Chapter R10

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CHAPTER 10
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES
10.1 A microscopic interpretation of the behavior of gases
10.2 The empirical gas laws—Boyle’s, Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Laws
10.3 Avogadro’s Law
10.4 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
10.5 Gas laws and respiratory physiology
10.6 Gas law stoichiometry and the molar volume of a gas at STP
10.7 Gas law stoichiometry and the ideal gas equation
10.8 The solubility of gases in liquids—Henry’s Law
Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-1

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Our present understanding of the microscopic structure of matter has its
roots in the study of the physical behavior of gases. Beginning with the work of
Robert Boyle in the seventeenth century, chemists studied how gases responded
to temperature, pressure and volume changes. These studies have enabled
chemists to conclude that gases are composed of small particles that are in
constant motion. These particles are atoms for the mono-atomic noble elements
(He, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe) and molecules for the diatomic gaseous elements (H 2,
N2, and O2, F2 and Cl2) and covalent compounds such as CO2. In this chapter
you will learn how to use the gas laws discovered by the early chemists to predict
how gases change when their temperatures, pressures or volumes are changed.
You will also see how chemists can explain the behavior of matter in terms of
atoms and molecules.
Understanding gases has also proven extremely valuable in many aspects
of our technology. The inventions of the steam engine and the internal
combustion engine depended upon discoveries of the effects of temperature and
pressure on the behavior of gases. The energy of expanding gases makes
steam and internal combustion engines work. The gas laws we discuss in this
chapter explain the source of this energy and how we can convert the chemical
energy of burning fuel to the mechanical energy of an expanding gas.
The gas laws also explain the physiology of respiration. As the rib cage
expands, the volume of the lungs is increased, causing the inhalation of air.
Compression of the rib cage reduces the volume of the lungs, causing air to be

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exhaled. We shall use respiration as an example of the pressure-volume
relationship of gases.
10.1 A MICROSCOPIC INTERPRETATION OF THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES
A microscopic description of gases best explains how and why gases
respond to changes in temperature, pressure and volume. In other words, the
microscopic behavior of invisible atoms and molecules explains visible
macroscopic phenomena such as the expansion of heated gases. You will find it
easier to understand the macroscopic behavior of gases by first examining the
microscopic description of gases.
Gases are composed of atoms or molecules moving at extremely high
rates of speed in a large volume of space (Figure 10.1). Most of the volume
occupied by a gas is empty space—the total volume of the gas molecules
themselves is extremely small compared to the volume occupied by the gas. For
example, a sample of hydrogen at 20 oC is composed of hydrogen molecules
occupying about 0.1% of the total space occupied by the gas. These hydrogen
molecules are moving at an average speed of around 4000 miles per hour. We
have the impression that this small volume of molecules occupies such a large
volume because these molecules are moving rapidly, colliding with themselves
and the walls of their container.

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Figure 10.1 Gas molecules move at high rates of speed and are distributed within a large
volume. Compared to a liquid or a solid, the percentage of volume occupied by the gas
molecules themselves is very small. Molecules in the gaseous phase are moving much more
rapidly than molecules in the liquid or solid phases. There are no interactions among molecules
in the gaseous phase. Molecules in the liquid or solid phases, on the other hand, are very close
to one another and strong interact among themselves.
As you might expect, all gas molecules in a sample of gas are not moving
at the same speed. When we refer to the velocity of gas molecules, we are
referring to the average velocity of a extremely large collection of gas molecules
moving at a variety of speeds (Figure 10.2). These molecules are moving
randomly and do not tend to cling together when they collide. Instead, they
bounce off one another like billiard balls on a billiard table.

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Figure 10.2 As you might expect, a large collection of gas molecules consists of molecules
moving at different speeds. As the temperature of a gas increases, the average speed increases.
The molecules of a gas also collide with the walls of the container. The
force of these collisions exerts a pressure on the walls. The pressure exerted by
a gas increases as the frequency of collisions with the wall of the container
increases. Reducing the volume occupied by a given number of molecules
increases the pressure because more collisions with the container occur. In
other words, the smaller the volume occupied by a given number of gas
molecules, the greater the pressure these molecules exert on the inner walls of
the gas’s container (Figure 10.3).

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Figure 10.3 As the volume of a gas is increased, molecules have more room to roam and collide
less frequently with the walls of the container. As the volume of a gas is reduced, the frequency
of collisions of molecules with the walls of the container increases, thus increasing the pressure
exerted by the gas.
We express the pressure exerted by a gas on the walls of its container in
several different kinds of units. The most common units used by chemists are
‘mm Hg’ and ‘atm’. The ‘atm’ or ‘atmosphere’ refers to the quantity of pressure
exerted at sea level by our atmosphere. The column of mercury in a barometer
stands 76 cm (or 760 cm) at sea level and so 1 atm of pressure is defined as
exactly 760 mm Hg (Figure 10.4). Sometimes the expression, torr, is used in
place of mm Hg. Thus 760 torr also equals 1 atm or 760 mm Hg.
In the English system pressure is expressed as ‘psi’ or ‘pounds per square
inch’. We use the English units of psi to describe the pressure in inflated
automobile tires. The conversion between atm and psi is 1 atm = 14.6 psi. Most
tires are filled with about 30 psi, in other words, roughly 2 atm. We use the
conversion factor method to convert between these different units (EX 10.1).
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 14.6 psi

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Figure 10.4 A mercury barometer is a column of mercury standing 76 cm above the surface of a
dish filled with mercury. The pressure exerted by the atmosphere upon the surface of the
mercury in the dish pushes the mercury 76 cm up the tube against the force of gravity. When
weather changes reduce or increase atmospheric pressure the column of mercury falls or rises.
If the barometer is taken to a higher altitude where the force of the atmosphere is reduced, the
mercury level in the barometer falls.
EX 10.1
a. Convert 30.0 psi to the equivalent pressure in atmospheres.
____ 1 atm
30.0 psi x ( ) = 2.05 atm
____ 14.6 psi
b. Convert 732 mm Hg to the equivalent pressure in atmospheres.
1 atm
(732 mm Hg) x ( ) = 0.963 atm
760 mm Hg
(Three significant figures are in this answer because the conversion between atm
and mm Hg is an exact definition.)

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c. Convert 732 mm Hg to the equivalent pressure in psi.
14.6 psi
(732 mm Hg) x ( ) = 14.1 psi
760 mm Hg
The molecules of a hot gas are moving faster than molecules of a cold
gas. As gases absorb heat and become hotter, the molecules of the gas move
faster, changing the average velocity of the molecules (Figure 10.2). Thus,
energy in the form of heat absorbed by a gas is converted to an increased rate of
molecular motion. The faster molecules are moving, the more frequently
collisions are likely to occur with the walls of the container. Furthermore, faster
molecules hit the walls with more force than slower molecules, further increasing
the pressure on the walls of the container. In summary, a hot gas exerts a
greater pressure on the inner walls of its container than a cold gas because
collisions occur more frequently and with greater force.
As you might imagine, as the number of molecules increases in a gas,
collisions with the walls occur more frequently thus increasing the pressure
exerted by the gas. However, the pressure exerted by large molecules is the
same as the pressure exerted by a similar number of small molecules. Although
large molecules impart a greater force than small molecules in collisions with the
container, larger gas molecules move more slowly than small molecules at any
given temperature. Thus a collection of small molecules collides more frequently
but with less force than a similar collection of large molecules. As a result of this
balance between molecular velocity and force of collision, the pressure exerted

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by a gas only depends upon the number of molecules, not the masses of the
molecules (in other words, not on their molecular weights).
We can summarize the relationship between pressure exerted by a gas
and its volume, temperature and number of particles (in other words, the number
of moles) in several statements.
 The pressure of a gas increases as its volume decreases
 The pressure of a gas increases as its temperature increases
 The pressure of a gas increases with increasing numbers of particles
We shall refer to these statements in our discussion of the gas laws in the
following section. The microscopic description of gases described in this section
explains the macroscopic description of gases summarized by the empirical gas
laws.
P 10.1 The pressure exerted by a gas inside a balloon is the same as the
pressure exerted by the air outside a balloon so a balloon is a good example of a
gas under constant pressure. How would a balloon respond to heating? Give a
microscopic explanation for your answer.
P 10.2 How does a balloon respond to adding additional molecules to the
balloon? Give a microscopic explanation for your answer.

