Structural Design of Glass
Bruce Wymond & Mahesh Arumugam
Meinhardt Façade Technology Pty Ltd
L2, 400 Kent Street, Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia
Keywords
1=Glass 2=Wind Loading 3= Strength 4=Deflection 5=Structural Glazing
ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the different
approaches taken internationally in the
design and engineering of glazing for
buildings. Primarily it focuses on ASTM,
BS/EN, AS/NZ, PRC and India Standards,
for wind loading and the design of glass.
Wind load calculations, limit state
factors, and structural properties of
glass and adhesives vary between
countries, and it is therefore important
to understand these differences,
their impact globally and on
developing countries in particular.
Mixing design criteria between
countries is a very common problem
which needs to be addressed.
It is therefore intended that a
series of clear recommendations be
provided that clarify various approaches
to glass engineering calculations.
INTRODUCTION
There are two issues that have an
overwhelming influence on the
structural design of facades, namely
the derivation of wind loading and the
calculation of material strengths. Both
issues are handled differently around
Figure 1.1
Wind Rose used to determine directional wind velocity
GLASS PERFORMANCE DAYS INDIA 2008
the globe as major countries USA,
UK/Europe, PRC and Australia have
inconsistent wind loading and material
codes for glass, sealants and other
materials. Difference have grown out
of a national approach to engineering
standards, and yet glass, aluminium
curtain walls, and structural silicone are
global commodities, often designed in
one country, manufactured in a second
country and shipped to a third country.
Adopting a consistent design approach
is essential in order to get more efficient
design. There is an urgent need to look
at conflicting engineering methods
and suggest ways that consistent and
efficient design can be achieved.
WIND LOADING
Location
Wind loading is primarily determined
based on critical wind conditions for
a region. This varies substantially for
areas that are cyclonic, have strong
prevailing winds, are subjected to
severe winds generated by storms,
or locations that are relatively stable.
To assess and compare winds at
different locations there is an attempt
Figure 1.2
Google Earth image used to assess shielding from adjacent buildings
Architectural & Façade Session
to isolate the wind from local ground
effects and this is determined through
establishing a “gradient wind speed”
for a given location. Then an allowance
is made for variations in surface
roughness based on the size and
density of surrounding buildings.
Return Period
A return period is a measure of the
highest wind velocity that will not be
exceeded over a specified number
of years. The inverse of this is the
probability of exceedance which is the
wind velocity that will not be exceeded
for a given recurrence interval. In AS/
NZ1170 Part 2 wind speeds are listed
for intervals from V5 to V1000 for a
3 second gust. V500 and V1000 are
ultimate limit state winds for normal and
high importance buildings, respectively.
Gust Duration
Wind velocities are not constant. They
have a background component that
changes as a function of the air flow,
and a resonant component that changes
as a result of the structure or element
vibrating. There are short sharp peaks

www.gpd.fi
 the building shape and proximity to
corners as pressures increase due
to wind flows around corners (refer
to Figure 1.3). Internal pressures
also need to be considered and are
a function of façade porosity and
internal compartmentalization.

Importance Factor
In the event of a natural diaster it is
Architectural & Façade Session

essential that buildings such as hospitals

and police stations provide a “post
disaster function” so they cannot fail.
To help ensure that essential services
are maintained, facades are designed
for higher wind loads than normal
buildings through the application of
an importance factor, an increased
limit state factor, or an increase of
the return period for a wind event.

