Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 48

Divergence Theorem of Gauss

48.1 Introduction
Let C be a curve in two dimensions which is written in the parametric form r = r ( s ) . Then, the
unit tangent and unit normal vectors to C are given by

dx dy dy dx
T = i+ j, n = i − j.
ds ds ds ds

Then,

 dx dy   dy dx 
fdx + gdy = f + g  ds =( gi − fj ).  i − j  ds =(v.n)ds
 ds ds   ds ds 

where =
v gi − fj. Also

∂g ∂f  ∂ ∂ 
− = i + j  .( gi − fj ) =
∇.v
∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂y 

Hence, Green’s theorem can be written in a vector form as

∫ (v.n)ds= ∫∫ (∇.v)dxdy
C R

The result is a particular case of the Gauss’s divergence theorem. Extension of the Greens’
theorem to three dimensions can be done under the following generalisations.

(i) A region R in the plane → a three dimensional solid D

(ii) The closed curve C enclosing R in the plane → the closed surface S enclosing the
solid D
(iii) The unit outer normal n to C → the unit outer normal n to S.
(iv) A vector field v in the plane → a vector field v in the three dimensional space
(v) The line integral ∫ (v.n)ds
C
→ a surface integral ∫∫ (v.n)dA
S

(vi) The double integral ∫∫ ∇.vdxdy

R
→ a triple (volume) integral ∫∫∫ ∇.vdV .
D
 Divergence Theorem of Gauss

48.2 The Main Result

The above generalizations give the following divergence theorem.

Theorem: (Divergence theorem of Gauss) Let D be a closed and bounded region in the three
dimensional space whose boundary is a piecewise smooth surface S that is oriented outward. Let
v( x, y, z ) =v1 ( x, y, z )i + v2 ( x, y, z ) j + v3 ( x, y, z ) k be a vector field for which v1 , v2 and v3 are
continuous first order partial derivatives in some domain containing D. Then,

∫∫ (v.n)dA =∫∫∫ ∇.vdV =∫∫∫ div(v)dV

S D D

where n is the outer unit normal vector to S.

Remark: The given domain D can be subdivided into finitely many special regions such that each
region can be described in the required manner. In the proof of the divergence theorem, the
special region D has a vertical surface. This type of region is not required in the proof. The
region may have a vertical surface. For example, the region bounded by a sphere or an ellipsoid
has no vertical surface. The divergence theorem holds in all these cases. The divergence theorem
also holds for the region D bounded by two closed surfaces.

Remark: In terms of the components of v, divergence theorem can be written as

 ∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3 

∫∫ v dydz + v dzdx + v dxdy
S
1 2 = ∫∫∫ 
3 +
 ∂x ∂y D
+
∂z 
 dxdydz

or as

 ∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3 

∫∫ (v cos α + v
S
1 2 cos β + v3 cos γ )dA
= ∫∫∫  ∂x + ∂y
D
+
∂z 
 dxdydz .

Example: Let D be the region bounded by the closed cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 16, z = 0 and z = 4.

Verify the divergence theorem if v =3 x 2i + 6 y 2 j + zk .

Solution: We have ∇.v = 6 x + 12 y + 1. Therefore,

2
 Divergence Theorem of Gauss

4
4 =y 16 − x 2
∫∫∫ (∇.v)dV
=
D
∫∫ ∫
z =0
x=
−4 y =
− 16 − x 2
(6 x + 12 y + 1)dydxdz.
4
4 =y 16 − x 2
∫∫∫ (∇.v)dV
=
D
∫∫ ∫
z =0
x=
−4 y =
− 16 − x 2
(6 x + 12 y + 1)dydxdz.

Since x, y are odd functions, we obtain

4 4
=y 16 − x 2
∫∫∫ (∇.v)dV= (4)(2)(2) ∫
D z =0
∫ y =0
dydx= 16 ∫ 16 − x 2 dx
0

1 16  x  4
= 16  x 16 − x 2 + sin −1 =  64π .
2 2  4  0

The surface consists of three parts, S1 (top), S 2 (bottom) and S3 (vertical),

On S1 =
: z 4,=
n k

∫∫ (v.=
S1
n)dA ∫∫=
zdA 4 ∫∫
S1
= dA
S1
4 (area of circular region with radius 4)=64π.

On S 2 : z = 0, n = −k .

∫∫ (v.n)dA =
S2
=∫∫ − zdA =
0.
S2

2 xi + 2 yj 1
On S3 : x 2 + y 2 = 16, n= = ( xi + yj )
2 x2 + y 2 4

1
∫∫ (v.n)dA =
S3
= ∫∫
4 S3
(3 x3 + 6 y 3 )dA.

Using the cylindrical coordinates, we= cos θ , y 4sin

write x 4= = θ , dA 4dθ dz.

Therefore,
4 2π
1
∫∫S (v.n)dA 4=z∫0=θ∫0 [192 cos θ + 348sin θ ]4dθ dz
= 3 3

2π
= 192 ∫ [(cos 3θ + 3cos θ ) + 2(3sin θ − sin 3θ )]
0

3
 Divergence Theorem of Gauss

Hence, ∫∫ (v.n)=
S
dA ∫∫∫ (∇.v)dV .
D

Green’s Identities (formulas)

Divergence theorem can be used to prove some important identities, called Green’s identities
which are of use in solving partial differential equations. Let f and g be scalar functions which
are continuous and have continuous partial derivatives in some region of the three dimensional
space. Let S be a piecewise smooth surface bounding a domain D in this region. Let the
functions f and g be such that v=f grad g Then, we have

∇.( f ∇g ) = f ∇ 2 g + ∇f .∇g

By divergence theorem, we obtain

∫∫ (v.n)dA = ∫∫ f (∇g.n)dA = ∫∫∫ ∇.( f ∇g )dV

S S D

∫∫∫ ( f ∇ g + ∇f .∇g )dV .

2

Now, ∇g .n is the directional derivative of g in the direction of the unit normal vector n.
Therefore, it can be denoted by ∂g / ∂n. We have the Green’s first identity as

∂g
∫∫ f (∇g.n)=
dA ∫∫ f = ∫∫∫ ( g∇ f + ∇g .∇f )dV .
2
dA
S S
∂n D

Interchanging f and g, we obtain

∂f
∫∫ g (∇f .n)=
dA ∫∫ f = dA ∫∫∫ ( g ∇ f + ∇g .∇f )dV .
2

S
∂n
S D

Subtracting the two results, we obtain the Green’s second identity as

 ∂g ∂f 
∫∫ ( f ∇g − g∇f ).ndA
= ∫∫  f − g  dA= ∫∫∫ ( f ∇ g − g∇
2 2
f )dV .
S 
S
∂n ∂n  D

Let f=1. Then, we obtain

4
 Divergence Theorem of Gauss

∂y 2
∫∫ ∇g.ndA =
S
∫∫ S
∂n
dA =∫∫∫
D
∇ gdV .

If g is a harmonic function, then ∇ 2 g =

0 and we have

∂y
∫∫ ∇g.ndA= ∫∫ ∂n dA=
S S
0.

This equation gives a very important property of the solutions of Laplace equation, that is of
harmonic functions. It states that if g ( x, y, z ) is a harmonic function, that is, it is a solution of the
equation

∂2 g ∂2 g ∂2 g
+ + =
0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

Then, the integral of the normal derivative of g over any piecewise smooth closed orient able
surface is zero.

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-Verlag,
New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi.