Ubc - 1989 - A1 S29

BEHAVIOUR OF SAND UNDER GENERAL STRESS PATHS
IN THE HOLLOW CYLINDER TORSIONAL DEVICE
by
ALBERTO S.F.J. SAYAO
B.Sc, Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, 1976
M.Sc, Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, 1980
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
Department of C i v i l Engineering
We accept this thesis as conforming
to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
March 1989
©ALBERTO S.F.J. SAYAO, 1989

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced
degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it
freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive
copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my
department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or
publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written
permission.
Department of C i v i l Engineering
T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f British Columbia
Vancouver, Canada
Date 05 Mav. 1989
DE-6 (2/88)
ABSTRACT
A fundamental investigation of the stress-strain behaviour of
inherently anisotropic sands i s p r e s e n t e d . The s t u d y was c a r r i e d out in
a newly developed hollow c y l i n d e r t o r s i o n a l apparatus (HCT). The HCT is
the only apparatus that permits a soil specimen to be subjected to
multiaxial stress states with controlled variations in four stress
parameters: the magnitudes of the three p r i n c i p a l stresses (o , a o 2 and
o ) 3 and the d i r e c t i o n o f one of these stresses.
The e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o g r a m was aimed at a s s e s s i n g the isolated effects
of continuous changes in only one derived stress p a r a m e t e r , o^ (mean
effective stress), R (principal stress ratio), b (intermediate stress
parameter), or a (direction of o x relative to the vertical) on
deformation response. Minimization of s t r e s s and strain nonuniformities,
inherenly present in HCT specimens, was achieved through careful
selection of specimen geometry and regions of the stress space to be
investigated. A new approach to define these nonuniformities i s proposed
in terms of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of stress ratio R a c r o s s the specimen w a l l .
All tests were carried out on saturated specimens of pluviated sands
under f u l l y drained conditions.
Inherent anisotropic behaviour of sand i s c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d by the
deformation response that i s strongly d e p e n d e n t on the loading direction
a. Contractive volume changes and shear deformations are shown to
increase with increase in a. When compared to the principal stress
directions, p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n increment d i r e c t i o n s always deviate towards
the horizontal, with the exception of loading at a=0 (vertical

compression). Effects of induced s t r a i n anisotropy were observed to be
n e g l i g i b l e at R-levels less than 2.0.
Continuous principal stress rotation at constant p r i n c i p a l stress
magnitudes induces progressive accumulation of both volumetric
contractions and shear d i s t o r t i o n s . Additional cycles of rotation i n the
same direction result i n progressively smaller incremental strains,
implying hardening e f f e c t s of previous rotations. Deformations are shown
to increase s i g n i f i c a n t l y with decrease i n r e l a t i v e density and increase
i n R and o'.
m
The e f f e c t of continuous variations i n b, under constant R, o' and
' m
a, has been evaluated for the first time. Deformations increase
progressively as b increases from 0 to 1, regardless of the d i r e c t i o n a.
During p r o p o r t i o n a l l o a d i n g i n g e n e r a l s t r e s s space, which

c o r r e s p o n d s t o changes i n o a l o n e , the s t r a i n d i r e c t i o n s remain
1
r a
m
constant, and hence the nature of inherent anisotropy i s e s s e n t i a l l y
preserved at R-levels up to about 2.0 and at r e l a t i v e densities greater
than about 30%.
- iii -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract i i
L i s t of Figures ix
L i s t of Tables xiv
L i s t of Symbols xv
Acknowledgements . xvi
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. REVIEW OF STRESS PATH TESTS AND BEHAVIOUR OF SANDS 6
2.1 LABORATORY SHEAR TESTING DEVICES 7
2.1.1 Devices w i t h Fixed P r i n c i p a l Stress D i r e c t i o n s . . 7
2.1.2 Devices Allowing P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation 12
2.2 SAND BEHAVIOUR UNDER GENERAL STRESS PATHS 16
2.2.1 Anisotropy 16
2.2.1.1 Inherent Anisotropy 17
2.2.1.2 Induced Anisotropy 26
2.2.2 Sand Response Under Continuous Rotation of
P r i n c i p a l Stresses 28
2.2.3 E f f e c t of Intermediate P r i n c i p a l Stress 3A
2.3 SUMMARY Al
3. STRESS NONUNIFORMITIES IN HCT SPECIMENS 43
3.1 INTRODUCTION A3
3.2 STRESSES AND STRAINS IN HCT SPECIMENS AA
3.3 STRESS NONUNIFORMITY IN THE WALL A7
- iv -
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
3.A NONUNIFORMITY COEFFICIENTS FOR GENERAL STRESS STATES 51
3.5 INFLUENCE OF PRINCIPAL STRESS RATIO 51
3.6 INFLUENCE OF MEAN EFFECTIVE STRESS 55
3.7 INFLUENCE OF SPECIMEN GEOMETRY 57
3.7.1 Specimen Thickness 57
3.7.2 Specimen Diameter 59
3.7.3 Specimen Height 62
3.7.A Recommended Geometry 62
A. APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTATION 66
A.l THE UBC-HCT TESTING DEVICE 66
A.1.1 General Description 66
A.1.2 Loading and Measuring Systems 67
A.2 DATA ACQUISITION 80
A.3 SPECIMEN PREPARATION 81
A.3.1 Reconstitution of Sand Specimens 81
A.3.2 Preliminary Preparation Steps 82
A.3.3 Specimen Preparation Steps 83
A.3.A Test Preparation Steps 87
A.A PERFORMANCE AND CONTROL 89
A.A.I Reproduction of Conventional Test Results 89
A.A.2 Stress Path Control 91
A.A.3 Repeatability of Results 93
- v -
Page
4.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 93
4.5.1 Materials Tested 93
4.5.2 Testing Program 98
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 102
5.1 INTRODUCTION 102
5.2 INITIAL ANISOTROPY 102
5.2.1 Hydrostatic Loading 102
5.2.2 Shear Loading 103
Stress-Strain Behaviour 103
Direction of Strain Increment 110
Strain Paths 112
5.2.3 Conclusions 114
5.3 CONTINUOUS PRINCIPAL STRESS ROTATION 114
5.3.1 Rotation Tests on Loose Sand 117
5.3.2 E f f e c t of Relative Density 121
5.3.3 E f f e c t of Mean E f f e c t i v e Stress 124
Direction of Increment 124
- vi -
Page
5.3.A Effect of Principal Stress Ratio 127
5.3.5 Effect o f Intermediate S t r e s s Parameter 130
5.3.6 R o t a t i o n T e s t s o f E r k s a k Sand 133
Effect of Relative Density 133
Effect of Principal Stress Ratio 135
5.A INTERMEDIATE P R I N C I P A L STRESS PARAMETER 1A0
5.A.1 Shear T e s t s a t V a r i o u s b 1A1
Stress-Strain Behaviour 1A1
Direction of Strain Increment 1A1
S t r a i n Paths 1AA
5.3.2 Continuous Variations i nb 146
Direction o f S t r a i n Increment 146
S t r a i n Paths 148
5.5 PROPORTIONAL LOADING I N GENERAL STRESS SPACE 153
5.5.1 Increase i n o 1
at various a 153
m
- v i i -
Page
Direction of Strain Increment .... 155
Strain Paths 158
5.5.2 Behaviour of Other I n i t i a l Conditions 158
E f f e c t of Relative Density 160
E f f e c t of Intermediate P r i n c i p a l Stress 164
E f f e c t of P r i n c i p a l Stress Ratio 167
5.6 ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS ON STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR .. 170
5.6.1 E f f e c t of Previous Stress History 171
5.6.2 E f f e c t of Rotation Cycles on Subsequent Shearing 176
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 180
REFERENCES 184
APPENDIX 195
- viii -
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure
2.1 Schematic Representation of Laboratory Test Methods ... 9
2.2 Evidence of Strength Anisotropy from Various Devices .. 19
2.3 Evidence of Strength Anisotropy from HCT Device 22
2.4 Inherent Anisotropy of Pluviated Sands i n HCT Device .. 23
2.5 Induced Anisotropy on I n i t i a l l y Isotropic Sand 27
2.6 Volumetric Strains Due to P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation ... 30
2.7 Undrained State Boundary Surface of Sand (after Symes