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P 10.3 Convert the following given quantities from the given units to the required
units.
a. 8.45 atm = ? mm Hg
_____ mm Hg
(8.45 atm) x ( )=
1 atm
b. 5.41 mm Hg = ? atm
____ atm
(5.41 mm Hg) x ( )=
_____ mm Hg
c. 471 torr = ? atm
______
(471 torr) x ( )=
_______
d. 471 torr = ? mm Hg
______
(______) x ( )=
_______
e. 471 torr = ? psi
1 atm 14.6 psi

(471 torr) x( )x( =
___ torr _______

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10.2 THE EMPIRICAL GAS LAWS—BOYLE’S, CHARLES’ AND GAY-LUSSAC’S LAWS
As the volume of a gas is decreased, the pressure it exerts on the walls of
the container increases. In other words, the pressure exerted by a gas is
inversely proportional to the volume it occupies. When we describe two
variables as being ‘inversely proportional’, we mean that one of these variables
becomes larger as the other becomes smaller. This inverse relationship between
pressure and volume is expressed mathematically as Boyle’s Law (Figure 10.5).
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
The P1 and V1 represent an initial pressure and volume for a gas. The
symbols, P2 and V2 represent the pressure and volume of the same gas after
either the initial pressure or volume is changed. We use Boyle’s Law to solve for
a new pressure or a new volume from a given initial pressure and volume and a
changed value for either the initial pressure or volume. For example, if we are
given a new pressure, P2, we solve for the new volume, V 2, by rearranging the
equation.
P1 xV1
= V2
P2
P1 xV1
V2 =
P2
The Boyle’s Law equation is rearranged by using the ‘Golden Rule’ of
algebra—you can do anything to an equation provided you do it to both sides of
the equation in exactly the same way. In this case, since we want to isolate V2,

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we divide both sides by P2. This leaves our equation expressing V2 in terms of
the three given quantities, V1, P1 and P2.
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 (original equation)
1 1
x (P1 x V1) = (P2 x V2) x (divide both sides by P2)
P2 P2
(cross cancel P2 on the left)
P1 xV1
= V2 (equation solving for V2)
P2
P1 xV1
V2 = (reverse sides for convenience)
P2
We can also rearrange Boyle’s Law equation to solve for P 2 from a given
V1, P1 and V2.
P1 xV1
P2 =
V2
Boyle’s Law problems always give you an initial volume and pressure (V1
and P1) and either a new pressure, P2, or a new volume, V2. You solve for the
fourth variable in the equation (either V2 or P2) after rearranging the original
Boyle’s Law equation.

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Figure 10.5 As the pressure is increased on a piston, the piston sinks, reducing the volume of
gas inside the cylinder. The greater pressure of gas exerted by the reduced volume of gas offers
an increased resistance to further downward movement of the piston. Boyle summarized his
observations by writing the first empirical gas law.
EX 10.2 A gas occupying 8.6 L exerts a pressure of 515 mm Hg. The volume of
gas is reduced to 7.3 L. What is the new pressure exerted by the gas?
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 (start with the Boyle’s Law equation)
P1 xV1
P2 = (rearrange to solve for P2)
V2
(515 mm Hg ) x (8.6 L)
P2 = = 610 mm Hg (replace the symbols with values)
7.3 L
(two significant figures in the answer based on the given values)
EX 10.3 A gas occupying 34.4 mL exerts a pressure of 1.05 atm. The pressure
is increased to 2.67 atm. What is the new volume of the gas?
P1 xV1
V2 = (rearrange to solve for V2)
P2
(1.05 atm) x (34.4 mL)

V2 = = 12.5 mL (replace the symbols with values)
2.67 atm
(three significant figures in the answer based on the given values)

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You might have noticed that Boyle’s Law problems do not mention either
the temperature of the gas or the number of moles of gas. This is because we
assume a constant temperature and quantity of gas in Boyle’s Law problems. As
you will see, empirical gas law problems are most easily solved when we
calculate the change in one variable as a function of a second variable, holding
other variables constant.
P 10.4 A 15.0 L compressible container of H2 gas is under a pressure of 675 mm
Hg. What is the volume does the H2 occupy if the pressure is reduced to 315
mm Hg?
(____)1 x (____)1
V2 = (rearrange to solve for V2)
P2
(____) x (____)
V2 = = ______L
(____)
P 10.5 What pressure is required to change 13.8 mL of air initially at a pressure
of 51.9 psi to a volume of 2.84 mL?
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
(____)1 x (____)1 (____)

P2 = = P2 x
V2 (____)
(___ mL)
P2 = (_____psi) x ( )
(____ mL)

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P 10.6 If a sample of gas occupies 4.98 L at 818 torr, what is the pressure
exerted by the same gas when it occupies a volume of 854 mL?
(___ mL)
P2 = (_____torr) x ( )
(____ mL)
As we have seen, our microscopic model of gases predicts an increase in
the frequency and force of collisions of molecules with the walls of the container
as a gas is heated. If the gas is not allowed to expand (in other words, constant
volume conditions), we observe an increase in pressure. On the other hand, a
gas maintained at a constant pressure expands when heated. An expanding
volume reduces the increased frequency of collisions of the more rapidly moving
molecules, keeping the pressure of the gas constant.
A balloon is a good example of a gas under constant pressure conditions.
If the flexible bladder containing a gas in a balloon is not expanding or
contracting, the forces exerted on the outside of the bladder from the atmosphere
are exactly balanced by the forces exerted on the inside of the bladder by the
gas in the balloon. In other words, the pressure is equal on the inside and the
outside of a balloon. Thus the behavior of a balloon demonstrates the volume—
temperature relationship of gases. As the temperature of a gas increases at a
constant pressure, its volume increases. This law is called ‘Charles’ Law’.
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
The Charles’ Law equation states that the ratio of the volume and
temperature of a gas remains constant—as the temperature increases, the

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volume increases proportionally in order that the ratio of the two values does not
change. This kind of relationship between variables is called a direct
proportionality (Figure 10.6).
Figure 12.6 A container containing gas at a constant pressure becomes smaller as it is chilled to
increasingly lower temperatures. Its volume appears to become zero at – 273 oC—not 0 oC. This
is because 0 oC is not an absolute lack of temperature whereas – 273 oC is a temperature of
absolute zero. There is no temperature less than – 273 oC.
When performing calculations with Charles’ Law or indeed any calculation
involving temperature, you must always express temperature in absolute units
called ‘Kelvin’ (K). Temperature is a measure of how fast molecules are moving.
Therefore there should be an ‘absolute zero’ for temperature—a temperature at
which molecules are completely motionless. You cannot have a temperature less
than 0 K because molecules, like everything else, cannot have a velocity less

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than zero. This temperature has been experimentally determined to be
–273.2 oC (Figure 10.6). Temperatures measured as oC are converted to the
equivalent Kelvin temperature measurement by adding 273.2.
K = oC + 273.2
o
C = K – 273.2
As with Boyle’s Law, we can manipulate the Charles’ Law equation to
solve for either V2 or T2, depending upon which variable is given. If we multiply
both sides of the Charles’ Law equation by T 2, we isolate V2 to give an equation
that calculates a new volume from a given V1, T1 and new temperature, T2.
V1 V2
= (original equation)
T1 T2
V1 V
T2 x ( ) = ( 2 ) x T2 (multiply both sides by T 2)
T1 T2
V1
( ) x T2 = V2 (eliminate T2 from right hand side of equation)
T1
V1
V2 = ( ) x T2 (reverse sides of equation)
T1
To solve for a new temperature, T 2, from a given new volume, V2, we first
invert both sides of the equation and then multiply both sides of the inverted
equation by V2, isolating T2.

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V1 V2
= (original equation)
T1 T2
T1 T2
= (invert both sides of the equation)
V1 V2
T1 T
( ) x V2 = ( 2 ) x V2 (multiply both sides by V2)
V1 V2
T1
( ) x V2 = T2 (eliminate V2 from right hand side of equation)
V1
T1
T2 = ( ) x V2 (reverse sides of equation)
V1
EX 10.4 Calculate the volume of a 4.5 L balloon initially at 35.0 0C after it is
heated to 70.0 oC.
V1 V2
= (start with Charles’ Law equation)
T1 T2
V1
V2 = ( ) x T2 (rearrange to solve for V2)
T1
T1 = 35.0 oC + 273.2 = 308.2 K
T2 = 70.0 oC + 273.2 = 343.2 K (convert oC to K)
4.5 L
V2 = ( ) x 343.2 K (replace symbols with given values)
308.2 K
V2 = 5.0 L

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EX 10.5 Calculate the temperature (in oC) required to make a 75.8 mL balloon
initially at 57.9 oC change its volume to 50.8 mL.
V1 V2
= (start with Charles’ Law equation)
T1 T2
T1
T2 = ( ) x V2 (rearrange to solve for T 2)
V1
T1 = 57.9 oC + 273.2 = 331.1 K (convert oC to K)
331.1 K
T2 = ( ) x 50.8 mL (replace symbols with given values)
75.8 mL
T2 = 222 K (three significant figures based on the given volumes)
T2 = 222 K – 273.2 = – 51 oC
P 10.7 What is the volume of a 10.2 L balloon initially at 25.0 oC after it is heated
to 100.0 oC?
T1 = 25.0 oC + ______ = _____K T2 = ______oC + ______ = ____K
V1 V2 V1 10.2 L
= so V2 = ( ) x T2 = ( ) x (_____) =
T1 T2 T1 _____ K

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P 10.8 To what temperature must a 5.00 L balloon initially at – 50.0 oC be
adjusted to change its volume to 7.50 L?
T1 = _____ + _____ = _____K
V1 V2 T1 V _____
= so T2 = ( ) x V2 = T1 x ( 2 ) = (___K) x ( ) = ___K
T1 T2 V1 V1 _____
T2 = _____K – 273.2 = ____oC
P 10.9 What is the final temperature of a 435 mL balloon initially at 57 oC when it
expands to a volume of 1.45 L?
T1 = _____ + _____ = _____K
V1 V2 _____ _____
= so T2 = ( ) x ___ = ( ) x ___K = ___K
T1 T2 _____ _____
T2 = _____K – 273.2 = ____oC
If we keep volume and the number of moles of a gas constant, we can
examine the relationship between pressure and temperature. A closed tank filled
with gas represents such an experimental situation. We expect the pressure in a
closed tank to increase when we heat it. Microscopically, we can imagine that
increasing the temperature of the gas molecules makes them collide more
frequently and with greater force against the walls of the tank, thus increasing the
pressure. Increasing pressures of gases in closed containers is an important

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property of gases with which most of us are familiar. For example, we do not
throw closed spray cans in a fire because the increasing pressure of any gas left
in the can might cause the can to explode.
The pressure-temperature relationship of a gas is called ‘Gay-Lussac’s
Law’ and is represented by an equation similar to the Charles’ Law equation.
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
As with Charles’ Law, the values used to express temperature in the Gay-Lussac
equation must be given as Kelvin. Pressure, on the other hand, can be given in
any consistent set of units. The Gay-Lussac equation can be rearranged in the
same way as the Charles’ equation to solve for either P 2 from a given T2 or T2
from a given P2.
P1
P2 = ( ) x T2
T1
T1 P
T2 = ( ) x P2 = T1 x ( 2 )
P1 P1

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EX 10.6 A 25.0 L tank is filled with helium to a pressure of 1.4 atm at a
temperature of 0.0 oC. What is the pressure when the temperature is decreased
to –75.0 oC?
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
P1
P2 = ( ) x T2
T1
T1 = 0.0 oC + 273.2 = 273.2 K
T2 = – 75.0 oC + 273.2 = 198.2 K
1.4 atm
P2 = ( ) x 198.2 K = 1.0 atm
273.2 K
EX 10.7 Calculate the temperature required to reduce the pressure from 515
mm Hg to 300.0 mm Hg in a 7.5 L tank originally at a temperature of 308 K.
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
T1
T2 = ( ) x P2
P1
308 K
T2 = ( ) x 300.0 mm Hg = 179 K
515 mm Hg
(Note that neither of these problems require the use of the given volume, because the
volume does not change)

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P 10.10 Algebraically manipulate the Gay-Lussac pressure-temperature
relationship to solve for T2.
P1 P2 ____ ____
= inverting gives =
T1 T2 ____ ____
____
T2 = ( ) x ____
____
P 10.11 Calculate the temperature (in oC) required to double the pressure in a
10 L tank of air initially at a temperature of 25 oC and a pressure of 2.4 atm.
P2 = ___ x P1 if P2 is double P1
T1 = 25 oC + _____ = _____K
____
T2 = ( ) x ____K = _____K
____
T2 = ____K – 273 = ____oC
P 10.12 Calculate the pressure in a 8 L tank of N2 gas initially at 0.0 oC and 12.8
psi after the temperature is increased to 75.0 oC.
T1 = ____ + _____ = ____K T2 = ____ + _____ = ____K
____
P2 = ( ) x (____) = _____ psi
____
We summarize the empirical gas laws with three equations. There are
four variables in each of these equations. We rearrange these equations to solve

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for one of the four variables because the other three variables have been given in
the problem.
Table 10.1
The three empirical gas laws
Boyle’ Law
P1 xV1 P
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 P2 = or V2 = ( 1 ) x V2
P2 P2
Charles’ Law
V1 V2 V1 V
= V2 = ( ) x T2 or T2 = ( 2 ) x T1
T1 T2 T1 V1
Gay-Lussac’s Law
P1 P2 P1 P
= P2 = ( ) x T2 or T2 = ( 2 ) x T1
T1 T2 T1 P1
The three empirical gas laws can be combined into one law, the combined
gas law. You can think of the combined gas law as a combination of Boyle’s Law
and Charles’ Law.

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P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 Boyle’s Law
V1 V2
= Charles’ Law
T1 T2
P1 xV1 P xV2
= 2 Combined Gas Law
T1 T2
The combined gas law is used when a gas is changed in two ways, for
example, in both its temperature and its pressure. We can solve for one variable
by rearranging the initial equation. For example, if we change the temperature
and pressure of a gas we calculate its new volume. On the other hand, if we
change the volume and temperature, we solve for a new pressure.
P1 xV1 P xV2
= 2 (combined gas law)
T1 T2
T2 P xV
V2 = ( ) x ( 1 1 ) (rearranged to solve for a new volume)
P2 T1
T2 P xV
P2 = ( ) x ( 1 1 ) (rearranged to solve for a new pressure)
V2 T1
T1
T2 = (P2 x V2) x ( ) (rearranged to solve for a new temperature)
P1 xV1

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EX 10.8 Calculate the volume of a 4.87 weather balloon initially at a pressure of
753 mm Hg and a temperature of 21.0 oC after it rises to a height at which the
pressure is 412 mm Hg and the temperature is – 23 oC.
P1 xV1 P x V2
T1 T2
T2 P xV
V2 = ( ) x ( 1 1 ) (rearranged to solve for a new volume)
P2 T1
250 K ) (753 mm Hg ) x (4.87 L)

V2 = ( )( ) (replace symbols)
412 mm Hg 294.2 K
(250 K ) x (753 mm Hg ) x (4.87 L)

V2 = ( )
(412 mm Hg ) x (294.2 K )
(optional rearrangement if you find this more convenient when using your calculator)
V2 = 7.56 L
You only need to remember the combined gas law to solve all empirical
gas law problems. In a problem in which only the pressure or volume varies, the
temperature cancels out of both sides of the combined gas law equation, leaving
Boyle’s Law. A similar strategy holds for Charles’ Law and Gay-Lussac Law
problems.

