Cell membrane structure

Cell membrane purpose ?

-Separates cell from outside environment
Cell recognition and signalling
Membranes are partially permeable as they allow water and some solutes through
Components of plasma membrane ?
Phospholipids
Glycolipids
Gylcoproteins
Proteins
Cholestrol
Phospholipids structure is a ...hydrophillic...head (water .liking. ) and a ..hydrophobic...tail (water
hating.)
POLAR – hydrophilic NON POLAR – hydrophobic
Phospholipids form .bi layers .... , this bi layer is 7nm thick.
Why is it called fluid mosaic model ?
Fluid – because individual phospholipids can move freely within the layer through diffusion like a
liquid, (Mosaic - ) because of the pattern produced by the scattered protein molecules when
membrane is viewed from above.
A higher temperature does what to the molecules in the membrane ?
Gives them more kinetic energy so they move faster, this makes the membrane leaky, which makes
it more permeable.
Most protein molecules float in the layers, some are fixed to structures inside the layer.
A protein embedded in only outer or inner layer is an extrinsic protein, one that spans two layers is
called a intrinsic protein.
Proteins and phospholipids with carbohydrate chains attached are called Glycoproteins and
Glycolipids.

Look at Plasma membrane roles pg 3 for roles of components *Important!

Cell signalling – Cell communicate with signals, molecules which can be hormones,
neurotransmitters or cytokines.
Signalling is needed for growth, development, movement, excretion of the cell.
Communication is often by hormones, a cell with a receptor for the hormone is a target cell, they
have a complementary shape when signal molecule binds with receptor a response occurs. Some
medicines are complementary to receptor molecules an example is insulin.
Mechanisms of signalling –
Ion channel – When a chemical signal attaches to the receptor, it makes the ion channel open,
letting ions into the cell.
G-protein activated – G-protein activates an enzyme which brings a response.
Acts as an Enzyme – Receptor is made up of 2 parts. The signal molecule attaches to both parts,
connecting them together and forming an active enzyme, which bring about reactions in the cell.

Transport through membrane –

Passive types – diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis.
Active – Active transport, bulk transport

Diffusion – net movement of molecules from a region of their high concentration to a lower
concentration down a concentration gradient.
It is passive because molecules have a kinetic energy and move about randomly.
What effects this ?
Steepness of concentration gradient, temperature, surface area, type of molecule diffusing.
What molecules can diffuse through ?
Oxygen – non polar, diffuses quickly.
Carbon dioxide – Polar but very small so diffuses quickly
Water – Polar but small so diffuses quickly.

Facilitated diffusion –
Large POLAR molecules diffuse across a phospholipid bilayer through a channel or carrier protein
which is complementarily shaped.

Osmosis –
Definition – The diffusion of water molecules from an area of high water potential to an area of low
water potential down a water potential gradient across a partially permeable membrane.

Water potential – the tendency of water molecules to move from one place to another.

Animal cells –
Lysis – higher WP outside, osmosis into cell till cell bursts and dies.
Equilibrium – Even WP in and outside. No change in cell.
Crenation – Higher WP inside. Osmosis out, cell shrinks.

Plant cells –
Turgid – High Wp outside water moves in until cell is turgid, cell wall prevents bursting (as made of
cellulose)
Equilibrium
Plasmolysed (dead) – water moves out, high WP on inside. Plant cell membrane pulls away from cell
wall as water leaves cell.

Equation for WP: pressure potential + Solute potential.

Active Transport –
Against a concentration gradient, from a low to a high concentration, energy supplied by ATP
( produced in mitochondria in aerobic respiration) , carrier protein with complementary shape,
occurs faster than diffusion.

Bulk Transport – ( look at page 12 for detail )

Moving large quantities of material in or out of a cell. Requires energy.

Endocytosis – Bulk transport into cell (in vescicle)
Exocytosis – Bulk transport out of cell (to vescicle)

Bulk uptake of solids – endophagocytosis

Bult uptake of liquids – endopinocytosis

CELL STRUCTURE –

Nucleus is surrounded by 2 layers called nuclear envelope, this has small holes called pores. Contains
chromosomes loosely coiled known as Chromatin. Nuclueus contains a darker area inside know as
nucleolus which controls exchanges in nucleus. Nucleus controls cell activity, manufactures
ribosomes, nuclear pores allow mRNA and ribosomes to leave + nutrient and hormones to enter,
chromosomes contain DNA.
Endoplasmic Recticulum, extensive system of membranes, forms flattened sacs called vesicles,
ribosomes are attached to rough ER. Smooth ER has no ribosomes. RER transports proteins made on
the ribosomes around the cell and makes the golgi apparatus. SER produces lipids and steroids.

Ribosomes – found in cytoplasm or attached to RER, 22nm in diameter, made of RNA and protein.
Site of protein synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus – Stack of flattened sacs called cisternae, formed from vesicles from the RER broken
down to form golgi vesicles. Golgi apparatus collects proteins and processes them, they are taken
from the RER, packaged into golgi vescicles for transport around and out of cell.

Lysosomes – breakdown of old cell organelles or whole cells e.g. white blood cells digest bacteria.

Mitochondria – aerobic respiration, make ATP and involved in the synthesis of lipids.

Centrioles – form spindles in nuclear division.

Plant cells –

Cell wall, made of rigid cellulose, gives shape and prevents bursting when cell is turgid.

Vacuole, tonoplast in vacuole controls exchange of materials between vacuole and cytoplasm. Gives
shape and support.

Chloroplasts – needed for photosynthesis

Cillia and Flagella –

Cillia, very short, there are many of them which move in sweeping motion. (use ATP energy) Waft
mucas.
Flagella, there are few of these, long in length. (use ATP energy) Move cell.

Prokaryotic cell – bacteria (0.5 – 5nm) Eukaryotic cell – Animal + Plant (20-40nm)

Prokaryotic – Made of Plasma membrane, circular DNA known as chromosome, Cytoplasm,

ribosomes, cell wall (made of peptidoglycan).
Additional structures – pilli, for attachment to other cells. Plasmid, small circle of DNA. Capsule,
additional protection. Mesosome, infolding of plasma membrane. Flagellum, locomotion.

Definitions

Magnification – the degree to which the size of an image is larger than the object itself.

Resolution – the degree to which it is possible to distinguish between two objects.

Staining – process that helps to reveal or distinguish features

Light microscope, magnifies 15,000x, resolving power 200nm

Electron microscope, magnifies 500,000, resolving 0.2 nm, uses electron beam (shorter wavelength
than light). Limits - Samples must be dead, expensive, high degree of skill needed.
Resolving power is inversely proportional to wavelength.

Transmission electron microscope – beam passes through sample, 2D image.

Scanning electron microscope – beam reflected off sample surface, image 3D, 100,000x
magnification.

Mitosis –

Function -
 replacement of cells and repair of tissue.
 Growth
 Asexual reproduction
IPMAT -
Interphase, DNA replicates ( chromosomes not visible, known as resting phase, time of considerable
metabolic activity in the cell.
Prophase, chromosomes (made of 2 chromatids) become visible, nuclear membrane dissolves,
centrioles migrate to poles and develop spindle fibres.
Metaphase, chromosomes attach to spindles at the centromere.
Anaphase, spindles fibres pull 2 chromatids so they separate and migrate to opposite poles.
Telophase, Chromatids arrive at poles, new nuclear envelope forms around them, chromatids
become invisible again and spindle fibres disintegrate.

Cell division (or cytokinesis)

Chromosome structure – 2 chromosomes that carry the same genes are homologous chromosomes.

Sexual reproduction – fusing of 2 nucleus from 2 different individuals. Each cell gives half genetic
information, cell called gamete. Formed through meiosis.
Cell with full set of information – diploid cell
Gametes – haploid

Stem cell – genetically identical cell that can repeatidly divide by mitosis and have the potential
(potency) to differentiate into different types of specialised cells.