et a l . , 1984) 32
2.8 Influence of Stress Parameter b on Stress-Strain

Behaviour i n True T r i a x i a l Tests (after Kjellman,
1936) 36
2.9 Reported Variations of <f>' with b i n Sands 37
2.10 Influence of b on Strength and Strains at Failure

(after Green, 1971) 38
2.11 Influence of b on Mobilized Strength and Strains at

Yielding Condition (after Haruyama, 1981) 40
3.1 Load and Stress Conditions i n HCT Specimens 45
3.2 E l a s t i c Stresses Across the Wall of HCT Specimens 49
3.3 Stress-Strain Behaviour of Medium-Loose Sand i n
T r i a x i a l Compression 50
3.4 . Nonuniformity Coefficient B 3 at R = 3 52
3.5 Nonuniformity Coefficient at R = 3 53
3.6 Nonuniformity Coefficient 8^ at R = 2 54
3.7 E f f e c t of R-Level on Nonuniformity Coefficients 56
3.8 E f f e c t of Wall Thickness on Nonuniformity Coefficients 58
- ix -
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Page
3.9 E f f e c t of Inner Radius on Nonuniformity Coefficients .. 60
3.10 S e n s i t i v i t y of R to Changes i n D i f f e r e n t i a l Confining

Pressure as a Function of Inner Radius and 61
3.11 Specimen Geometry of Reported Hollow Cylinder Devices.. 64
4.1 The UBC-Hollow Cylinder Torsional Apparatus 68
4.2 Torque Loading System 72
4.3 Polished End Platen with Radial Ribs 74
4.4 F l u i d Pressure and Volume Change Measuring Systems .... 76
4.5 Rotational Displacement Measuring System 78
4.6 Specimen Preparation by Water Pluviation 84
4.7 L e v e l l i n g the Specimen's Upper Surface 86
4.8 Details of the UBC-HCT Device 88
4.9 Comparison of Results from HCT and T r i a x i a l Devices ... 90
4.10 Experimental Control i n P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation Tests 92
4.11 Repeatability of HCT Test Results 94
4.12 Grain Size D i s t r i b u t i o n : Ottawa and Erksak Sands 95
4.13 Typical Examples of General Stress Path Tests 99
5.1 Strain Response Under Hydrostatic Loading 104
5.2 Strain Response Under Shear Loading 106
5.3 Anisotropy i n Strain Response at Two R Levels 107
5.4 Anisotropy i n Strain Response of Dense Sand (after

Miura, 1985) 109
5.5 Directions of P r i n c i p a l Strain Increments i n

D i r e c t i o n a l Shear Ill
5.6 Strain Paths i n Directional Shear 113
- x -
Page
5.7 P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation Paths at Constant o m and b .. 116
5.8 Strain Development Due to C y c l i c P r i n c i p a l Stress

Rotation 118
5.9 Strain Increment Directions During C y c l i c P r i n c i p a l

Stress Rotation 120
5.10 E f f e c t of Relative Density on Strain Development Due to

P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation 122
5.11 E f f e c t of Relative Density on Strain Increment

Directions During P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation 123
5.12 E f f e c t of E f f e c t i v e Confining Stress on Strain

Development Due to P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation 125
5.13 E f f e c t of E f f e c t i v e Confining Stress on Strain

Increment Directions During P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation.. 126
5.14 E f f e c t of E f f e c t i v e Stress Ratio on Strain Development 128

Due to P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation
5.15 E f f e c t of E f f e c t i v e Stress Ratio on Strain Increment

Directions During P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation 129
5.16 E f f e c t of Intermediate Stress Parameter on Strain

Development Due to P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation 131
5.17 E f f e c t of Intermediate Stress Parameter on Strain

Increment Directions During P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation.. 132
5.18 Strain Development Due to P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation on

Erksak Sand: E f f e c t of D r 134
5.19 Strain Increment Directions During P r i n c i p a l Stress

Rotation on Erksak Sand: Effect of D f 136
5.20 Strain Development Due to P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation on

Erksak Sand: E f f e c t of Stress Ratio 137
5.21 Strain Increment Directions During P r i n c i p a l Stress

Rotation on Erksak Sand: E f f e c t of Stress Ratio 139
5.22 E f f e c t of b on Strain Response Under Shear Loading .... 142
5.23 E f f e c t of b on Strain Increment Directions During Shear

