORDS
TO
EMPHASIZE
A
POINT:
again
truly
especially
for
this
reason
to
repeat
in
fact
to
emphasize
WORDS
TO
CONCLUDE
OR
SUMMARIZE:
finally
as
a
result
to
sum
up
in
conclusion
thus
lastly
therefore
all
in
all
because
as
stated
accordingly
thus
in
brief
in
short
for
this
reason
consequently
WORDS
TO
ADD
INFORMATION:
again
another
for
instance
for
example
also
and
moreover
additionally
as
well
besides
along
with
other
next
finally
in
addition
further
hence
WORDS
TO
SHOW
EXAMPLES
OR
CLARIFY:
for
example
for
instance
to
clarify
that
is
to
cite
to
illustrate
thus
namely
WORDS
FOR
ADDING
A
POINT:
in
addition
besides
again
next
further
moreover
hence
on
this
account
it
follows
then
WORDS
TO
ADD
EMPHASIS:
undoubtedly
in
truth
very
likely
assuredly
perhaps
certainly
without
fail
obviously
to
be
sure
naturally
surely
really
without
a
doubt
42
Imagery:
Using
the
Five
Senses
Smell
Words
acidic
earthy
mildewed
odorous
rancid
scented
spicy
aromatic
fishy
minty
perfumed
reeking
sharp
spoiled
burnt
fragrant
moldy
piney
rotten
sickly
stagnant
damp
fresh
musty
pungent
savory
sour
sweet
tempting
Sound
Words
Adjectives
bang
average
buzz
giant
faint
immense
mutter
mammoth
rumble
puny
squawk
whine
bark
big
clamor
gigantic
gurgle
large
patter
massive
rustle
short
stamp
whisper
bawl
clap
hiss
peep
scream
still
whistle
colossal
great
little
miniature
small
bedlam
clash
hubbub
piercing
screech
stomp
whit
blare
fat
huge
crackle
hum
long
petite
racket
shout
tall
swish
yell
blatant
crash
inaudible
rage
sigh
tiny
thud
zing
bleat
deafening
jangle
rasp
slam
thump
boom
discord
melody
raucous
smash
thunder
brawl
disorderly
murmur
riot
snap
tumult
bump
explode
mute
rowdy
speechless
twitter
Touch
Words
cold
elastic
gritty
oily
satiny
tender
wet
cool
feathery
hairy
prickly
sharp
tepid
crisp
fleshy
icy
pulpy
silky
thick
damp
fragile
leathery
rough
slippery
think
dry
furry
lukewarm
rubbery
smooth
tough
dull
fuzzy
mush
sandy
steamy
warm
Taste
Words
alkaline
buttery
gingery
mellow
raw
sour
tangy
bitter
crispy
hearty
oily
ripe
spicy
tasteless
bland
fishy
hot
overripe
rotten
spoiled
unripe
burnt
fruity
medicinal
peppery
salty
sugary
vinegary
Sight
Words
angular
crinkled
foggy
lean
quaint
sickly
tied
awkward
crooked
forked
lively
radiant
skinny
timid
billowy
crowded
formal
loose
rectangular
slender
tiny
blazing
crystalline
fragile
lumpy
reddish
soaring
tired
blonde
curved
frail
messy
rigid
split
translucent
blushing
dark
fresh
miniature
rippling
spotless
triangular
branching
deep
frightened
misty
robust
square
tubular
bright
dim
frilled
motionless
rolled
steep
tufted
brilliant
distinct
fuzzy
muddy
rotund
stormy
twiggy
broad
dull
gigantic
murky
raffled
stout
ugly
broken
elegant
glamorous
narrow
scalloped
straight
unruffled
brunette
enormous
gleaming
nervous
scrolled
strange
unsightly
bulky
exhausted
glistening
old
scrubbed
strong
unusual
calm
fancy
glowing
orderly
shabby
sturdy
verdant
cheap
fat
graceful
outrageous
shadowy
sunny
weird
chubby
fearful
grotesque
oval
shallow
swollen
wide
circular
fiery
hardy
packed
shapeless
swooping
wild
clean
filthy
hazy
padded
shapely
tall
winged
cloudy
flared
healthy
pale
sheer
tapered
wiry
clustered
flashy
heavy
pasty
shimmering
tapering
wispy
colossal
flat
hollow
petite
shiny
tearful
wizened
craggy
flickering
irregular
pleasant
short
terrified
worn
crimped
fluffy
jutting
portly
shy
thin
43
Shape
chubby
deep
hollow
round
square
crooked
flat
low
shallow
steep
curved
high
narrow
skinny
straight
wide
Time
ancient
fast
modern
quick
slow
brief
late
old
rapid
swift
early
long
old-‐fashioned
short
young
Quantity
abundant
few
light
many
numerous
empty
heavy
Feelings
agreeable
fine
smiling
confused
jealous
amused
friendly
splendid
creepy
lonely
brave
