Shell Nigeria Graduate Training Programme Instrumentation

Sensors and Transducers

2.0 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

These can be of two types. Those that require external excitation to be active, and
those that do not (TRANSPONDERS).

When a sensor is incorporated into an instrumentation system, it is used to detect

the characteristic behaviour of a physical quantity. This detectable characteristic
behaviour is converted into an output signal by the transducer. The signal is passed
to other parts of the system, which display or record the measurement and/or use it
for control purposes.

• The electrical strain gauge and associated electrical measuring and display
circuit (Figure 1) is an example of a measurement system. The strain gauge is
the sensor; the electrical measuring circuit combines the function of the
transducer and signal/data processing, while the voltmeter is the display unit.

The electrical strain gauge is used to measure strain i.e. small changes in linear
dimensions, of engineering components when subjected to loads.

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Sensors and Transducers

• The resistance thermometer (Figure 2) is used to measure temperature. The

resistance of a temperature- sensitive resistor varies with changes in
temperature. For example measurements of water temperature in a motor
vehicle are commonly made with resistance thermometers.

• Pressure can be measured by the deformation, which it produces in a

diaphragm (Figure 3). In this case the diaphragm deformation is measured by
a strain gauge

• Liquid level can be measured in terms of the pressure exerted by a liquid at

the bottom of its container (Figure 4).

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Sensors and Transducers

SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE TRANSDUCTION PROCESS

• Effects of sensors/transducers on the measurand

A sensor/transducer works on the principle that one of its properties is affected by

the physical quantity which it is designed to measure. In the process of
measurement, the physical quantity itself is always affected to some extent, although
the extent may sometimes be negligible.

So there are two dangers to look out for when putting a sensor/transducer into a
measurement situation. The first is that the transducer may change the operation of
the apparatus to which it is connected. The second is that, even if the operation is
not seriously affected, the measurement might be useless because the presence of
the sensor/transducer changes the value of the measurand in the region where it is
located.

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Sensors and Transducers

• Effects of other physical properties on the measurement

Some transducers sense a change in the quantity being measured in terms of the
corresponding change in another property. The liquid-Ievel gauge of Figure 4 is a
case in point. The level is not measured directly, but in terms of the liquid pressure at
the bottom of the vessel. This pressure depends not only on the level but also on the
density of the liquid and the atmospheric pressure, and will be affected by the
turbulence of the liquid. So this system is only suitable as long as (a) the liquid in the
vessel is always the same,

(b) Changes in the density of the liquid due to changes in temperature do not cause
unacceptable errors, (c) atmospheric pressure is sufficiently constant, and (d)
turbulence is avoided.

ACCURACY AND SENSITIVITY

Accuracy is the descriptive term concerning the closeness of the measured value of
a quantity to its actual value. Accuracy is usually quoted or specified in terms of the
more precise term maximum error. An error is the difference that exists, or may
exist, between the actual and measured values. The accuracy of an electrical meter
is usually specified in terms of the maximum error, quoted as a percentage of full-
scale deflection (f.s.d.). This maximum error is contributed to by a number of
factors such as resolution, hysteresis, repeatability, zero error, non- linearity and
error in sensitivity.

• Resolution

This the 'fineness' with which a measurement can be made. However, a distinction
still needs to be made between accuracy and resolution. An instrument with doubtful
accuracy may still be useful because of its resolution.

• Hysteresis

This occurs in many measurement situations. For a given value of the measurand,
the output from a transducer depends on whether the measurand has acquired its
value by increasing or decreasing from it previous value.

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Sensors and Transducers

• Repeatability

This is the closeness of agreement of the readings among a number of consecutive

measurements of a chosen value of the measurand made during full-range traverses
of the measurand. Repeatability is expressed as the spread of the readings so
obtained, sometimes quoted as a percentage of full-scale.

• Zero error or zero shift

This is the reading shown by measuring device at zero input value. All subsequent
output readings with finite input values are shifted, up or down, by this amount.
Usually a zero adjust knob is provided to correct for this.