Loading 143
- xi-
Page
5.24 E f f e c t of b on Strain Paths During Shear Loading 145
5.25 S t r a i n Development During C y c l i c b-Tests 147
5.26 P r i n c i p a l Stresses and Strains i n b-Tests on Medium-

Loose Sand 149
5.27 D i r e c t i o n of Intermediate Strain Increment During
b-Tests 150
5.28 S t r a i n Paths During b-Tests 151
5.29 Stress Components During Proportional Loading i n

General Stress Space 154
5.30 E f f e c t of a on Strain Development Due to Proportional
Loading 156
5.31 S t r a i n Increment Directions During Proportional

Loading 157
5.32 E f f e c t of a on Strain Paths During Proportional

Loading 159
5.33 E f f e c t of D r on Strain Development Due to Proportional

Loading 161
5.34 E f f e c t of D r on Strain Paths During Proportional

Loading 162
5.35 E f f e c t of b on Strain Development Due to Proportional

Loading 165
5.36 E f f e c t of b on Strain Paths During Proportional

Loading 166
5.37 E f f e c t of R on S t r a i n Development Due to Proportional

Loading 168
5.38 E f f e c t of R on S t r a i n Paths During Proportional

Loading 169
5.39 E f f e c t of Stress Path History on Strain Response Under

Shear Loading 173
5.40 E f f e c t of Stress Path History on Strain Response Under

P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation 175
- xii -
Page
5.41 E f f e c t of Previous Rotation Cycles on Strain Response

Under Shear Loading 177
- xiii -
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Tables
2.1 Summary of Laboratory Stress Path Test Methods 8
3.1 Stress Path Devices Using Hollow Cylinder Specimens ... 63
4.1 Index Properties and Grain C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Ottawa

and Erksak Sands 96
4.2 HCT Tests - Summary of Main Testing Program 100
- xiv -
LIST OF SYMBOLS
normal stress
shear stress
major effective principal stress
intermediate effective principal stress
minor effective principal stress
0J/O3 = principal effective stress ratio
(oJ+Oj+op/S = mean effective normal stress
(a' -o' )
2 3 / (a[-a' )
3 = intermediate principal stress parameter
direction of o relative to the deposition direction
1
direction of major principal stress increment (do ) :
normal strain
shear strain
major principal strain
intermediate principal strain
minor principal strain
e +e +e
1 2 3 = volumetric strain
ej-e 3 = maximum shear strain
direction of major principal strain increment (de ) a
torque about the vertical axis

vertical force
internal and external confining pressures
internal and external specimen radii
specimen height
friction angle
nonuniformity coefficient for an individual stress component
(see expression 3.8).
nonuniformity coefficient in terms of stress ratio R
(see expresion 3.9).
relative density
- xv -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The constant interest and guidance of my supervisor, Professor Y.P.
Vaid, throughout t h i s research are greatly responsible for the merits of
this thesis. His professional attitude and example w i l l surely have a
great influence on my geotechnical life.
I would like to thank the members of my Examining Committee,
Professors P.M. Byrne, R.G. Campanella, Y.P. Vaid, D.L. Anderson, S.
Calisal and P.V. Lade f o r their critical comments and suggestions.
Thanks are also due to Professors W.D.L. Finn and V.K. Garga, who also
kindly reviewed the text. Appreciation must be extended to my colleagues
Dawit, Mustapha, Wije, Ralph, Carlos, Upul, Francisco, and John for help-
f u l and c l a r i f y i n g discussions.
Mr. Fred Zurkirchen manufactured the testing equipment with Swiss
precision and also gave valuable suggestions during the experimental
program.
The ability and speed of Mrs. K e l l y Lamb i n typing the o r i g i n a l
manuscripts and the a r t i s t i c skills of Mrs. Monica Sayao i n preparing
several figures are s i n c e r e l y acknowledged.
Financial support f o r my doctoral program was granted by the
National Research Council of B r a z i l (C.N.Pq.). Funding during the f i n a l
months of the research was made available by the Department of C i v i l
Engineering at U.B.C. Incentive from my colleagues at the Catholic
University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-RJ) i s also appreciated.
The presence and support of my family and, very p a r t i c u l a r l y , the
continuous encouragement and dedication of my wife Monica throughout the
various, stages of study, research and writing, made this thesis v i a b l e .
All my e f f o r t s serve only to acknowledge my debt to them.
- xv i -
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Most sedimentary s o i l s are inherently anisotropic. Their response
to loading w i l l therefore depend on the directions of p r i n c i p a l stresses
in relation to the deposition direction. In nearly a l l geotechnical
problems, p r i n c i p a l stress directions gradually rotate during loading.
As a consequence, deformations occur due not only to the change i n the
magnitudes of the p r i n c i p a l stresses, but also to change i n their d i r e c -
tions. For a given magnitude of p r i n c i p a l stress increments, deforma-
tions due to the accompanying change i n directions depend on the
inclinations of p r i n c i p a l stresses to the material axes p r i o r to the
stress changes. Both the changes i n magnitude and directions of
p r i n c i p a l stresses are embodied i n the term "stress path".
It i s widely recognized that s o i l behaviour i s stress path depend-
ent. Yet, i n most modelling of geotechnical materials, t h i s dependence
is ignored. This probably stems from the l i m i t e d capabilities of
conventional t e s t i n g devices. Experimental characterization of inherent
anisotropy and the e f f e c t of p r i n c i p a l stress rotation i n s o i l s requires
the ability to control both the directions and the magnitudes of
p r i n c i p a l stresses on a test specimen. This i s indeed a formidable task
to achieve i n any t e s t i n g device.
Experimental research aimed at i d e n t i f y i n g inherent anisotropy and
its e f f e c t on stress path dependent behaviour of sands has been i n
progress f o r almost two decades. This l e d to recent development of more
v e r s a t i l e testing devices, l i k e the D i r e c t i o n a l Shear C e l l (DSC) and the
Hollow Cylinder Torsional (HCT) apparatus (Arthur et a l . , 1977; Hight et

2
al., 1983). The DSC i n i t s present version can be used for stress path
t e s t i n g only at low confining stresses and under plane s t r a i n conditions.
The HCT device i s much more v e r s a t i l e , as i t i s the only testing device
capable of imposing generalized stress paths on s o i l specimens. In the
HCT device, adequate control of four stress parameters can be achieved:
mean normal stress, shear stress (or stress r a t i o ) , intermediate p r i n c i -
p a l stress magnitude and rotation of p r i n c i p a l stress directions (in one
plane). This allows separation of the e f f e c t s of each stress parameter
on s o i l behaviour. Such a separation of effects i s of utmost importance
in a l l fundamental studies of s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour of inherently
anisotropic materials.
Current understanding of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour of sand under
generalized stress conditions i s very limited. Previous research has
focussed mainly on shear strength. In contrast, working stress levels i n
sands are, i n most f i e l d s i t u a t i o n s , well below f a i l u r e . Very l i t t l e i s
known about the i s o l a t e d or combined effects of intermediate p r i n c i p a l
stress magnitude and major p r i n c i p a l stress d i r e c t i o n on s t r a i n response
at low shear stress levels. Moreover, experimental data on p r i n c i p a l
stress rotation effects, obtained i n devices other than the HCT, i s
influenced by unwanted variations i n other stress parameters. Even i n
the HCT device, where the e f f e c t s of p r i n c i p a l stress rotations may be
i s o l a t e d , excessive stress (and hence strain) non-uniformities across the
specimen wall may occur. I n s u f f i c i e n t attention as to the selection of a
suitable specimen geometry, together with a not so r a t i o n a l understanding
of nonuniformity, contribute to t h i s problem. As a consequence, serious
questions about the v a l i d i t y of HCT data have been raised i n some cases.
3
The primary objective of this thesis is to investigate general
stress path dependent behaviour of sand. This necessitated f i r s t of a l l
the development of a hollow cylinder t o r s i o n a l apparatus. Minimization
of the stress nonuniformities mentioned above, under generalized stress
paths, was an essential requirement i n the selection of specimen geometry
together with the region of stress space to be explored. Theoretical
considerations of stress nonuniformity, previously suggested by Hight et
al. (1983), have been c r i t i c a l l y reviewed. An important improvement to
Hight et a l . ' s c r i t e r i a for defining and quantifying nonuniformity i n HCT
specimens i s proposed.
A systematic testing program was devised aimed at investigating the
fundamental behaviour of sand under general stress paths. In p a r t i c u l a r ,
the e f f e c t s of independent changes i n only one stress parameter, while
others are kept constant, are examined i n d e t a i l . A l l tests have been
carried out on reconstituted specimens of saturated sand under drained
conditions. The main objectives of the experimental program were to
examine: (1) the inherently anisotropic s t r a i n response of the sand; (2)
the i s o l a t e d e f f e c t s of both monotonic and c y c l i c rotations of p r i n c i p a l
stresses, at various stress levels; (3) the isolated effects of the
relative magnitude of the intermediate principal stress at various
i n c l i n a t i o n s of p r i n c i p a l stress d i r e c t i o n s ; and (4) the i s o l a t e d effects
of increasing mean effective stress under constant principal stress
r a t i o s and directions.
Sand behaviour is examined predominantly at initial medium-loose
r e l a t i v e density of about 34% and at low shear stress levels ( p r i n c i p a l
stress r a t i o R £ 2.0, where R = a[/a' ). 3 The e f f e c t s of density and shear
stress states on behaviour are also addressed. Stress-strain behaviour i s

4
examined and discussed separately i n terms of volumetric and shear s t r a i n
responses. Whenever appropriate, the response i s also examined i n terms
of s t r a i n paths and directional changes of the major p r i n c i p a l strain
increment. These provide i n d i c a t i o n as to possible changes i n inherent
anisotropy on loading.
In Chapter 2 , a b r i e f review of the currently available stress path
testing devices is presented, emphasizing their capabilities and
limitations. This i s intended to put the HCT apparatus in a proper
perspective i n i t s p o t e n t i a l as a general stress path testing device.
Important findings and conclusions, from previous investigations related
to the objectives of t h i s thesis, are then c r i t i c a l l y reviewed.
In Chapter 3, d e f i n i t i o n s of average stress and s t r a i n components i n
HCT specimens are presented, together with the assumptions involved. A
c r i t i c a l assessment of stress d i s t r i b u t i o n across the specimen's wall i s
also presented. A new approach i s suggested for delimitation of stress
space regions that can be explored with acceptable levels of stress
nonuniformity within the HCT specimen.
In Chapter 4, the Hollow Cylinder Torsional apparatus developed at
UBC i s described i n d e t a i l , with emphasis on the techniques adopted for
minimization of experimental errors. The specimen preparation method and
experimental program are also described.
In Chapter 5, the r e s u l t s of general stress path tests are presented
and discussed. The e f f e c t s of anisotropy, continuous p r i n c i p a l stress
rotation, intermediate principal stress magnitude and mean effective
stress are i s o l a t e d and presented i n a systematic manner. Observations
on the effect of previous stress history on sand behaviour during
subsequent loading are also presented.

5
In Chapter 6, the relevant conclusions presented in previous
chapters are summarized. Emphasis i s given to the experimental findings
and their possible implications i n geotechnical engineering.

6
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF STRESS PATH TESTS AND BEHAVIOUR OF SANDS
In conventional a p p r o a c h , sand r e s p o n s e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o depend only

i i
on t h e l e v e l s o f shear stress (or stress r a t i o R = a /a )
l 3 and c o n f i n i n g
I I I
pressure ( o r mean e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s o ^ = (o +o +o )/3). 1 3 3 Specifically, the
effects of intermediate principal stress and of principal stress
directions are disregarded. This approach o r i g i n a t e d n o t from a l a c k o f
recognition of the anisotropic nature of sand deposits and o f t h e
possible significance of o 3 (usually studied b y means of the normalized
parameter b = (o -o )/(Oj-o ))
3 3 3 on sand behaviour, b u t stemmed from t h e
limitations of commonly used laboratory testing devices (e.g., the
conventional triaxial) t o s i m u l a t e more r e a l i s t i c loading conditions.
The hollow cylinder torsional (HCT) d e v i c e i s the only type of
equipment that enables the control o f simple as w e l l as generalized
stress paths. S p e c i f i c a l l y , i thas t h e unique capability of allowing
independent control o f t h e magnitudes of the three principal stresses
together with the direction of o 1 (usually indicated by the r o t a t i o n
angle a, which o a makes w i t h thevertical deposition direction). T h e HCT
device i s thus suitable f o r a systematic investigation of the isolated
effects o f each stress parameter (R, a ' , b a n d a) on t h e d e f o r m a t i o n

m
response o f sands.
A b r i e f overview of the various laboratory shear t e s t i n g devices i s
first presented. This i s intended t o highlight the d i f f e r e n t regions of
s t r e s s space that c a n be i n v e s t i g a t e d with each device. In addition, the
nonuniformities of stress and s t r a i n , which are inherently associated

7
with a l l testing devices, are pointed out. Advances i n fundamental
experimental s o i l mechanics research have been achieved only by accepting
and minimizing these nonuniformities. The review c l e a r l y brings out the
versatility of the HCT apparatus over other testing devices i n conducting
fundamental research on soil behaviour under generalized stress
conditions.
In the second part of t h i s chapter, previous investigations into the
drained anisotropic behaviour of sands are c r i t i c a l l y reviewed. Findings
related to the nature of inherent and induced anisotropy are examined.
The effects of p r i n c i p a l stress rotation a, as well as of the intermedi-
ate stress parameter b, on sand response are also summarized. Areas of
research which have been the subject of controversial conclusions or not
yet addressed are pointed out.
2.1 LABORATORY SHEAR TESTING DEVICES
The various laboratory shear testing devices can be broadly classi-
fied into two groups, based on t h e i r a b i l i t y to impose continuous r o t a -
tions of the p r i n c i p a l stress directions (Table 2.1).
2.1.1 Devices with Fixed P r i n c i p a l Stress Directions
In the devices included i n this group, only normal stresses can be
applied to the specimen boundaries. As a consequence, the p r i n c i p a l
stresses have t h e i r d i r e c t i o n s fixed and only 90° jump rotations can be
imposed. The most common example i s the standard triaxial test on
cylindrical specimens (Bishop and Henkel, 1962), where only two stress
components (Oj and o ) can be controlled (Fig. 2.1a).

3
Table 2.1. Summary of Laboratory Stress Path Test Methods
Principal
Test Method Stress Imposed Conditions Main C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Selected References
Control
Standard °i a =o
2 3 & a=0(compression)or most used i n p r a c t i c e ; Bishop & Henkel (1962)
Triaxial o =o
2 1 & a=90°(extension) axisymmetric stress paths; Bishop & Wesley (1975)
°r ° 9 =
â s s u r a e <
Stress Directions
Fixed Principal
Plane °i e =0
2 simulates many f i e l d condi- Cornforth (196A)
Strain °3
a=0 (compression) or tions; f r i c t i o n effects at Campanella & Vaid (1973)
Triaxial a=90°(extension) r i g i d boundaries
True °i a=0 or 90° cubical specimens with f l e x i b l e Kjellman (1936)

Triaxial stress or s t r a i n and/or r i g i d boundaries Ko & Scott (1967)
°2
controlled Pearce (1971)
°3
Hollow °1
a=0 or 90° assumption f o r o and Og r
K i r k p a t r i c k (1957)
Cylinder d i s t r i b u t i o n s ; large non- Broms & Ratman (1963)
°2 V i ' h=°
p T
n i A
Triaxial °3
stress controlled uniformities near f a i l u r e
Torsional °1
cylind. specimens: non-uniform; Habib (1953)
Triaxial °2 x g d i s t r . and o =Og assumed
z r Saada & Baah (1967)
°3
sin a=b 2
hollow c y l i n d e r s : P P ^ e
=
Simple K -consolidation cylind. or cubical specimen; Kjellman (1951)

Rotating Principal
0
Stress Directions
Shear simulates f i e l d ; no control on Roscoe (1953)

e =e =0 ; e =0
2 y x
a; large stress non- Budhu (1984)
uniformities
Directional °1
e,=0 . f l e x i b l e boundaries i n the Arthur et a l . (1977)
Shear °3
plane of s t r a i n ; low stress Sture et a l . (1987)
Cell a stress controlled levels; complex techniques for
s t r a i n measurement
Hollow
Cylinder
a
i V i p
; V° assumptions f o r o , Og and x g Broms & Casbarian (1965)
d i s t r i b u t . ; large non-
r z
Hight et a l . (1983)
Torsional °3
usually stress controlled uniformities near f a i l u r e ; most Sayao & Vaid (1988)
a general stress path device
07
07
ever I
I
cr,
o>o>cr x
0 7 = cr e
07 > (T > <T
2 3
a) Triaxial b) Plane strain c) True triaxial d) Hollow cylinder t r i a x i a l
Gi
<J> h
^^0T = CT e 6 X = fly =0
s i n oc = b o;,cr
2
2 ,cr ,c<=(?)
3
e) Torsional triaxial f ) Simple shear g) Directional shear cell h) Hollow cylinder torsional
F i g u r e 2.1 Schematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f L a b o r a t o r y Test Methods.