funny
successful
cruel
mysterious
calm
gentle
thoughtful
dangerous
naughty
charming
glorious
victorious
defeated
nervous
cheerful
good
vivacious
defiant
obnoxious
comfortable
happy
witty
depressed
outrageous
cooperative
healthy
wonderful
disgusted
panicky
courageous
helpful
zealous
disturbed
repulsive
delightful
hilarious
zany
embarrassed
scary
determined
jolly
afraid
envious
selfish
eager
joyous
angry
evil
sore
elated
kind
annoyed
fierce
tense
enchanting
lively
anxious
foolish
terrible
encouraging
lovely
arrogant
frantic
thoughtless
energetic
lucky
ashamed
frightened
tired
enthusiastic
obedient
awful
grieving
troubled
excited
perfect
bad
helpless
upset
exuberant
pleasant
bewildered
homeless
uptight
fair
proud
bored
hungry
weary
faithful
relieved
combative
hurt
wicked
fantastic
silly
condemned
ill
worried
Condition
alive
crazy
fragile
open
sleepy
brainy
curious
helpful
outstanding
super
breakable
dead
helpless
poor
tame
busy
different
important
powerful
uninterested
careful
difficult
impossible
puzzled
wandering
cautious
doubtful
innocent
real
wild
clever
easy
inquisitive
rich
wrong
44
concerned
famous
modern
shy
Appearance
adorable
clear
elegant
misty
spotless
alert
cloudy
fancy
motionless
stormy
average
colorful
filthy
muddy
strange
beautiful
crowded
glamorous
plain
ugly
blonde
cute
gleaming
poised
unsightly
bloody
dark
graceful
quaint
unusual
blushing
drab
grotesque
shiny
bright
distinct
homely
smoggy
clean
dull
light
sparkling
Adverbs
accidentally
doubtfully
irritably
promptly
sometimes
afterwards
easily
joyously
punctually
soon
almost
elegantly
justly
quickly
speedily
always
enormously
kindly
quietly
stealthily
angrily
enthusiastically
lazily
rapidly
sternly
annually
equally
less
rarely
successfully
anxiously
even
loosely
recklessly
suddenly
awkwardly
eventually
loudly
regularly
suspiciously
badly
exactly
madly
regularly
swiftly
blindly
faithfully
merrily
reluctantly
tenderly
boastfully
far
monthly
repeatedly
tensely
boldly
fast
more
rightfully
thoughtfully
bravely
fatally
mortally
roughly
tightly
briefly
fiercely
mysteriously
rudely
tomorrow
brightly
fondly
nearly
sadly
too
busily
foolishly
neatly
safely
truthfully
calmly
fortunately
nervously
seldom
unexpectedly
carefully
frantically
never
selfishly
very
carelessly
gently
noisily
seriously
victoriously
cautiously
gladly
not
shakily
violently
cheerfully
gracefully
obediently
sharply
vivaciously
clearly
greedily
obnoxiously
shrilly
warmly
correctly
happily
often
shyly
weakly
courageously
hastily
only
silently
wearily
crossly
honestly
painfully
sleepily
well
cruelly
hourly
perfectly
slowly
wildly
daily
hungrily
politely
smoothly
yearly
defiantly
innocently
poorly
softly
yesterday
deliberately
inquisitively
powerfully
solemnly
45
✔Checklist
for
Editing
Form
1. I
have
checked
my
paper
to
be
sure
it
is
neat.
2. I
have
checked
my
paper
to
be
sure
that
the
margins
are
correct.
3. I
have
checked
my
paper
to
make
sure
there
is
a
space
after
each
punctuation
mark.
4. I
have
checked
my
paper
to
be
sure
I
indented
the
first
line
of
each
paragraph.
Usage
(CUPS)
1. I
used
correct
forms
of
verbs
(had
gone
not
had
went).
2. My
subjects
and
verbs
agree.
Singular
subjects
have
singular
verbs
and
plural
subjects
have
plural
verbs.
(She
and
I
were
going,
not
She
and
I
was
going.)
Capitalization
(CUPS)
1. I
have
checked
all
sentences
to
be
sure
they
begin
with
a
capital.
2. I
have
checked
all
proper
nouns
for
capitals.
Punctuation
(CUPS)
1. I
have
checked
all
sentences
to
make
sure
they
end
with
appropriate
punctuation.
2. I
have
checked
all
sentences
to
make
sure
that
commas
are
used
after
introductory
word
groups.
3. I
have
checked
all
compound
sentences
for
commas
before
the
conjunctions.