Figure 1.3
OTHER LOADING
CONSIDERATIONS
Wind pressure distribution allowing for height, edge zones, directionality, and shielding

in the resonant component of the wind with height but pressure coefficients Temperature
that are highest for short recurrence are constant. In other codes down The capacity of laminated glass
intervals. Hence AS/NZ1170 Part 2 drafts on the building are considered is affected by temperature, as an
refers to a 3 second gust wind speed. and corner suction for instance is taken increase in temperature causes a
That is the peak wind speed that occurs as the same over the full height of the softening of the interlayer. This effect
for a 3 second interval. A one minute building, based on the peak suction varies with the type of interlayer that
duration wind speed as specified in at the top of the building. This results is used. Manufacturer’s technical
some US codes is substantially lower. in a substantially different profile of information should be assessed.
wind pressures over the facade.
Directional Factors Internal Pressure - Insulating Glass
Shielding Factors, Topographical
The wind velocity is a function of The variation in pressure between
Internal Pressure - Insulating GlassFactors and Funnelling Effects
direction, as prevailing winds are the inside of an insulating unit
generally stronger from a given direction. Surrounding buildings often block or (double glazed) unit and the external
The fronts
Storm variation in pressure
are directional and tobetween the inside
partially blockofhigh
anwinds
insulating unit (double
and provide glazed) imparts
environment unit and theonexternal
a load the
environment
some imparts
extent cyclones have a particular
load on the glass thatreduction
a pressure needs condition
to be considered
(Refer forglass
buildings constructed
that needs at a for
to be considered high
altitudeofor
direction on verySome
approach. tall buildings.
codes Breaker tubes
to Figure 1.2).can be other
On the utilized towind
hand balance buildings
internal constructed
and externalat a pressure to
high altitude
allow for directional
mitigate effects by including
this effect. speeds increase as air flows up a hill. or on very tall buildings. Breaker tubes
a wind direction multiplier. Wind roses Buildings in close proximity can force can be utilized to balance internal and
are provided in some countries which wind to be funnelled between them and external pressure to mitigate this effect.
Concentrated
illustrate Loading
wind direction, and
strength Impact the
and Loading
air flow speeds up. This can cause
frequency (Refer to Figure 1.1). the cladding pressures to increase.
Impact loading needs to be considered in safety glass applications and itConcentrated Loading using soft
is normally assessed
and Impact Loading
body impact
Height Factors testing. In cyclonic areas glass need to
Local Pressure Factorsbe designed to prevent the penetration of flying debris.
This is usually achieved through the use of laminated glass incorporating a high
Impact strength
loading needs tointerlayer that
be considered
Asretains
a general
therule windinvelocity
glass and through Glass
its frame is subject
structural to external
silicone as well
glazing in safety details.
or special retention glass applications and it is
pressure increases with height and as internal wind pressures. Local normally assessed using soft body
some codes treat pressure as varying external pressures vary according to impact testing. In cyclonic areas glass
Table 1: Table Comparing Wind Codes

Country United States UK/EU PRC India Australia

Wind Loading Code ASCE7-95 BS6399 GB5009-2001 IS875.3 2004* AS1170.2 – 2002
Permissible/Limit State Limit State Limit State Limit State Permissible Limit State
Return Period 50yrs 50yrs 50yrs 50 yrs 500 to 1000yrs
Gust Duration 3sec 60min 10min 3 sec 3sec
Directional Multiplier X x X x 9
Shielding Multiplier X x X x 9
Topographical Multiplier 9 9 9 9 9
Funnelling Effects X 9 X x X
Importance Factor 9 x 9 x 9
Serviceability Limit State 9 x 9 x 9
Other Issues Conversion of 500yr Code not intended to Limit state is derived * Denotes draft code, Addresses cyclonic and
wind to 50yr wind address high rise through multiplying the previous version of non-cyclonic areas,
÷¥1.5. Requires wind buildings. loads x1.4, and IS875.3 was reaffirmed limit states and
tunnel test to assess importance is in 1997. Limit states importance factors are
shielding and addressed through a and importance are not addressed through
funnelling. Limit state 100 year return period addressed. selecting the return
factor for wind is 1.6. rather than 50 years. period of the wind.

Table 1
LOAD
Table FACTORS
Comparing Wind Codes

Permissible Design GLASS PERFORMANCE DAYS INDIA 2008

www.gpd.fi
Traditionally engineering analysis was based on trying to determine the performance of a structure as
accurately as possible in terms of stresses and deflections, and then applying factors of safety to reduce the
need to be designed to prevent the
penetration of flying debris. This is
usually achieved through the use of
laminated glass incorporating a high
strength interlayer that retains the glass
in its frame through structural silicone
glazing or special retention details.