10
Interpretation of triaxial test data i s normally based on the
assumption that = (and = e^). However, experimental observa-
tions (Casbarian and Jamal, 1963; Frydman et a l . , 1971) have indicated
that t h i s assumption may be inaccurate at large s t r a i n levels due to end
restraint effects. This aspect has been discussed i n d e t a i l by Saada and
Townsend (1981).
Recognition of the fact that many geotechnical problems can be
better approximated by a plane s t r a i n condition has led to the develop-
ment of plane s t r a i n testing techniques (Cornforth, 1964; Campanella and
Vaid, 1973). Rectangular prismatic specimens are normally used and a
condition of zero longitudinal s t r a i n i s imposed by a pair of fixed r i g i d
plates (Fig. 2.1b). Consequently, no control on the magnitude of o a can
be exercised. Minimization of f r i c t i o n a l forces at the r i g i d boundary
plates must be ensured, in order to keep o 2 in the longitudinal
direction.
Improvement on the stress path testing c a p a b i l i t i e s can be further
achieved with true t r i a x i a l devices, where the three p r i n c i p a l stress
magnitudes can be independently controlled (Fig. 2.1c). In p a r t i c u l a r ,
the influence of the parameter b on the s t r e s s - s t r a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
s o i l s can be properly assessed.
Several true t r i a x i a l devices have been described i n the l i t e r a t u r e .
Depending on the boundary conditions imposed on the specimen, three basic
types can be pointed out: (1) f l e x i b l e boundaries, where i d e a l l y uniform
p r i n c i p a l stresses are applied to a l l 6 specimen faces through pressur-
ized bags or membranes (Ko and Scott, 1967; Arthur and Menzies, 1968);
(2) r i g i d boundaries, where uniform strains are imposed by r i g i d plates
(Pearce, 1971; Hosseini and Cousens, 1988); (3) mixed boundaries, where
11
rigid plates and f l e x i b l e membranes are both used to apply boundary
strains or stresses (Green, 1971; Lade, 1978).
The d i s t i n c t advantages and l i m i t a t i o n s of each type have been i n d i -
cated by Sture and Desai (1979). Interference between adjacent plates or
membranes at the specimen's edges seems to be a common d i f f i c u l t y with
most devices that gives r i s e to stress nonuniformities.
A simpler a l t e r n a t i v e for imposing m u l t i a x i a l stress paths could be
achieved with hollow cylinder specimens, by independently c o n t r o l l i n g
e x t e r n a l and the i n t e r n a l confining pressures (P and P^, respectively)
together with a x i a l load (Fig. 2.Id). When no torque i s applied, o , o
and OQ can be considered as p r i n c i p a l stresses. This configuration has
been frequently u t i l i z e d i n testing either sands (Kirkpatrick, 1957; Wu
et a l . , 1963; Broms and Jamal, 1965; Arnold and M i t c h e l l , 1973) or
clays (Wu et a l . , 1963; Suklje and Drnovsek, 1965; Anderson et a l . ,
1988). Although a t t r a c t i v e because of i t s s i m p l i c i t y , c r i t i c i s m against
the use of hollow cylinder t r i a x i a l devices has often been raised. This
i s due to the inherently nonuniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of stresses across the
specimen's w a l l when the c o n d i t i o n P ^ P^ i s imposed.

g In this case,
average v a l u e s of assumed o and a d i s t r i b u t i o n s across the wall are

6
r 0 n
normally used i n prescribing the state of stress. More recently, i t has
been shown that these stress nonuniformities can be greatly minimized by
a suitable choice of specimen dimensions and avoiding c e r t a i n stress
paths (Hight et a l . , 1983; Sayao and Vaid, 1988b). This subject i s
analyzed i n d e t a i l i n the next chapter.
In a l l the devices mentioned so f a r , the p r i n c i p a l stresses are
fixed i n the v e r t i c a l and horizontal d i r e c t i o n s . Thus, stress paths with
direction angle a d i f f e r e n t than 0 or 90° can only be achieved on

12
" t i l t e d " specimens. This has been frequently reported i n investigations
on inherent anisotropy (Arthur and Menzies, 1972; Oda et a l . , 1978), as
reviewed i n Section 2.2.1. The results obtained from tests on t i l t e d
anisotropic specimens have been the subject of serious c r i t i c i s m (Saada
and Townsend, 1981; Saada, 1988). When the specimen's axis of symmetry
does not coincide with the loading axis, highly non-uniform d i s t o r t i o n s
may r e s u l t due to end r e s t r a i n t . Preference should thus be given to test
methods where the p r i n c i p a l stress o , rather than the specimen axis, i s

x
inclined.
2.1.2 Devices Allowing P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation
Three-dimensional stress states can also be achieved by applying
a t o r s i o n a l l o a d T^ t o the end platens of standard t r i a x i a l specimens.
Independent control of a x i a l load, cell pressure and torque about the
v e r t i c a l axis (Fig. 2.1e) allows loading with d i f f e r e n t magnitudes of the
3 p r i n c i p a l stresses (Habib, 1953; Ishihara and L i , 1972). With t h i s
configuration, o x and o 3 simultaneously rotate i n the v e r t i c a l plane
normal to the r a d i a l direction. The r o t a t i o n angle a i s a direct
function of o , o x 3 and o 3 and thus can not be independently controlled.
Based on the u s u a l assumption of 0^=0^, and from Mohr c i r c l e construc-
t i o n , i t can be shown that s i n a = b. 2
The main c r i t i c i s m against the use of t o r s i o n a l t r i a x i a l devices
lies on the inherently non-uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of t o r s i o n a l shear
strains i n the r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n (zero at the center and maximum at the
external surface of the c y l i n d r i c a l specimen). As a consequence, t o r -
sional shear stresses are also r a d i a l l y non-uniform, the only exception
being f o r r i g i d p l a s t i c materials. Average values of shear stress and

13
shear s t r a i n need then to be defined i n order to consider the specimen as
a single s o i l element.
Stress non-uniformities are greatly reduced when thin hollow
c y l i n d r i c a l specimens are used (Saada and Townsend, 1981). In addition,
the assumption of uniform = Og i s better approximated but not e n t i r e l y
guaranteed by m a i n t a i n i n g = P g (Hight et a l . , 1985). However, the
stress condition sin o

2
= b still remains unchanged. Consequently,
independent assessment of the e f f e c t s of four non-zero stress parameters
( o , R, b, a) can not be achieved,

1
m
Another shear device that imposes continuous r o t a t i o n of p r i n c i p a l
stresses under plane strain conditions i s the simple shear apparatus
(Fig. 2.If). Depending on the specimen's cross-section, two basic
configurations of simple shear devices have been used: (1) short
cylindrical specimens (Kjellman, 1951; Bjerrum and Landva, 1966); and
(2) rectangular prismatic specimens (Roscoe, 1953).
The l i m i t a t i o n s of simple shear devices have been the subject of
extensive discussions (Hvorslev and Kaufman, 1952; Duncan and Dunlop,
1969; Saada and Townsend, 1981; Lacasse and Vucetic, 1981; Budhu,
1984) . Complementary shear s t r e s s e s x are inherently absent on the
tilting boundaries of the simple shear specimen. Hence, considerations
of equilibrium and boundary conditions require the d i s t r i b u t i o n of both
shear and normal stresses to be necessarily non-uniform on the specimen's
surfaces. In addition, p r i n c i p a l stress directions and magnitudes are
either unknown or uncontrolled. The device i s therefore not suitable for
fundamental investigations of the e f f e c t s of p r i n c i p a l stress rotations
on s o i l behaviour. However, i t s close modelling of some p r a c t i c a l f i e l d