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P1 xV1 P x V2
T1 T2
P1 xV1 P2 xV2
 (Boyle’s Law—T constant) P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
T1 T2
P1 xV1 P2 xV2 V1 V2
 (Charles Law—P constant) 
T1 T2 T1 T2
P1 x V1 P2 xV2 P1 P2
 (Gay-Lussac Law—V constant) 
T1 T2 T1 T2
P 10.13 To what temperature (in oC) must a 5.0 L balloon at an initial
temperature of 23.5 oC and pressure of 884 mm Hg be adjusted if its new volume
is to be 1.54 L and its new pressure 0.956 atm?
V1 = ____ P1 = ____ T1 = _____
V2 = ____ P2 = ____ T2 = ?
P1 xV1 P x V2
= 2
T1 T2
P1 xV1 xT1
T2 =
P2 xV2
(____) x (____) x (____ K )

T2 = = ____K
(____) x (______)
T2 = ____K – ____ = _____oC

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P 10.14 What is the final pressure in a 10 L tank of Ne at a temperature of 44.9

o
C and a pressure of 4.62 atm after the temperature of the tank is changed to
155 oC?
V1 = ____ P1 = ____ T1 = _____
V2 = ____ P2 = ? T2 = _____
P1 xV1 P x V2
= 2
T1 T2
Since V1 = V2
P1
P2 = ( ) x T2
T1
(____ atm)
P2 = ( ) x ____ K = ___atm
_____ K
P 10.15 If a 23.7 L weather balloon is released at a temperature of – 23 oC and
755 mm Hg, what is its volume when it rises to a height such that the pressure is
255 mm Hg and the temperature is – 67 oC?
V1 = ____ P1 = ____ T1 = _____
V2 = ____ P2 = ? T2 = _____
P1 xV1 P x V2
= 2
T1 T2
P1 xV1 ____
V2 = (( )x( )
T1 ____
(____) x (____) ____

V2 = ( x( ) = ___L
(____) ____

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10.3 AVOGADRO’S LAW
Our microscopic view of gases also allows us to understand how a sample
of gas responds when more gas molecules are added to the sample. For
example, if more gas is added to a balloon at constant temperature we expect
the balloon to become larger. When additional molecules are added to a balloon
the number of collisions against the inside of the bladder increases. The
resultant increase in pressure causes the balloon to expand until the internal
pressure becomes equal with the external pressure. Thus the balloon’s volume
increases as additional molecules are added to the balloon.
Similarly, if more gas is added to a closed tank at a constant temperature
we expect the pressure in the tank to increase. The increased number of
collisions against the walls of the tank results in an increased pressure that
cannot be relieved by an expansion of the tank. Thus the pressure increases as
the number of molecules increases in a closed tank.
As we saw in our initial discussion of the microscopic structure of gases,
the number of collisions and the force of these collisions do not depend upon the
size of the gas molecules. Although larger molecules have a greater mass, they
are moving slower than smaller molecules. At any given temperature large
molecules with their larger mass exert the same force as smaller molecules
because the larger molecules are moving more slowly than the small molecules.
At any given temperature, therefore the force (and therefore the pressure)

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associated with molecular collisions depends upon the number of collisions and
therefore the number of molecules—not the mass (and therefore kind) of
molecule. This important principle is often called ‘Avogadro’s Law’.
In short, Avogadro’s Law states that the volume of a gas at a constant
pressure and temperature depends upon the number of molecules of gas,
usually expressed as the number of moles of gas. At a constant volume and
temperature, the pressure exerted by the gas depends upon the number of
moles of gas in the sample. We can express these statements algebraically
using equations similar to the Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s laws.
V1 V2

n1 n2
P1 P2

n1 n2
Like the Charles and Gay-Lussac relationships, Avogadro’s law is a direct
proportionality relationship. In other words, as the number of moles increases in
a sample of gas, so does its volume or pressure. As you will soon see, since
Avogadro’s Law refers to the number of moles, not the mass, of a gas, we can
use the empirical gas laws to solve problems for mixtures of gases as well as
pure gases. In other words, it never matters what kind of gas you have in a
sample when you predict the behavior of the gas. The total number of moles of
the different gases in a mixture is all that matters.

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EX 10.9 A 21.0 L balloon is filled with 0.95 mol of hydrogen gas to a pressure of
at 785 mm Hg. What is the volume of this balloon after an additional 0.15 mol of
H2 is added?
V1 V2

n1 n2
g
V2 = n2 x ( )
mol
n2 = 0.95 mol H2 + 0.15 mol H2 = 1.10 mol H2
21.0 L
V2 = (1.10 mol) x ( ) = 24 L
0.95 mol
EX 10.10 A 10.0 L tank at 2.56 atm contains 0.55 mol He. What is the pressure
in this tank after 0.21 mol Ne is added?
P1 P2

n1 n2
P1
P2 = n2 x ( )
n1
n2 = 0.55 mol He + 0.21 mol Ne = 0.76 mol gas
2.56 atm
P2 = (0.76 mol) x ( ) = 3.5 atm
0.55 mol
10.4 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
As we have seen, the volume or pressure of a gas depends upon the
number of moles, not the kind of gas. Therefore we can describe a mixture of

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gases in terms of a mole fraction, volume fraction or pressure fraction—all three
fractions are equal to one another. Volume fractions and pressure fractions are
called ‘partial volumes’ and ‘partial pressures’. For example, a mixture of helium
and argon that is 25% by moles helium is also 25% by volume helium and 25%
by pressure helium. Note that this mixture is not 25% by mass helium.
Chemists generally prefer to describe mixtures of gases in terms of partial
pressures rather than partial volumes. Most samples of gases are mixed
together in a closed container and therefore the components of the mixture
occupy the same volume—that of the container. The contribution one
component gas makes to the overall pressure exerted by the mixture of gases is
the partial pressure of that component. The sum of individual partial pressures
equals the total pressure exerted by the mixture. Furthermore, the partial
pressure of each gas is equal to its mole fraction times the total pressure (Figure
10.7). These two statements summarize Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures. We
summarize these two statements in two equations. For a mixture of three
different gases, A, B, and C our equations are as follows.
PT = PA + PB + PC
(The total pressure, PT, exerted by a mixture equals the sum of the individual partial
pressures, PA, PB, and PC)
na n
PA = XA x PT where XA = = a
na  nb  nc nT
(The partial pressure of gas A equals the mole fraction of A, XA, times the total pressure,
PT)

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Figure 10.7 The total pressure inside a container of a mixture of gases equals the sum of
pressures exerted by the individual gases of the mixture. The partial pressure of one gas
depends upon the mole contribution to the mixture made by that gas, in other words, its mole
fraction.
EX 10.11 What are the mole fractions, XHe, XAr and XCO2, of a mixture of
1.67 mol He, 1.00 mol Ar and 2.40 mol CO2 in a 10 L tank at 25.0 oC?
nT = 1.67 mol He + 1.00 mol Ar + 2.40 mol CO2 = 5.07 mol gases
1.67 mol He
XHe = = 0.329
5.07 mol gases
1.00 mol Ar
XAr = = 0.197
5.07 mol gases
XCO2 = 1.000 – 0.329 – 0.197 = 0.474
2.40 mol CO2

(or XCO2 = = 0.473
5.07 mol gases

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EX 10.12 What are the partial pressures of Ne and Kr in a mixture of 0.0452
mole Ne and 0.129 mole Kr at a total pressure of 615 torr?
nT = 0.0452 mole Ne + 0.129 mole Kr = 0.174 mole gases
0.0452 mol Ne
PNe = XNe x PT = ( ) x 615 torr = 160 torr Ne
0.174 mol gases
PKr = 615 torr – 160 torr = 455 torr Kr
(Note that PNe is a three significant figure answer and the subtraction of 160 torr from 615
torr must have an answer to the nearest one’s.)
Notice that the volume or temperature of a mixture of gases does not
enter into a calculation of partial pressures from a given total pressure and mole
fraction composition of the mixture. As you have seen in previous chapters, you
must pay close attention to the units in which the quantities of gases are
expressed. A description of a mixture expressed in terms of masses of gases
must be converted to a description expressed in terms of moles of gases before
solving partial pressure problems. In the two following examples, gas mixtures
are described as either a mixture of several different masses of gases (EX 10.13)
or a mixture described as a mass percent composition (EX 10.14). In both cases
these mass descriptions are converted to mole fractions before solving for partial
pressures.