Omnipotency – potential to produce every cell type of cell in organism.

Multipotency – potential to produce some cell types.

Stem cells in animals – Embryonic and Adult ( bone marrow)

No stem cells in plants

Differentiation – permanent changes that occur in the cells of organisms so that each cell becomes
specialised to perform a particular function.

Changes in differentiation – different number of organelles, changes to shape of cell, changes to cell
content. (Changes caused by genes being expressed or not.

Tissue – a group of cells of one or more cell type, plus any intercellular secretions that work together
to perform a particular function.

Tissues increase the efficiency of an organism as the allow functions to be shared between
specialised cells .
Animal tissue – Epithelial tissue(lines cavities, ducts and tubes), connective tissue(joins tissues
together), muscle(movement) and nervous (transmission of nervous impulses).

Organ – A collection of more than on tissues to perform a particular function.

Organ system – number of organs working together to perform a life function.

Epithellial tissue structure – layer of epithelial cells connected to a basement membrane made of
collagen and glycoprotein.

Exchange Surfaces and Breathing –

All living cells require

A supply of organic nutrient e.g glucose – for respiration
A supply of inorganic nutrient e.g. Nitrates – N for DNA and amino acids
A supply of oxygen –aerobic respiration
Removal of waste products e.g. CO2 and urea – carbon dioxide and urea are toxic to cells

Very small organisms exist without transport systems as diffusion is adequate.

Need for a transport system depends on size, activity and surface area to volume ratio.

Multicellular organisms are large and more active than unicellular organisms. They have a small
surface area to volume ration. They need to be able to transport O2, nutrients and waster products.
Most cells are a large distance away from where these substances are produced so diffusion alone is
insufficient. Therefore specialised exchange surfaces are needed to transport substances quickly and
in sufficient quantities.

Efficient exchange Surface –

Large surface area – faster diffusion rate
Thin barrier – less distance for diffusion pathway
Continual supply of substances and removal of waste product– maintains steep concentration
gradient

Gaseous exchange – the movement of gases between the organism and its environment

Lungs –
Millions of alveoli, increased surface area
Alveolar walls 1 cell thick, short diffusion distance
Capillary wall 1 cell thick
Extensive supply of blood to alveoli, maintains diffusion gradient
Ventilation movements replaces air in alveoli, maintains diffusion gradient
Alveoli moist, increases diffusion rate
Alveoli cells secrete surfactant, reduces surface tension

Cartilage – found in trachea and bronchi, keeps airways open and prevents collapse during
breathing.

Ciliated Epithelial Cells and Goblet Cells – In Bronchus and Trachea mucus produced by goblet cells.
Between goblet cells are ciliated epithelial cells. Both of these cells sit on basement cells. Cillia of
these cells waft mucus and trapped particles upwards towards throat where they are swallowed and
pathogens are destroyed by stomach acid.
Smooth Muscle – Bronchioles, bronchi and trachea are surrounded by smooth muscle which can
contract and relax to adjust diameter of airways.

Elastic Fibres – Alveolar walls contain elastic fibres which can stretch and recoil during breathing to
help force air out.

Alveoli – site of gaseous exchange, thin lining, large surface area, surrounded by elastic fibres,
surrounded by capillaries, moist.

Gaseous exchange system relies on maintaining diffusion gradients through blood transport and
breathing movements.

Blood carries carbon dioxide from respiring tissues to the lungs. This ensures the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the blood is higher than the air in alveoli. Blood also carries oxygen away from the
air in the alveoli to respiring tissues. This ensures that the concentration of oxygen in the blood is
lower than the air in the alveoli.

Breathing movement is caused by intercostals muscles (located between ribs) and diaphragm
muscles (separating abdomen and thorax).

Inspiration – active
Expiration – passive

Inspiration –
 intercostals muscles contract moving ribcage up and out
 diaphragm contracts and flattens
 elastic fibres stretched
 Volume of thorax increases
 Pressure in thorax drops
 Air moves into lungs along pressure gradient
Expiration –
 External intercostal muscles relax moving ribcage downwards and inwards
 Diaphragm relaxes and resumes dome shapes
 Elastic fibres recoil
 Volume of thorax decreases
 Pressure in thorax rises
 Air moves out lungs along pressure gradient

Spirometer – measures lung volume.

 Person breathes via a tube attached to a sealed chamber containing medical grade O2 or air.
 Chamber floats on tank of water
 When oxygen or air is removed the tank becomes less buoyant
 When gas enters it becomes more buoyant
 Soda lime can be used as it absorbs CO2
Chamber falls during inspiration and rises in expiration
Oxygen is used up in aerobic respiration, carbon dioxide is removed by soda lime.
Trace shows – tidal volume, vital capacity, volume of oxygen used.

Ventilation rate = tidal volume x breathing rate

Tidal volume – volume of air breathed in and the out in single breath
Residual Volume – Volume of air remaining in the lungs after forced expiration
Vital capacity – Maximum volume of air that can be breathed in and out in one breath
Functional dead space – capacity of lungs in which no gas exchange can occur composed of
bronchioles, bronchi and trachea.
Inspiratory reserve volume – volume of air that can be inspired above the resting tidal volume during
forced/active respiration.

Animal Transport – Animals need transport systems because of size, activity, surface area to volume
ratio.
Open circulatory system – Example insect
Small organism, blood does not have to travel far, diffusion is sufficient to transport o2 and co2.
Blood fluid circulates though body cavity tissues are bathed directly in blood, action of body
movement aids circulation. Blood remains at low pressure.
Closed Circulation System – Blood remains in vessels. Example Human.
Larger organisms rely on blood to transport oxygen and co2. Blood is at high pressure and travels
quickly so it is sufficient to supply muscles as well as supplying body with o2 and nutrient. Separate
fluid called tissue fluid bathes tissue and cells. This enables heart to pump blood at high pressure.

Single – Heart > arteries > gills > veins > body tissues > veins > heart

Fish only need single circulatory system as they are not as active as mammals, don’t need to
maintain body temperature, single is sufficient.

Double – Pulmonary circulation ( serves lungs) Systemic circulation ( serves body )

Heart > arteries > body > veins > heart > artery > lungs > veins > heart ....

Increased pressure makes blood flow quicker.

Cardiac cycle –
Atria full of blood, atrial systole (contraction), blood pumped into ventricles, atroventricular valves
open – bicuspid and tricuspid, valves in veins stop blood returning to veins, ventricular systole, blood
forced into arteries, semi lunar valve opens, AV valves shut to stop backflow, ventricles and atria
diastole (relax), semi lunar valves close to stop bacvkflow from arteries, blood enters atria, some
passes through to ventricles, pressure closes valves control by SAN, AVN and Purkyne Tissue.

Left side of heart under higher pressure as pumps to body.

Heart makes ‘lub’ ‘dub’ sound.
Coronary Arteries, arteries run along outside of heart.

Heart muscles initiate own contraction (myogenic).

Sinoatrial node – sends out wave of excitation (pacemaker)
Atrioventricular node – at top of the septum, picks up wave of excitation and delays it till atria
finishes contracting then conducts it to specialised conducting tissue called the purkyne tissue.
Wave runs down septum through bundle of his fibres and then up from apex.

Fibrillation – a state in which the chambers of the heart contract out of rhythm.

An electrocardiogram monitors the electrical activity of the heart.

On the trace P = excitation in atria, QRS = excitation in ventricles, T = diastole

Between Q and T is contraction time.
Between T and Q is called filling time.

ECG – involves attaching sensors to skin which pick up electrical excitation created by the heart and
converts it to a trace.

 Irregular beating = arrhythmia

 Slow beating = bradycardia
 Fast beating tachycardia
 Uncoordinated = fibrillation
 Elevation of ST section = heart attack
 Enlarged heart muscle = hypertrophy

Blood Vessels
Artery – Lumen ( narrow), Tunica Intima (Endothelium), Tunica Media (collagen, elastic fibres,
smooth muscle), Tunica Externa (contains some collagen and elastic fibres). HIGH PRESSURE

Vein – Many semi lunar valves to maintain direction, Lumen (large), Tunica Intima, Tunica Media,
Tunica Externa. LOW PRESSURE

Capillary – Lumen (one blood cell diameter), wall composed of endothelium ( one cell thick )

Blood Structure – fluid component called plasma. It is mostly water with dissolved salt, hormones,
waste products such as sodium, insulin organic molecules and plasma proteins.

Red blood cell. 7nm diameter, no nucleus to provide large internal volume, biconcave disc provides a
large surface area increase diffusion rate.
White blood cell. Phagocyte - Function to engulf + destroy invading microorganisms by phagocytosis.
Lymphocyte – produce antibodies + destroy infected cells.

Tissue fluid ...

Blood plasma
 Water
 Plasma proteins
 Cholesterol and fats
 Glucose
 Excretory substances
 Mineral ions
 Hormones
 Dissolved gasses
Tissue Fluid
 This is plasma that has passed out of capillaries into the inter cellular spaces.
 WITHOUT red blood cells and large plasma proteins

Fluid movement is controlled by opposing pressures, hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure.

At Aterial end – hydrostatic is pressure is higher than in the tissue fluid. As a result there will be a
higher pressure forcing water and dissolved molecules out of the capillary.
Water potential is lower in the blood of capillary than in tissue fluid, as a result there will be small
osmotic pressure trying to force water into the blood.
Overall effect high hydrostatic pressure in blood vessels, lower osmotic pressure in blood vessels.
Molecules leave the capillary at aterial end.

At venous end – Hydrostatic pressure is same as in tissue fluid. No molecules forced out. Plasma
proteins remain in the blood capillary this make water potential lower in capillary than tissue fluid.
Overall effect Molecules return to capillary at venous end.

Oedema – if the protein concentration and rate of loss from plasma are not in balance with the
concentration and rate of loss from tissue fluid, there can be a build up of tissue.
Not all fluid returns to the capillary, 90% of tissue fluid returns to the capillary. 10% is known as
lymph and is returned to the venous system in lymph vessels (also known as lymphatics)

Lymph is contained in vessels, tissue fluid is not.

Lymph has a higher concentration of fats + proteins to tissue fluid.
Lymph contains lymphocytes.

Lymph vessels are blind ending vessels.

Tissue fluid flows into these vessels through a valve in the vessel wall.
The valve prevent fluid moving out of the vessel.
Lymph is returned to the venous system.

Small lymphatics join to form bigger vessels

Contraction of muscles around vessels push lymph along, smooth muscles in wall of lymph vessel
also helps and valves prevent backflow.

Lymph vessels are found throughout the body. Lymph rejoins venous system. Contains lymph nodes
– found at intervals along lymph vessels
-protect against disease
- some white blood cells which remove pathogens while others make antibodies.

Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes), Carbonic anahydrase is present this catalyses formation of carbonic
acid through the combination of CO2 and water. Carbonic acid forms hydrogen carbonate ions in
which form most CO2 can be carried.

Haemoglobin + Oxygen = Oxyhaemoglobin (reversible reaction)

Haemoglobin carries 4 oxygen molecules and has an AFFINITY to oxygen.

Oxygen uptake - oxygen absorbed into blood. Oxygen diffuses into the blood plasma and then
enters the RBC where it is taken up by the haemoglobin.
This takes the oxygen out of solution and so maintains the diffusion gradient for continued diffusion
of more oxygen into the RBC.

Oxygen Dissociation curve – Fetal curve shifts to left and Bohr shift curves to right.
Sigmoid shaped.