14
situations has made the simple shear device a t t r a c t i v e for obtaining
design strength parameters.
In an attempt to overcome the l i m i t a t i o n s of simple shear devices,
Arthur et a l . (1977) developed the d i r e c t i o n a l shear c e l l (DSC). In this
device, normal and shear stresses can be independently controlled on four
faces of a cubical specimen, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2.1g. These stresses
are applied through f l e x i b l e membranes (pressure bags and shear sheets),
while nominal plane s t r a i n conditions are maintained by having the speci-
men constrained between smooth r i g i d end platens on the other two faces.
Conceptually, the operation of the DSC i s very a t t r a c t i v e , since i t
resembles an infinitesimal element under plane strain conditions. In
p r a c t i c e , however, simultaneous application of uniform normal and shear
stresses to d i f f e r e n t faces of a test specimen i s not a simple task. The
distribution of stresses can be expected to be reasonably uniform,
although some d e t a i l s associated with the shear loading system are still
i n . need of further improvements (Arthur et a l . , 1981a; Arthur, 1988).
The d i s t r i b u t i o n of strains i n the central plane has been suggested to be
reasonably uniform i n dense specimens (Arthur et a l . , 1981b; Wong and
Arthur, 1986). However, s t r a i n differences of about 10 to 15% of the
average value on the central plane have been observed along the a3
d i r e c t i o n , probably due to end r e s t r a i n t at the r i g i d boundaries (Wong
and Arthur, 1986). Moreover, DSC specimens of loose sand have been
reported to exhibit s i g n i f i c a n t nonuniformity of strains (Arthur et a l . ,
1981a).
The DSC, i n i t s present stage of development, s t i l l presents several
practical l i m i t a t i o n s , the most important being the r e s t r i c t i o n to very
low stress levels (usually o 3 £ 14 kPa) . At these low c o n f i n i n g

15
stresses, r e l a t i v e l y large d i l a t i v e volumetric strains and high f r i c t i o n
angles can be expected. Accuracy in strain measurements is also
difficult to achieve i n the DSC, because of the specimen's flexible
boundaries. Radiographic and photographic techniques have been used
(Arthur et a l . , 1977, 1981a) with obvious disadvantages i n terms of cost
and i n not providing instantaneous information for the needed corrections
of specimen geometry. Alternatively, a rather complex system of 20
displacement transducers has been described (Sture, 1986; Sture et a l . ,
1987) to obtain average values of boundary strains corrected for the
movements of the loading frame.
Since the DSC i s a plane s t r a i n device, no control of a a (or b) can
be achieved. The device has been mainly used i n the investigations of
inherent and induced anisotropy. Improvements i n the device have been
recently suggested and can be expected over the near future. Wong and
Arthur (1986) have reported attempts to measure o 2 by replacing one of
the r i g i d platens by a f l e x i b l e bag f i l l e d with de-aired water. However,
these attempts were only p a r t l y successful since values of e 2 up to 0.7%
were observed, causing departure from the plane strain condition.
Undrained tests have also been t r i e d (Sture et a l . , 1985) but apparently
without provision for pore pressure measurements.
The only device suitable for general stress path tests i n which 4
stress components (e.g., o lt o,

2 o 3 and a) can be independently
controlled i s the hollow cylinder t o r s i o n a l (HCT) device. As i l l u s t r a t e d
i n F i g . 2.1h, HCT s o i l specimens are subjected to d i f f e r e n t internal and
e x t e r n a l chamber p r e s s u r e s (P. ^ P ), a x i a l force (F ) and torque (T, )

i e z n
about the v e r t i c a l axis.
16
The HCT device may be seen as a combination of the hollow cylinder
t r i a x i a l and the t o r s i o n a l t r i a x i a l devices previously discussed. As a
r e s u l t , nonuniform d i s t r i b u t i o n s of o , o. and t are a l s o present

q
r o zo
across the wall i n the HCT specimen. As suggested by Hight et a l . (1983)
and Sayao and Vaid (1988b), these non-uniformities can however be greatly
minimized by suitable selection of specimen's dimensions and by avoiding
c e r t a i n r e g i o n s o f the s t r e s s space (o^, R, b, a). In p a r t i c u l a r , the
HCT i s most suitable f o r investigating s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour of s o i l s
subjected to stress states s u b s t a n t i a l l y below f a i l u r e . This topic i s
discussed i n d e t a i l i n the next chapter.
2.2 SAND BEHAVIOUR UNDER GENERAL STRESS PATHS
2.2.1 Anisotropy
It has long been recognized that the mechanical behaviour of
granular materials i s influenced by t h e i r anisotropic properties. One of
the e a r l i e s t experimental observations of anisotropic s t r a i n response of
sand was reported by Kjellman (1936). He noted s i g n i f i c a n t differences
in the three principal strains during hydrostatic compression of a
cubical specimen.
A convenient d i s t i n c t i o n between two types of anisotropy was f i r s t
suggested by Casagrande and C a r r i l l o (1944). Inherent anisotropy was
considered as a physical characteristic inherently present i n the
material before the straining process i s i n i t i a t e d . Induced anisotropy,
on the other hand, was defined as due e x c l u s i v e l y to the s t r a i n
associated with the applied stresses.
These d e f i n i t i o n s were l a t e r extended to include past s t r a i n events
as a part of inherent (or i n i t i a l ) anisotropy (Arthur and Menzies, 1972;

17
Wong and Arthur, 1985). As stated by Saada (1981), "a stress induced
anisotropy i s an inherent anisotropy for the next state of s t r e s s " .
2.2.1.1 Inherent Anisotropy
In nearly a l l natural sand deposits, the mode of deposition and the
shape of i n d i v i d u a l grains introduce some form of inherently anisotropic
f a b r i c to the s o i l . Yet, i n p r a c t i c e , s o i l s are frequently modelled as
isotropic i n the interest of s i m p l i c i t y . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , some models
consider the s o i l as possessing an inherent cross-anisotropy. This i s
characterized by a v e r t i c a l axis of symmetry and, consequently, a hori-
zontal plane of isotropy. Cross-anisotropic fabric could result natur-
ally from vertical sedimentation i n approximately horizontal layers.
Experimental evidence i n support of inherent anisotropy of undisturbed
sand samples, obtained by a freezing technique, has been presented by
Ladd et a l . (1977). Conventional hydrostatic compression i n the t r i a x i a l
c e l l indicated the r a d i a l strains i n loose Niigata sand to be about 2.A
times larger than the v e r t i c a l ones. Similar conclusions have been
reported by Miura and Toki (198A) from drained compression and extension
t r i a x i a l tests on undisturbed sand specimens trimmed from blocks. Block
samples were obtained by freezing at two s i t e s of r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous
sand deposits.
Recent research on anisotropic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sands has, how-
ever, concentrated on reconstituted pluviated specimens (Arthur et a l . ,
1981a; Symes, 1983; Negussey, 198A; Miura, 1985). P l u v i a t i o n closely