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EX 10.13 A mixture of 5.00 g of H2 and 5.00 g O2 is placed in a 75 L container at
a total pressure of 2.56 atm. What are the partial pressures of H 2 and O2 in the
tank?
___ mol Kr 1 mol H 2

(5.00 g H2) x ( ) = 2.48 mole H2
____ mol ___  ____ mol ____ 2.02 g H 2
1 mol O2
(5.00 g O2) x ( ) = 0.156 mole O2
32.0 g O2
nT = 2.48 mole H2 + 0.156 mole O2 = 2.64 mole gases
2.48 mol H 2
XH2 = = 0.939
2.64 mol gases
PH2 = 0.939 x 2.56 atm = 2.40 atm H2
PO2 = 2.56 atm – 2.40 atm = 0.16 atm O2
0.156 mol O2
(or PO2 = ( ) x 2.56 atm = 0.15 atm O2
2.64 mol gases
EX 10.14 What is the partial pressure of Ar in a 25 % by mass Ar/ Ne mixture at
a total pressure of 815 mm Hg?
A hypothetical mixture of Ar/He weighing 100 g contains 25 g Ar and 75 Ne. Calculate the
mole ratio of Ar in this hypothetical mixture in order to calculate the partial pressure of Ar
in a mixture exerting a total pressure of 815 mm Hg.
1 mol Ar
(25 g Ar) x ( ) = 0.63 mole Ar
40.0 g Ar
1 mol Ne
(75 g Ne) x ( ) = 3.7 mole Ne
20.2 g Ne
0.63 mol Ar
PAr = ( ) x 815 mm Hg = 120 mm Ar
4.3 mol gases

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P 10.16 Calculate the total pressure of a mixture of 1.15 atm H 2, 845 torr He,
and 21.8 psi O2 in a 45.0 L tank.
You must select a consistent set of units for pressure.
PH2 = ______ PHe = ______ and PO2 = _____
PT = ____ + _____ + _____
P 10.17 Calculate the partial pressure of Ar in a mixture of 1.93 mole Ar and
0.56 mole Kr in a tank at a total pressure of 1.84 atm and a temperature of
67.0oC.
____ mol ____

XAr = = _____
____ mol___  ____ mol ____
PAr = (____) x (____) = ____ atm
P 10.18 Calculate the mole fraction and the volume fraction of CO 2 in a mixture
of CO2 and O2 if the partial pressure of CO2 is 450 mm Hg and the total pressure
exerted by the mixture is 955 mm Hg.
PCO2 = XCO2 x PT
PCO2 = ______mm Hg and PT = ____ mmHg
______
XCO2 = = _____
________
What is the relationship of between the mole fraction, volume fraction and
pressure fraction in a mixture of gases?

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P 10.19 Calculate the partial pressure of Kr in a mixture of 5.00 g He and 5.00 g
Kr present in a 10 L tank at a total pressure of 4.98 atm.
___ mol He
(_____ g He) x( ) = _____mole He
____ g ____
___ mol Kr
(_____ g Kr) x ( ) = _____mole Kr
____ g ____
___ mol Kr
XKr = = ______
____ mol ___  ____ mol ____
PKr = (______) x (______) = _____atm
10.5 GAS LAWS AND RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
The gas laws interest physicians and physiologists because of their
importance in respiratory physiology. The acts of inhalation and exhalation are
described in terms of Boyle’s Law of pressure and volume. The mixtures of
gases entering and leaving the lungs are described in terms of partial pressures
of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Anesthesiologists describe the mixtures of
gaseous anesthesia in terms of partial pressures. The gas laws also play an
important role in understanding deep-sea diving physiology.
Lungs are elastic balloon-like structures contained within the thoracic
cavity. Lung tissue consists of a complex network of alveoli—small air-filled sacs
capable of transferring oxygen to the blood while allowing carbon dioxide to leave

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the blood. During inhalation, the lungs expand because the diaphragm and the
muscles of the rib cage pull the ribs down and outwards, making the thoracic
cavity larger. The increased volume of the lungs causes a decrease in air
pressure within the lungs according to Boyle’s Law. The decreased air pressure
in the expanded lungs allows air at a higher pressure outside of the body to pass
into the bronchi and thus the alveoli within the lungs (Figure 10.8).
Figure 10.8 An expanding thoracic cavity causes the lungs to expand, reducing the pressure
within the lungs according to Boyle’s Law. The reduced pressure within the lungs causes air at a
higher pressure outside of the lungs to flow through the bronchi. Expiration is caused by a
compression of the thoracic cavity, increasing the internal pressure within the lungs and thereby
forcing air out of the lungs.
Once the air is inside the lungs, oxygen is absorbed through the cell
membranes of the alveoli, enabling the oxygen to bind to hemoglobin present in
the red blood cells. As oxygen is passing through the alveoli to the red blood
cells, carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the air space within the alveoli
(Figure 10.9). Thus oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide as air flows into the
alveoli due to an increased volume of the lungs during thoracic expansion.

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Figure 10.9 Gaseous exchange occurs within the alveoli, small air-filled sacs within the lung
tissue connected to the outside by small tubes called bronchioles. Oxygen passes from inspired
air to the blood, reducing the partial pressure of oxygen in expired air. Simultaneously, carbon
dioxide passes from the blood to the gases within the alveoli, increasing the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide in expired air.
Once gaseous exchange has occurred within the alveoli, the volume of the
lungs is decreased by thoracic compression. The reduced volume of the lungs
causes an increase in pressure within the lungs according to Boyle’s Law, forcing
air out of the lungs. The lungs only change volume by a small percent and so the
quantity of air exchanged during one respiratory cycle of inhalation and
exhalation is relatively small. The quantity of air exchanged is sufficient to
provide the body with oxygen while clearing the carbon dioxide produced by the
oxidation of sugars, amino acids, and fats.
Respiratory physiologists express the quantity of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air as partial pressures of these gases. As you

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expect, the partial pressure of oxygen is higher in inspired air and lower in
expired air. Conversely, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is greater in
expired than inspired air (Table 10.2).
Table 10.2
Composition of expired and inspired air (as mm Hg)
Gas Inspired Expired
Oxygen 160.0 116
Carbon dioxide 0.3 28
Water vapor 5.7 47
10.6 THE IDEAL GAS LAW AND THE MOLAR VOLUME OF A GAS AT STP
The ideal gas equation describes how the four parameters describing a
gas—pressure, volume, temperature and number of moles—are related to one
another. This equation describes the relationship between these parameters
under ‘ideal’ conditions—conditions in which there are no interactions among the
molecules of the gas. Molecules of a gas that are moving rapidly and are
separated by great distances are much less likely to interact among themselves
than molecules that are close together and moving slowly. Thus gases of low
density and relatively high temperature behave as ideal gases. All the gases
described in this text are ideal gases.

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We use the ideal gas equation to solve for one of the four parameters
describing a gas when the other three have been given. We use the equation
primarily to either determine the number of moles contained in a given volume of
gas (at a defined temperature and pressure) or to calculate the volume occupied
by a given number of moles of a gas at a given temperature and pressure.
The ideal gas equation looks similar to the combined gas law because it,
like the combined gas law, describes the same kind of relationship between
pressure, volume and temperature. The ideal gas law also includes the
relationship describing Avogadro’s Law—namely that the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to the number of moles of gas.
P1 xV1 P2 xV2
 (combined gas law)
T1 T2
V1 V2
 (Avogadro’s Law)
n1 n2
P1 xV1 P2 xV2
 =R (Combined and Avogadro’s Law)
n1 xT1 n2 xT2
P xV
=R (Ideal Gas Law)
n xT
The R in the ideal gas equation represents a constant called ‘The
Universal Gas Constant’. As its name implies, R is the same value for any gas
under any ideal conditions. Usually, R is given in the units of atmospheres for

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pressure and the units of liters for volume. Temperature, as with the empirical
gas laws, must be given in the units of Kelvin.
R = 0.0821 L atm / mole K
The ideal gas law is generally rearranged from the equation given above
to the following form.
PxV=nxRxT
The ideal gas equation can be rearranged to solve for any of the four variables
but for our purposes is usually rearranged to solve for n or V.
P xV
n=
R xT
n x R xT
V=
P
Since R is given in a specific set of units, a given V must be converted to liters
and a given P must be converted to atm.
The ideal gas equation is most commonly used to convert between the
volume of a gas and the equivalent number of moles of a gas. You have seen in
previous chapters that molar mass converts between the mass of a pure
compound or element and its equivalent number of moles. Similarly, molarity
converts between the volume of a solution and the equivalent number of moles of
solute. In all stoichiometry problems we must convert between a laboratory-
measured quantity and the equivalent number of moles of that substance. Thus
molar mass is our required conversion factor for mass and molarity for the
volume of a solution. The ideal gas equation serves the same purpose for a
laboratory-measured volume of a gas. Unlike molar mass and molarity, however,