4. I
have
checked
to
be
sure
all
series
of
words
or
phrases
have
been
separated
by
commas.
Spelling
(CUPS)
1. I
have
checked
all
sentences
to
be
sure
that
all
words
are
spelled
correctly.
2. I
have
double-‐checked
all
words
that
my
spell-‐checker
may
have
missed.
3. I
have
used
commonly
misused
words
correctly.
(there,
their,
they’re
etc.)
46
Listening
and
Speaking
Skills
Organizing
and
Delivering
a
Speech
I.
Organize
information
using
an
outline
–
think
about
the
background
and
interests
of
audience
–
how
will
you
get
them
to
listen
and
learn
A.
Introduction
1.
Attention
getter
–
lead
or
hook
2.
Thesis
sentence
–
tell
the
audience
exactly
what
you
will
be
talking
about
and/or
describing
B.
Body
of
speech
1.
Arrange
information
in
a
logical
order
2.
Support
each
main
point
with
at
least
one
or
more
reason
3.
Give
one
or
more
example
to
support
or
explain
each
point.
a.
Use
stories
b.
Use
situations
c.
Use
statistics
4.
Use
effective
transition
words
C.
Conclusion
1.
Summarize
main
points
of
speech
2.
Tie
the
last
sentence
to
the
introduction
II.
Delivery
A. Voice
modulation
–
Be
expressive
not
monotone
B. Inflection
• Get
louder
and
go
softer
to
emphasize
points.
C.
Tempo/Pace
• Do
not
go
too
fast
or
too
slow
D. Enunciation
• Speak
clearly
and
pronounce
each
word
E.
Eye
Contact
• Look
up
at
the
audience.
• If
you
are
nervous
–
look
above
them
at
the
wall
behind
them
F.
Word
Choice
• Precise
language
• Active
voice
47
Use the Funnel Approach
48
Listening and Speaking 1.4: Organize information to achieve particular purposes
and to appeal to the background and interests of the audience.
C. Topic Sentence
1. Drop cloth
2. Primer
3. Paint
4. Roller
5. Brushes
6. Paint tray
7. Painter’s tape
8. Old rags/sponges
9. Ladder/step stool
49
Listening and Speaking 1.4: Organize information to achieve particular purposes
and to appeal to the background and interests of the audience.
b. Patch holes
6. Remove tape
D. Tie back to your attention getter: For a new look, a fresh coat of paint will
do the trick.
50
STAR
Writing
Test
Reminders
ü Get
a
good
night’s
rest
the
night
before.
ü Eat
healthy
snacks/meals
before
class:
• Period
1/2:
Breakfast
• Period
3/4:
Nutrition
Break
• Period
5/6:
Lunch
ü Go
to
the
restroom
before
class
ü Be
on
time
to
class.
ü Leave
backpacks
outside
since
you
will
be
given
a
pencil.
ü Bring
your
AR
book
to
read.
ü Study
the
scoring
models,
genres,
and
outlines.
ü Take
your
time
and
DO
NOT
RUSH!
ü Remember
that
writing
is
a
process:
o 10
minutes
Read
prompt
carefully
o 20
minutes
Complete
brainstorm/bubble
cluster
o 30
minutes
Complete
outline
o 30
minutes
Complete
rough
draft
o 10
minutes
Edit,
Revise,
Proofread
o 100
minutes
Total
Always
try
your
best
and
continue
the
tradition
of
excellence
at
Richardson
PREP
HI!
51
Testing
Taking
Tips
ü Read
each
answer
choice
before
marking
your
answer.
ü Read
each
sentence
carefully.
Remember
what
the
directions
are
asking
you
to
do.
ü Read
the
directions
carefully.
If
you
read
too
fast,
you
might
miss
some
important
information.
Ask
your
proctor
if
you
don’t
understand
the
directions.
ü Read
each
answer
choice
carefully.
If
you
are
not
sure
of
the
answer,
move
on
to
the
next
question.
After
you
answer
all
the
questions
you
are
sure
of,
go
back
and
do
any
that
you
skipped.
ü When
you
are
finished,
check
your
work.
Do
not
change
an
answer
unless
you
have
a
good
reason.
Many
times,
your
first
choice
is
the
correct
choice.
ü Read
each
answer
choice
carefully.
Eliminate
one
or
two
answers
that
you
know
are
wrong.
Then
choose
the
correct
answer
from
the
remaining
answer
choices.
ü Remember:
Each
sentence
in
a
paragraph
must
contain
details
that
help
support
the
topic
sentence.
ü Use
each
answer
choice
instead
of
the
blank
to
read
each
sentence.
Listen
for
the
sentence
that
sounds
correct
to
you.
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