• Linearity

Figure 5 the relation between strain and resistance of a strain gauge.

This is used to describe the relationship between input changing values and the
perceptible (measurable) output values, when each incremental/decrement change

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Sensors and Transducers

in input value is proportional to the measurement system output value. Any

departure from this linear relationship is known as non-linearity (See Figure 5). The
extent of what is considered to be the linear region is determined by the maximum
permissible non-linearity. The smaller the non- linearity’s which can be, tolerated the
narrower the region that can be accepted as linear.

A severe form of non-linearity exists outside the operating region of many

transducers and other instrumentation components. This form is known as limiting, a
more or less abrupt levelling off, or saturation, of the output as the measurand, or
other input, exceeds some value in excess of full scale.

For a transducer having an essentially linear region of operation it is common to

express the relationship between the output signal and the input variable as the
sensitivity or scale-factor. The sensitivity is a measure of the incremental change in
output for a given change in the input quantity.

• Response Time

Another factor affecting accuracy is response time, the time taken by the output
signal of a device to respond to a change in the input.

MEASUREMENT IN HOSTILE ENVIRONMENTS

Environmental conditions can often make measurement difficult. For example, in a

nuclear power station the flow of cooling liquid needs to be measured when the liquid
temperature is extremely high and where radiation is intense. Broadly speaking, the
problems facing the instrumentation engineer in cases like this are of two types. The
first consideration is whether the transducer is sufficiently robust to withstand the
environment without permanent damage. For instance, if the temperature
surrounding a pressure transducer is too high, will part of the transducer melt or
burn? Or, if excessive vibration occurs at a point where temperature is being
measured, will the temperature transducer shake apart?

The second consideration is that, given that the transducer can withstand the
environment, will its accuracy be degraded to an unacceptable extent while the
environmental conditions are maintained? For instance, will the resistance of a

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semiconductor strain gauge attached to a nuclear reactor pressure vessel be

excessively lowered by radiation from the reactor?

In some cases manufacturers may not specify transducer's performance in the

hostile environment. It is the responsibility of the instrumentation engineer to
acquire an understanding of the principle of operation of the transducer, so as
to assess its likely ability to withstand the conditions of a given application.

THE TRANSMISSION PATH

Whatever form the output signal from a transducer takes, be it electrical, optical,
pneumatic or hydraulic, it must be conveyed to whatever data-processing, display,
recording or control devices that are used in the instrumentation system. The
electrical cable, the pneumatic pipe or the optical fibre used to convey the signal
constitutes a transmission path. The properties of this transmission path may limit
the effectiveness of the transmission of the signal, i.e. the accuracy and speed with
which measurements can be made.

Factors affecting quality of transmission paths

• Speed of response

• Noise

Speed of response

The time it takes for transmitting the output signal of the transducer to the next stage
of an instrumentation system is very crucial in determining the
effectiveness/accuracy of the system in tracking (following) a rapidly changing input.

Thus, speed of response is an important factor affecting the quality of the

transmission path. For example, in a pneumatic system, the signal is transmitted in
the form of air pressure in a pipe. Measurand changes result in pressure changes
transmitted down the pipe. The resultant movement of air takes sometime, and the
most rapid pressure changes at the transducer do not result in equivalent changes in
pressure at the other end of the pipe.

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Noise

Noise is another factor affecting the quality of the transmission path. In

instrumentation systems noise is the term used to describe unwanted signals, which
appear in the transmission path and tend to obscure the transmitted measurement
signal. The noise takes many forms. In a pneumatic system it can be introduced by
pressure variations in the air supply. These variations can be caused by the pump,
which delivers the supply and by changes in the supply pressure when equipment
operates in another part of the system. The variations, superimposed on the output
signal from the transducer, are transmitted along with it, to indicating, and control
devices. The solutions to the problem include the use of reservoirs in the air supply.
And the use of devices which deliberately slow down the response of the system so
as to filter out the relatively rapid pressure variations introduced by the supply pump
and by interaction with other equipment in the system.