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you must specify temperature and pressure if you are to convert the volume of a
gas to an equivalent number of moles of gas.
We often collect gases at a ‘standard’ temperature and pressure of 0.0 oC
and 1.00 atm. These ‘standard’ conditions are called STP conditions. We can
calculate the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at STP conditions by
rearranging the ideal gas equation to solve for the ratio, V / n (volume per mole).
PxV=nxRxT (ideal gas equation)
P xV
=RxT (divide both sides by n)
n
V R xT
= (divide both sides by P)
n P
L atm
(0.0821 )(273.2 K )
V mol K
=
1 mol 1.00 atm
V 22.4 L
=
1 mol mol
(replace symbols with values and calculate molar volume)
We now have a molar volume conversion factor that converts between the
volume of any gas and an equivalent number of moles of the gas at the standard
temperature and pressure conditions of 0.0 oC and 1.00 atm. Note that this
conversion factor only applies to gases at standard conditions. Using this
conversion factor saves time in stoichiometry problems when gases appear at
STP conditions.
22.4 L
(given moles gas) x ( ) = calculated L gas
mol gas

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1 mol gas
(given L gas) x ( ) = calculated moles gas
22.4 L
We often collect gases in the laboratory by the water displacement
method (Figure 10.10). Because the gas displaces water from the collecting
vessel as it is generated, we avoid contaminating the gas with air. The pressure
of gas in the collecting vessel is equal to the barometric pressure and the
temperature of the gas is the same as the temperature of the water in the
collecting vessel and pan. If we collect the gas at STP conditions, we can use
the molar volume of a gas at STP (22.5 L / mole) as a conversion factor in a
stoichiometric calculation (EX 10.17).
Figure 10.10 The gas produced in the reaction tube passes through a gas delivery tube to the
bottom of a collecting vessel filled with water. The gas displaces water in the collecting vessel
and the displaced water accumulates in the pan.

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EX 10.15 Convert 856 mL of Ar at STP to (a) the equivalent number of moles of
Ar and (b) equivalent mass of Ar.
1L 22.4 L Ar
a. (856 mL Ar) x ( )x( ) = 3.82 x 10-2 mole Ar
1000 mL mol Ar
40.0 g Ar
b. (3.82 x 10-2 mole Ar) x ( ) = 1.53 Ar
1 mol Ar
EX 10.16 Convert 4.62 g CO to the equivalent volume of CO at STP conditions.
1 mol CO 22.4 L CO
(4.62 g CO) x ( )x( ) = 3.70 L CO
28.0 g CO 1 mol CO
EX 10.17 Calculate the volume of oxygen collected at STP when 2.45 g HgO is
decomposed to Hg and O2.
2 HgO (s)  2 Hg (l) + O2 (g)
1 mol HgO 1 mol O2 22.4 L O2

(2.45 g HgO) x ( )x( ) x( ) = 0.126 L O2 =
217 g HgO 2 mol HgO 1 mol O2
126 mL O2
(Note that you must start with a balanced equation before solving this stoichiometry
problem. Also note that the volume of the gas collected is at STP conditions.)

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You can also use the molar conversion factor at STP to calculate the
density of a gas from its molar mass, MM. Since 1 mole of any gas occupies
22.4 L at STP and the mass of 1 mole of any gas is the molar mass, MM, of the
gas.
1 mole gas = 22.4 L gas = molar mass gas
molar mass gas

D= (STP conditions only)
22.4 L
EX 10.18 Calculate the density of N2 at STP.
molar mass gas 28.0 g N 2

D= = = 1.27 g / L
22.4 L 22.4 L
EX 10.19 Calculate the molar mass of a gas whose density is 1.96 g/L at STP.
22.4 L
(1.97 g / L) x ( ) = 44.1 g / mole
1 mol
(Note that the units L cancel, leaving g / mole—the units of molar mass)
The molar volume at STP is a useful shortcut for calculations involving gases
at STP conditions. Calculations for any other pressure/temperature conditions
require the separate use of the ideal gas equation.

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P 10.20 Calculate the density of Kr at STP conditions.
______
D= = _____ g / L
22.4 L
P 10.21 Calculate the molar mass of a gas that has a density of 0.90 g/L at STP
conditions. If you were told that this gas were one of the inert gases, which one
is it?
0.90 g 22.4 L g
( )x( ) = ____
L mol mol
Use periodic table to find gas with this molar mass
P 10.22 Calculate the volume of gas you expect to collect at STP upon the
decomposition of 3.75 g KClO3.
2 KClO3 (s)  2 KCl (s) + 3 O2 (g)
1 mol KClO3 ___ mol O2 22.4 L O2

(3.75 g KClO3) x ( )x( )x( )=
_____ g KClO3 ____ mol KClO3 ____ mol O2
_____ L O2

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10.7 THE SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN LIQUIDS—HENRY’S LAW
We saw in Chapter 8 that we cannot predict the degree of solubility of a
solid in a liquid. We can often predict whether or not a substance might dissolve
in a particular solvent but cannot calculate the quantity of substance that
dissolves in the liquid. Solubility curves such as the one presented in Figure 8.1
are determined by experimentation-not calculation. In other words, they are
determined empirically.
We saw that the solubility of a substance depended upon the temperature
of the solution—generally hot solutions can be made more concentrated than
cold solutions. No mention was made of an effect of pressure because the
solubility of a solid in a liquid is not dependent upon the pressure. Gases, on the
other hand, are always less soluble in hot solutions than cold solutions and the
solubility of gases depends upon the partial pressure of the gas over the solution.
Furthermore, there is a direct relationship between the partial pressure of a gas
over a liquid and its solubility in the liquid. This relationship is expressed
algebraically as Henry’s Law.
Henry’s Law describes the solubility, S1 and S2, of a gas at two different
partial pressures, P1 and P2. As with all direct relationships, the ratio of solubility
to pressure must remain constant at any given temperature. If we are given
three of the four variables appearing in Henry’s Law we can calculate the fourth.
S1 S 2

P1 P2

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molar mass S1 x P2 P
S2 = and P2 = ( 1 ) x S2
22.4 L P1 S1
EX 10.20 Calculate the solubility of O2 at 935 torr given that the solubility of
oxygen is 8.75 mg / L at 151 torr.
S1 x P2
S2 = (Henry’s Law rearranged to solve for S2)
P1
mg
(8.75 ) x (935 torr)
S2 = L = 54.2 mg/L
151 torr
(Note that the units of the calculated solubility are the same as those of the given
solubility. The given units of solubility can be any units of solubility.)
EX 10.21 Calculate the partial pressure of oxygen at which the solubility of
oxygen is 6.0 x 10-4 M given that the solubility of oxygen is 3.0 x 10 -4 M at 0.245
atm.
P1
P2 = ( ) x S2 (Henry’s Law rearranged to solve for P2)
S1
(0.245 atm)
P2 = ( 4
) x (6.0 x 10-4 M) = 0.490 atm
3.0 x 10 M
(In this example, the solubility at the P2 is twice that of the solubility at P1 and so the P2
must be twice that of P1. Also note that units for S and P are optional provided they are
consistent.)