LOAD FACTORS

Architectural & Façade Session

Permissible Design
Traditionally engineering analysis
was based on trying to determine
the performance of a structure as
accurately as possible in terms of stresses
and deflections, and then applying
factors of safety to reduce the yield
or failure strength of the material to a
permissible strength limit. The reduction
depended on the material type and
its uniformity. The advantage of this
method was that it gave an accurate
picture of structural behaviour of the
material. It however did not provide
material scientists with separate
methods of addressing statistical
variations of loads and materials
and it was therefore phased out.
Limit State Factors
Over the past 20 years capacity design
using limit state factors, has taken
over from permissible design as the
preferred method of analysing structural
elements. In limit state design the load
multiplication factors are applied to
increase the applied loads (dead, live,
wind and seismic loads) to allow for
load variations, and material factors are
applied to reduce material strengths to
allow for material variations. The factors
that are used vary from one country to
the next and are highlighted in Table 2.
Serviceability Factors
A problem with limit state factors
for strength is that when they are
applied they cause the deflection of an
element to be over stated. To overcome
this problem requires a separate
serviceability analysis to be carried out
in addition to the limit state analysis. Table 2: Table Comparing Glass Codessurprising is that heat treated glass
Figure 2
Façade failure in funnelled facades at corner zones and around the glazed link bridge corresponding
reasonably closely to points of maximum local pressure according to wind codes
In order to prevent deflections being the glass and sealant are checked using
over-estimated, serviceability limit old glass codes, or procedures developed
state factors are used, or serviceability for 1 minute mean wind, the loading
wind speeds are considered. may have been over-estimated by 1.21
x 1.4 = 1.694 (an increase of 69%).
This results in substantial over-design.
Conversion of Wind Loads
Conversions of wind loads are often
GLASS STRENGTH
overlooked but they have a substantial
impact on design. Consider the following
example of changes in North America: Glass Surface Compression
• GANA-2004 Converts 1 minute Heat treatment of glass to lock in surface
duration wind to a 3 second gust compression is the most common
by multiplying by 1.21 to provide method of increasing glass strength.
50 year return 3 second gust data. The strength is a function of the glass
This approach is approximately only thickness, surface compression and
since the relationship between mean location on the glass surface (mid panel
pressures and gust pressures varies. or edge condition). ASTM E1480 and AS/
• Limit state codes then convert NZ 1288 provide stress limits for surface
3 second gusts with a 50 year compression of heat strengthened and
return period to limit state loads fully toughened glass. In some instances
by multiplying by 1.4 for instance, the surface compression range can
or by increasing the return be controlled to a tighter tolerance
period to 500 to 1,000 years. than code limits to achieve improved
The combined effect of this is that if a performance characteristics. What is
3 sec gust limit state wind is used, and

Country USA-Code USA-Industry UK PRC Australia

Glass Design Code ASTM E1300 GANA-2004 BS6262.2 2005 JGJ 102-2003 AS1288
Permissible/Limit State Permissible Permissible Limit State Limit State Limit State
Wind Load Duration 3 sec 60 sec 60min 10 min 3 sec
Stress Limits Provided No Yes No Yes Yes
Laminated - Load Share Eq. Thickness* No No – Chart Only Yes Yes
Insulating - Load Share No No No – Chart Only Yes Yes
Edge Stress Limits Yes No No No Yes
Annealed Stress Limit No 2800psi(19.3MPa) No 2828psi(19.5MPa) 4786psi(33MPa)
HS Stress Limit No 5600psi(38.6MPa) No - 8412psi(58MPa)
FT Stress Limit No 11200psi(77.2MPa) No 8528psi(58.8MPa) 11893psi(82MPa)
Other Issues Laminated glass GANA-2008 is due to be Uses a limit state Stress Limits on 5 to Switch from limit state
assessment based released in Nov 2008. factor of 1.4, does 12mm glass, uses a factors to higher
on equivalent not address HS limit state factor of 1.4 return period is
thickness being glass or provide for wind. inconsistent with
introduced. guidance on stress other countries.
limits.