In an electrical system, the electrical signal is transmitted over wires or cables. The
noise is of two forms. One form is random in nature and is generated by electrical
conductors and active devices, such as transistors, in electric equipment. Such noise
is referred to as random noise. The transmission path from other equipment such as
mains wiring and electrical motors picks up the other type of noise. Such noise is
referred to as interference noise.

Ways of avoiding electrical noise

• Increase in signal to a level where the noise has negligible effect on the
accuracy of measurements. Not always practicable.

• Use of signal extraction techniques (e.g. Lock in amplifiers).

• Use noise discriminating devices (e.g. Instrumentation amplifiers).

• Fitting of suppressors to motors and other interfering equipment to reduce

electrical interference-

• Use of screened cables rather than ordinary wires for the signal path.

• Shielding of critical components in the instrumentation system.

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• Use of filter circuits.

SIGNAL PROCESSING

Signal processing refers to processes, which are carried out, on the original signal
from the transducer. The processing of the signal converts the information it conveys
into data, which can be displayed or recorded, or used for control purposes. This can
take place both before and l or after the transmission path.

Signal Processing Steps

• Signal Amplification

• Signal Modulation and Demodulation (when needed)

• Analogue-to digital conversion (for digital display or digital signal

processing)

• Signal Conditioning

Signal Amplification

This is the process where the output signal of the transducer is fed into the input
stage of an amplifier. The amplifier output has an increase magnitude, which is more
useful for display, recording or control purposes, and which makes the subsequent
effects of noise less significant. Note that noise combined with the original signal
cannot be overcome this way. In fact it is also amplified with the original signal. Only
situations when the noise intrudes into the transmission path after amplification will
result in any advantage.

Both the voltage and the current at the output of the amplifier may be greater than at
the input. The output power is proportional to the product of voltage and current, so
the amplifier provides power amplification.

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Modulation and Demodulation

This is a technique sometimes used in electrical systems, especially where the

transmission path is long or necessarily involves a radio link. This is a process
wherein the size of the measurand controls, or modulates, a parameter of an
electrical or optical signal. In electrical amplitude modulation the value of the
measurand controls the amplitude of an a.c. voltage. Frequency modulation and
pulse-code modulations are other types, which are used in instrumentation systems.
Modulation is used to reduce the effects of noise arising in the transmission path,
and to allow more than one signal to be transmitted simultaneously over the
transmission path. At the of the transmission path, the signal may be restored to its
unmodulated form by the process of demodulation.

Analogue-to-digital conversion

The term analogue signal is used to describe a signal, which, is a replica of another
signal but is in a different physical form. It follows uniformly the variations of the
measurand. A digital signal, on the other hand, consists of a set of pulses, of equal
amplitude, in which the rate or the pattern of their generation is some function of the
amplitude of the input quantity.

Analogue-to-digital conversion is the process of converting an analogue signal to its

digital equivalent.

Signal Conditioning

When several measurements are made simultaneously in an electrical system, it is

common practice to take the outputs of all the transducers to signal-conditioning
units. These are units designed to provide output signals, which all lie within some
common range of currents or voltages, making the subsequent handling of these
signal much easier (e.g. the 4-20 mA current loop, the 0-5V voltage range). The units
may also provide appropriate electric power for each transducer and may include
special electrical circuits essential for the required mode of operation of each
transducer.

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DATA PROCESSING, AND DISPLAY AND RECORDING OF DATA

The ultimate object of any instrumentation system is to make measurements, and

either presents the results to an operator or analyst, or feed back the results into a
process so as to control. In many cases both display and feedback are involved. In
what is called process control, for instance in the chemical industry, transducer
signals are continuously fed back to control various parameters to keep them within
required limits. At this time, some parameters are continuously monitored and
recorded so that the plant engineers can adequately supervise the process and
recognise the need for improvements or repairs to the plant.

Display devices could be either analogue or digital in nature.

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