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Microscopically, we can understand an increase in gas solubility with
increasing partial pressure. Gas molecules, whether in the gaseous phase or
dissolved in a liquid are moving rapidly. If there are larger numbers of a
particular kind of gas molecule present in the gas over the surface of a liquid, we
expect more frequent collisions of these molecules with the surface of the liquid.
More frequent collisions offer an increased opportunity for the gas to dissolve in
the liquid, thus increasing its solubility (Figure 10.11).
Figure 10.11 As the number of gas molecules increases over the surface of a liquid, the number
of collisions of gas molecules with the surface of the liquid increases. An increased frequency of
collision offers more opportunity for the gas molecules to dissolve, increasing the solubility of the
gas in the liquid.
We can also explain microscopically why gases are less soluble in hot
liquids than cold liquids. In a hot liquid, dissolved gas molecules are moving

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more rapidly, giving them a greater opportunity to escape the liquid and enter the
gaseous phase.
P 10.23 The solubility of Ar in benzene is 1.25 x 10-5 M at 555 torr. Calculate
the partial pressure required to triple the solubility of Ar.
If we triple the solubility we must ______ the partial pressure. Thus the
partial pressure required is _______ torr Ar.
P 10.24 Calculate the solubility of nitrogen at 4.00 atm if the solubility of nitrogen
is 6.2 x 10-4 M at 615 torr.
Convert the two given pressures to consistent units.
_______
(615 torr) x ( ) = _____ atm = P1 and P2 = 4.00 atm
________
(As with many of these problems, you can also convert both P’s to torr—you only
need the units to be consistent.)
S1 S 2 S1 x P2
 so S2 =
P1 P2 P1
(_____) x (____)
S2 = = _______M
________

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CHAPTER SUMMARY
There are several important equations to remember from this chapter.
These equations and the kinds of problems in which they are used are
summarized in Table 10.3. As you have seen throughout your study of
chemistry, you must take care with the units you use to describe various
measured quantities. Whenever you use any of the equations in Table 10.3, you
must express the temperature as Kelvin—never oC. While you can use any units
of volume and pressure in the combined gas law, you must take care to keep the
units consistent.
We used the ideal gas equation to calculate the volume of gas occupied
by one mole of a gas at STP conditions (0.0 oC and 1.00 atm). The molar
volume of a gas at STP (22.4 L per mole) is a useful conversion factor in
stoichiometry problems involving gases appearing at STP conditions.
The molar volume of a gas can also be used to calculate the density of a
gas at STP conditions directly from its molar mass, MM.
molar mass
DSTP =
22.4 L
Stoichiometry problems involving gases, like all stoichiometry problems,
require conversion ratios to convert between measured quantities and moles.
The conversion ratios used in stoichiometry are summarized in Table 10.4.

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Table 10.3
Gas Law equations discussed in this chapter.
Name Equation
P1 xV1 P x V2
Combined gas law = 2
T1 T2
Ideal gas law PV = nRT
MM
Density of gas at STP D=
22.4 L
Partial Pressure PA = XAPT and P T = PA + P B

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Table 10.4
Conversion factors used in stoichiometry problems
MOLAR MASS
Gases Mass and mole
Liquids Mass and mole
Solids Mass and mole
MOLARITY
Solutions Volume of solution and mole
MOLAR VOLUME AT STP
Gases Volume (in Liters) and mole

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End of Chapter Problems
Empirical gas laws describe relationship between two variables—P, T or V
1. Use Boyle’s Law to answer the following questions.
a. What is the final volume of a 5.0 L sample of gas initially at 2.35 atm
after the pressure is increased to 5.75 atm?
b. What is the final volume of a 8.0 mL sample of hydrogen at 85 oC and
555 torr after the pressure is changed to 155 torr?
c. What pressure is required to cause a 75.4 mL sample of oxygen initially
at 814 mm Hg to increase its volume to 1.54 L?
d. What is the final volume of a 3.13 L sample of nitrogen at 90 oC and
8.45 atm after its pressure is increased to 17.93 atm?
e. What change in pressure is required to triple the volume of a sample of
any gas?

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2. Use Charles’ Law to answer the following questions.
a. What is the final temperature of a 8.5 mL sample of gas initially at
–55 oC after is volume doubles to 17.0 mL?
b. What is the volume of a 8.00 L balloon at 1.00 atm and 25.0 oC after its
temperature is increased to 220.0 oC?
c. What is the volume of a 8.00 L balloon at 400 mmHg and 25.0 oC after
its temperature is increased to 220.0 oC?
d. What temperature (as oC) is required to reduce the volume of a 75 mL
balloon at 35 oC to 50 mL?
e. What change in temperature is required to reduce the volume of any
balloon by half?
3. Use the Gay-Lussac Law to answer the following questions.
a. What temperature change is required to double the pressure in a 15 L
tank?
b. What is the final pressure in a 50 L tank of hydrogen initially at 75.6 psi
and 35.0 oC after the temperature has been increased to 70.0 oC?

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c. What is the final temperature (in oC) of a 45 L tank at 777 torr and
12.5 oC if the pressure decreases to 315 torr?
d. What is the final pressure of any gas initially at 653 K and 65 torr after
the temperature has increased to 855 K?
e. What is the temperature of any gas initially at 354 K and 85 psi after
the pressure has increased to 155 psi?
4. Use the empirical gas laws to answer the following questions/
a. What is the volume of a 75 L sample of gas at 815 torr if its pressure is
changed to 0.548 atm?
b. What is the final temperature (as oC) of a 7.5 L balloon at 14.6 oC after
its volume is changed to 814 mL?
c. What is the final pressure in a 5.9 L tank of hydrogen at 100.0 oC and
0.115 psi after its temperature is changed to 50.0 oC?
d. If the volume of a 9.15 L tank of gas at 515 torr is changed to 915 mL,
what is the final pressure exerted by the gas?
e. If the pressure of 5.13 L of gas is changed from 8.5 psi to 85 torr, what
is the final volume of the gas?

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Combined gas law predicts changes caused by change of two variables
5. Calculate changes in volume caused by the following temperature, pressure
changes.
a. A 5.00 L balloon initially at 85 oC and 1.25 atm changes to 150 oC and
2.00 atm.
b. A 5.00 mL balloon initially at 150 oC and 2.00 atm changes to 85 oC
and 1.25 atm.
c. A 75 mL balloon initially at 50.0 oC and 500.0 torr has its temperature
increased to 100.0 oC and its pressure increased to 1000.0 torr.
d. A 75 mL balloon initially at 50.0 oC and 500.0 torr has its temperature
increased to 100.0 oC and its pressure reduced to 250.0 torr.
e. A 135 mL balloon initially at 25.0 oC and 54 psi has its temperature
changed to 155 K and its pressure changed to 815 torr.
6. Calculate the pressure changes caused by the following changes.
a. A 8.00 L sample of gas at 715 torr and 35.0 oC has its volume changed
to 175 mL and its temperature changed to 70.0 oC.

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b. A 915 mL sample of gas at 12.5 psi and 355 K has its volume changed
to 715 mL without allowing a change in temperature.
c. A 8.05 mL sample of gas at 765 torr and 55.3 oC has its volume
changed to 1.75 mL and its temperature changed to –75.9 oC.
d. A 12.9 L sample of gas at 9.45 psi and 115.9 oC has its temperature
changed to 555.9 oC
e. A 2.86 quart sample of oxygen at 98.9 psi and 25.4 oC has its
temperature changed to 115.9 oC and its volume changed to 3.16 quarts.
7. Calculate the temperature (as oC) required to cause the following changes.
a. Change the volume of 56.9 mL of argon at 112.9 oC and 451 torr to a
volume of 50.8 mL at 718 torr.
b. Change the volume of 115 L of oxygen at –65.9 oC and 1.54 atm to a
volume of 86.0 L at 888 torr.
c. Change the volume of 1.32 m3 of gas at 9.3 oC and 6.53 psi to a
volume of 0.86 m3 and 1.54 atm.
d. Change the volume of 75 mL of gas at 110 oC and 23 psi to 1.54 L at
23 psi.
e. Double the volume of a gas while halving its pressure.

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8. Use the combined gas law to solve the following problems.
a. Calculate the volume of a 8.45 L balloon at 746 torr and 21.7 oC after it
reaches an altitude where the temperature is –66 oC and the pressure is
212 torr.
b. Calculate the temperature required to change the pressure in a 55 L
tank of gas at 25 oC from 666 torr to 111 torr.
c. Calculate the pressure in a 6.94 balloon at 37.5 oC and 1.00 atm after
the temperature increases to 115.4 oC and the volume changes to
8132 mL.
d. Calculate the temperature required to change a 8.45 L balloon at
115 oC and 716 torr to a 10.8 L balloon at 315 torr.
e. Calculate the pressure change required to cause the volume of a
balloon to double while the absolute temperature is reduced to 1/3 of its
original value.

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Avogadro’s Law—Volumes of gases depend upon the number of
moles of gas
9. Use Avogadro’s Law to solve the following problems.
a. What is the volume of a 55 L balloon containing 1.34 moles nitrogen
after adding an additional 1.00 mole of nitrogen?
b. What is the volume of a 12.9 mL balloon containing 1.54 x 10 -2 moles
oxygen after adding 2.83 x 10-2 moles nitrogen?
c. What is the volume of a 75 mL balloon containing 5.4 x 10 -3 moles
oxygen after adding 64 mg of additional oxygen?
d. If 5.9 moles of nitrogen occupy 66 L at a given temperature and
pressure, how many moles of oxygen are in a 132 L balloon at the same
temperature and pressure?
e. What is the effect on the volume of a gas by reducing the number of
moles by ¼ without changing the temperature or pressure?
10. Use Avogadro’s Law to answer the following questions.
a. What is the change in volume of a 55 L balloon containing 4.00 g of
nitrogen upon the addition of 8.00 g nitrogen?