Table 2
Laminated
Table Glass
Comparing Glass Interlayer
Codes Load Sharing

GLASS PERFORMANCE
Laminated DAYSaINDIA
glass provides function for impact resistance, blast resistance, acoustic performance and
safety2008
solar control. It comprises of two or more sheets of glass that are bonded together using a resin, polyvinyl
www.gpd.fi
butyl sheets (PVB) or other special interlayer. Traditionally the interlayer allow some partial composite action
as the interlayer is semi-rigid. Recent developments in materials have seen the development of interlayer
 strength, rather than increase in strength
as a result of improved heat treatment
processes has been downgraded over
the past 20 years according to the
FGMA -1986 and GANA-2004.
The strength of Heat Strengthened
glass to FGMA in 1986 was 7,000psi
and GANA in 2004 allow 5,600psi a
fall of 25%, for toughened glass FGMA
in 1986 allowed 17,200psi and GANA
now allow 12,000psi, a fall of 43%
Architectural & Façade Session
for an 8/1000 probability of failure.
Load Duration
The strength of glass is a function of
both the duration of loading and loading
history. This is due to growth of Griffith
flaws in the glass which create an
origin of failure. The fracture mechanics
of glass due to the propagation of
Griffith flaws is described in numerous
texts including Button, D.; Pye, B.:
Glass In Buildings, Oxford 1993.
Size of Glass
The capacity of glass is also a function
of its size. The larger the glass, the
greater the likelihood of a significant
Griffith flaw. Design charts often take
this effect into account, whereas it is
rarely considered in computer modelling
based on non-linear elastic analysis.
Insulating Glass Load Sharing
Insulating glass is able to load share as
the sealed gas or air inside the insulating
glass unit transfers forces from the outer
glass to the inner glass in proportion to
their relative stiffness. A modification
factor is applied to the load sharing
to account for minor compression
of the air or gas within the unit.
Laminated Glass Interlayer
Load Sharing
Laminated glass provides a safety
function for impact resistance, blast
resistance, acoustic performance and
solar control. It comprises of two or
more sheets of glass that are bonded
together using a resin, polyvinyl
butyl sheets (PVB) or other special
interlayer. Traditionally the interlayer
allow some partial composite action
as the interlayer is semi-rigid. Recently
the development of interlayer such
as Sentry Glass Interlayer by Du Pont
which is more rigid and achieves full
composite action. An effective thickness
method converts laminated glass into
an equivalent monolithic glass and is
now being introduced into glass codes.
Probability of breakage
The occurrence of flaws in glass is
subject to statistical variation. In order
to provide a reasonable degree of safety
 GLASS PERFORMANCE DAYS INDIA 2008
www.gpd.fi
the probability of failure according to
ASTM E1300 is 8/1000 for vertical glass
and 1/1000 for overhead glazing.
Thickness tolerance
Glass thickness varies as a consequence
of the float glass manufacturing
process. ASTM E1300 provides
thickness limits that are generally
recognized as an industry standard for
glass production in most countries.
Stress limits Centre and Edges
Some codes provide stress limits for
glass edges and the centre of glass.
Figures are provided for float glass,
heat strengthened and fully toughened
glass. The limits vary based on short
term or long term loading, as well as
glass thickness and edge treatment.
GLASS DEFLECTION
Mid span deflection limits
Glass deflection limits are largely
subjective as moving glass provides a
sense of anxiety for building occupants
in stormy weather. The limit of Span/60
or 20mm has been widely adopted
for serviceability wind in Asia and
Australia over the past 20 years.
Edge Deflection Limits
Glass edges deflect either as free edges
for point fixed and patch fixed glass,
or they deflect with their supporting
frame for curtain wall facades. The
deflection limits are specified to prevent
metal contact which can lead to
premature failure. For insulating glass
units the deflection is further limited
to prevent shear transfer through
the insulating glass unit spacers that
could lead to premature unit failure.
COMMON ERRORS IN
GLAZING DESIGN
Using short duration wind loading 3
second gusts with glass codes or glass
tables that are based on 1 minute