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b. What is the change in volume of a 55 L balloon containing 4.00 g of
nitrogen upon the addition of 8.00 g helium?
c. What is the change in volume of a 6.32 mL balloon containing 12.9 mg
of hydrogen upon the addition of 50.0 mg of hydrogen?
d. What is the change in volume of a 6.32 mL balloon containing 12.9 mg
of hydrogen upon the addition of 50.0 mg of oxygen?
Dalton’ Law of Partial Pressure—PA = XA x PT
11. Calculate the mole fraction of Ar in each of the following mixtures.
a. 1.45 mole Ar mixed with 5.94 mole Kr
b. 5.92 x 10-2 mole Ar mixed with 9.45 x 10-2 mole He and
2.4 x 10-1 mole nitrogen.
c. 2.00 g Ar with 2.00 g He
d. 2.00 g Ar with 2.00 g Kr
e. 5.05 mg Ar with 1.00 mg He and 4.24 mg Kr.
12. Calculate the partial pressure of Ar in each of the following mixtures. The
total pressure exerted by each of these mixtures is 675 torr.
a. 1.00 x 10-2 mole Ar and 1.00 x 10-2 mole Kr

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b. 1.00 x 10-2 mole Ar and 1.00 x 10-2 mole He
c. 1.00 x 10-2 g Ar and 1.00 x 10-2 g Kr
d. 1.00 x 10-2 g Ar and 1.00 x 10-2 g He
e. 0.056 mole Ar with 0.119 mole Kr and 0.084 mole nitrogen
13. Calculate the mole fraction of Kr in each of the following mixtures.
a. A mixture of Kr and He exerting a total pressure of 1.75 atm in which
the partial pressure of Kr is 1.00 atm.
b. A mixture of Kr and He exerting a total pressure of 16.0 psi in which the
partial pressure of He is 3.45 psi.
c. A mixture of Kr, He and oxygen exerting a total pressure of 693 torr in
which the partial pressure of Kr is 0.125 atm
d. A mixture of Kr, nitrogen and oxygen exerting a total pressure of 955
torr in which the partial pressure of nitrogen is 231 torr and the partial
pressure of oxygen is 412 torr.
e. A mixture of Kr, He and Ar exerting a total pressure of 5.55 atm in
which the partial pressure of all three gases are equal.

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The density of gas is proportional to the molar mass, MM, of a gas.
14. Calculate the density of the following gases at STP to three significant
figures.
a. He b. Ne c. Ar d. Kr e. Xe
15. Calculate the density of the following gases at STP to two significant figures.
a. nitrogen b. oxygen c. carbon dixoxide d. hydrogen e. CH4
16. Calculate the molar mass of the following gases from the given density at
STP.
a. 7.13 g/L b. 1.16 g/L c. 4.29 g/L d. 3.58 g/L e. 1.34 g/L

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The molar volume at STP and stoichiometric calculations.
17. Calculate the number of moles of gas occupied by the given volumes at
STP.
a. 84.6 L H2 b. 84.6 L Kr c. 934 mL O2 d. 934 mL N2 e. 2.00 L of a 50% by
mass mixture of He and Kr
18. Calculate the volume occupied by the given quantity of gas at STP.
a. 2.0 mole H2 b. 2.0 g H2 c. 2.0 mole Kr d. 2.0 g Kr
e. 1.75 x 10-3 mole Ar
19. Calculate the volume occupied by the given gas mixtures at STP.
a. 1.00 mole H2 and 5.00 mole O2 b. 1.00 g H2 and 5.00 g O2
c. 3.21 x 10-2 mole He, 8.43 x 10-2 mole CO2 and 6.4 x 10-2 mole CH4
d. 8.43 x 102 mole CO2 and 9.3 x 103 mole He
e. 1.00 mole Xe + 155 g Kr

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20. Calculate the volume of gas collected at STP upon the decomposition of
3.67 g KClO3.
2 KClO3 (s)  2 KCl (s) + 3 O2 (g)
21. (a) Calculate the volume of oxygen at STP required to combust 12.5 g
glucose, C6H12O6. (b) Calculate the volume of CO2 at STP produced upon the
combustion of 12.5 g glucose. (c) Calculate the total volume of CO 2 and H2O
vapor produced at STP upon the combustion of 12.5 g glucose.
C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g)  6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (g)
22. Calculate the volume of hydrogen at STP required to convert 2.84 g
propene, C3H6, to propane, C3H8.
C3H6 (g) + H2 (g)  C3H8 (g)
23. Calculate the volume of hydrogen at STP required to convert 3.85 g
propyne, C3H4, to propane, C3H8.
C3H4 (g) + 2 H2 (g)  C3H8 (g)

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24. (a) Calculate the volume of hydrogen at STP required to convert 12.9 L
propyne, C3H4, at STP to propane, C3H8. (b) Calculate the total volume of C3H8
produced in the reaction described in (a). (c) Do the temperature and pressure
conditions affect the calculations in (a) and (b)?
C3H4 (g) + 2 H2 (g)  C3H8 (g)

Chapter R10

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THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES

10.1 A microscopic interpretation of the behavior of gases

10.2 The empirical gas laws—Boyle’s, Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Laws

10.3 Avogadro’s Law

10.4 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

10.5 Gas laws and respiratory physiology

10.7 Gas law stoichiometry and the ideal gas equation

10.8 The solubility of gases in liquids—Henry’s Law

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-1

Our present understanding of the microscopic structure of matter has its

to temperature, pressure and volume changes. These studies have enabled

atoms and molecules.

Understanding gases has also proven extremely valuable in many aspects

combustion engine depended upon discoveries of the effects of temperature and

pressure on the behavior of gases. The energy of expanding gases makes

energy of burning fuel to the mechanical energy of an expanding gas.

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-2

exhaled. We shall use respiration as an example of the pressure-volume

10.1 A MICROSCOPIC INTERPRETATION OF THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES

A microscopic description of gases best explains how and why gases

respond to changes in temperature, pressure and volume. In other words, the

microscopic behavior of invisible atoms and molecules explains visible

easier to understand the macroscopic behavior of gases by first examining the

microscopic description of gases.

Gases are composed of atoms or molecules moving at extremely high

occupied by a gas is empty space—the total volume of the gas molecules

example, a sample of hydrogen at 20 oC is composed of hydrogen molecules

and the walls of their container.

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-3

to one another and strong interact among themselves.

referring to the average velocity of a extremely large collection of gas molecules

moving at a variety of speeds (Figure 10.2). These molecules are moving

bounce off one another like billiard balls on a billiard table.

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-4

increases. Reducing the volume occupied by a given number of molecules

the gas’s container (Figure 10.3).

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-5

exerted by the gas.

We express the pressure exerted by a gas on the walls of its container in

exerted at sea level by our atmosphere. The column of mercury in a barometer

exactly 760 mm Hg (Figure 10.4). Sometimes the expression, torr, is used in

In the English system pressure is expressed as ‘psi’ or ‘pounds per square

1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 14.6 psi

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-6

mercury level in the barometer falls.

a. Convert 30.0 psi to the equivalent pressure in atmospheres.

b. Convert 732 mm Hg to the equivalent pressure in atmospheres.

and mm Hg is an exact definition.)

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-7

c. Convert 732 mm Hg to the equivalent pressure in psi.

energy in the form of heat absorbed by a gas is converted to an increased rate of

collisions occur more frequently and with greater force.

As you might imagine, as the number of molecules increases in a gas,

same as the pressure exerted by a similar number of small molecules. Although

given temperature. Thus a collection of small molecules collides more frequently

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 10-8

molecules (in other words, not on their molecular weights).

We can summarize the relationship between pressure exerted by a gas

of moles) in several statements.

 The pressure of a gas increases as its volume decreases

 The pressure of a gas increases as its temperature increases

 The pressure of a gas increases with increasing numbers of particles

()1 x ()1 ()