duration wind: This occurs through
mixing wind codes and loading
codes and leads to over estimating
the glass thickness and wasting
material. To overcome this problem
an adjustment factor is needed to
covert a 3 second gust wind to a
1 minute duration wind speed.
Ultimate limit state load factors
used for permissible stress design of
glass and structural silicone: This occurs
through mixing limit state load tables
with permissible stress design codes. It
is important to verify whether the stress
limit is permissible or ultimate, and
make sure that the loading matches.
Over estimating the size of structural
silicone bites for glazing: The allowable
stress on structural silicone joints was
limited to 138kPa (20 psi) for a 1 minute
duration wind loading. This limit needs
to be adjusted for short duration gusts
(e.g. 3 sec) and needs to be adjusted
further to account for ultimate limit
state factors. AS1288-2006 recognises
this and the limit is 210kPa for
ultimate limit state wind loading.
Ultimate limit state load factors used
for checking glass deflection: This limit
results in an over estimate of the glass
deflection. Instead an assessment needs
to be made on the basis of serviceability
limit state factors, which provide a more
realistic assessment of glass deflections.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Code Committees: co-ordinate laterally
between disciplines, in particular
between loading codes and materials
codes to ensure that they are consistent,
co-ordinate internationally to ensure
assumptions such as wind return
periods, gust durations, and limit state
factors are treated correctly (not over
conservative). Consider the wider
implications of their codes beyond their
own countries, particularly the use
of BS and ASTM codes from a global
perspective. ASCE7-2005 and AS1170.2-
2002 are the most comprehensive
wind codes, with GANA-2004 and
AS1288-2006 being the most suitable
glass code for international projects.
Glass, Interlayer and Sealant
Manufacturers: reassess all materials
based on consistent loading
assumptions, particularly where the
1 minute duration mean wind speed
has been used to assess material
properties. Improve material properties
by tightening controls over manufacture
processes such as tightening limits for
surface compression of heat treated
glass using modern tempering ovens.
Raise the bar on material properties
such as sealant tensile capacity above
the current 138kPa (20psi) limit.
Curtain Wall and Glass Specialist
Engineers: consider all design
parameters carefully, and address
problems caused by inconsistent
codes, rather than making conservative
assumptions and over designing. Refine
designs as far as possible and utilize
wind engineering solutions in order
to save cost, materials and to reduce
embodied energy in building facades.
Architects & Designers: The most
important design issue is to ensure that
a building is appropriate for its climate.
European style buildings with large areas
of very clear glass are not appropriate
for much of Asia and the Middle East.
When designing a façade address the
cost of architectural embellishments,
areas of vision glass, treatment of
spandrels and use of shading devices
to minimize the energy consumption
and embodied energy of a building.
CONCLUSIONS
Over the past twenty years it is estimated
that hundreds of millions of dollars have
been wasted as a consequence of over-
designing glass and sealant by being
over conservative, using a 3 second gust
to determine the wind loading when 1
minute wind speed was used to derive
glass and structural silicone design
data, and by failing to optimize designs
GLASS PERFORMANCE DAYS INDIA 2008
based on wind engineering solutions.
Whilst this over-design may have
been overlooked as it provided an
added safety margin, it now needs
to be recognized as an unnecessary
source of CO2 that adds to the
embodied energy of buildings, with
associated environmental costs.
It is incumbent on leading
Architects, Designers, Façade and
Glass Specialist Engineers, Wind
Engineers, Code Committees and
Material Suppliers to consider the
global realities of glass manufacturing
and ensure that climate is considered
carefully, and that loading code and
material code design assumptions are
consistent. This is essential in order for
us to produce more economical and
environmentally efficient buildings.
Architectural & Façade Session

www.gpd.fi