*
simulates the sedimentation process occurring i n many deposits i n - s i t u .
*Details on the water p l u v i a t i o n technique are presented i n Chapter A

(Item A.3).
18
Reconstitution of homogeneous specimens of controlled density by p l u v i a -
t i o n thus provides a convenient manner of studying properties of sand i n
situ.
Anisotropy i n Shear Strength
Experimental observations of the inherent strength anisotropy of
pluviated sands in different devices have been reported by many
researchers (Fig. 2.2). In each t e s t , the rotation angle a was kept
constant. In devices where the p r i n c i p a l stress o x i s fixed i n direc-
t i o n , loading at i n c l i n a t i o n a was obtained by forming the specimen i n a
tilting mould. The disadvantages of this technique have been already
pointed out i n Section 2.1.1.
It can be noted, from the r e s u l t s presented i n F i g . 2.2, that the
friction angle cf>' varies with the d i r e c t i o n of loading. The highest
value of <j>' corresponds to a = 0 (Oj coincident with the deposition
direction). This i s consistent with the lower deformability observed i n
the v e r t i c a l deposition d i r e c t i o n i n hydrostatic compression.
Some controversy a r i s e s , however, i n r e l a t i o n to the value of a at
which minimum strength was observed. Some investigators have indicated
that the lowest <J>' occurs when o x i s perpendicular to the deposition
direction (a = 90°). This was attributed to the preferred horizontal
orientation of sand p a r t i c l e s i n pluviated specimens (Oda, 1972; Arthur
and Menzies, 1972). Oda's investigations on sand f a b r i c w i l l be reviewed
i n more d e t a i l l a t e r .
Plane s t r a i n r e s u l t s reported by Oda et a l . (1978) indicate, how-
ever, minimum <J>' values at a between 65° and 75°. Observation of f a i l u r e

19
55
0 30 60
CT, _ d i r e c t i o n , oc (deg)
Symbol Device Sand D (%)

r CT ' (kPa)
C Reference
T1 Standard 86 <7
'= 0-3=50 Oda
2 et a l , 1978
T2 Triaxial 83 cr'=03=100
2 Oda , 1976
To yo Lira
T3 cr* = 50 Oda
3 et a l , 1978
Plane 89
T4 cr'=4oo Oda 3 et a l , 1978
Strain
LB 1 Arthur $ Assadi, 1977
Leighton
LB2 True Triax. 90 C '=fJ3 = 55
2 Arthur 4 Menzies, 1972
Buzzard
A D.S.Cell 0-3'= 14 Wong 4 A r t h u r , 1985
Notes :
( I ) all tests d r a i n e d ; ( 2 ) DSC tests non - t i l t e d specimen
F i g u r e 2.2 Evidence of S t r e n g t h Anisotropy from V a r i o u s Devices.

20
planes nearly p a r a l l e l to the bedding plane was d i r e c t l y associated to

*
the indicated d i r e c t i o n of lowest shear strength.
Figure 2.2 suggests that, anisotropic characteristics seem to be
more accentuated under plane strain conditions, than under triaxial
stress conditions. This can be p a r t l y attributed to the differences i n
the intermediate stress parameter b i n the two types of t e s t s .
Also presented i n F i g . 2.2 are results consisting of three data
points reported by Wong and Arthur (1985) from tests i n the d i r e c t i o n a l
shear c e l l . In t h i s case, the specimen's axis of symmetry i s v e r t i c a l
and the i n c l i n a t i o n a i s controlled through the boundary shear and normal
loads. Despite these differences i n testing techniques and the low value
of c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e (o 3 = 14 kPa), DSC r e s u l t s seem to agree with the
plane strain data previously reported by Arthur and Assadi (1977).
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the value of o 3 used i n these plane s t r a i n tests was not
reported. Thus, the significantly lower strength observed from true
t r i a x i a l tests on the same material (Arthur and Menzies, 1972) can not be
f u l l y explained.
As already discussed i n Section 2.1, torsional triaxial tests on
solid cylinders and simple shear tests suffer from significant stress
non-uniformities. Therefore, t o r s i o n a l tests on hollow cylinders are,
together with DSC tests, the other options available for studies of
anisotropy of sands.
*From simple considerations of Rankine's active stress conditions, f a i l -

ure planes should be i n c l i n e d at i = (45° - (f>'/2) to the major p r i n c i p a l
stress d i r e c t i o n . For dense Toyoura sand under plane s t r a i n conditions
(<f>' = 46°), i n c l i n a t i o n i = 23°. Lowest f r i c t i o n a l strength could be
anticipated when f a i l u r e and bedding planes become nearly p a r a l l e l .
This condition i s thus indicated by loading d i r e c t i o n a = 90° - i = 67°,
which agrees with the experimental observations.
21
The available evidence of strength anisotropy of sands from HCT
tests i s summarized i n F i g . 2.3. The general trends i n c/>' indicated by
Symes et a l . (1982, 1983, 1984 and 1988) and Miura (1985) agree with the
r e s u l t s previously shown i n F i g . 2.2. However, the s u r p r i s i n g l y high
value of <$>' = 65° at a = 45° ( i n contrast with cj>' = 46° at a = 0),
reported by Tong (1975), c l e a r l y suggests problems with h i s equipment.
Also, extremely high friction angles are indicated by Miura (1985),
especially at low values of inclination a. In t h i s case, however,
unfavourable combination of stress conditions and specimen dimensions was
suggested to have seriously affected the results (Shibuya and Hight,
1986).
Minimum values of <J>' at a = 65 to 70° can also be noted i n F i g . 2.3
for both Toyoura and Ham r i v e r sands i n dense states. This observation
is in agreement with Oda et a l . (1978) plane strain test results
previously discussed.
Further investigations of strength anisotropy using the DSC device
have been presented by Arthur et a l . (1981a). Despite marked inherent
anisotropy i n s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour, these researchers have suggested
little influence of p r i n c i p a l stress d i r e c t i o n on shear strength. T h i s
is i n contradiction to the results shown i n Figs. 2.2 and 2.3, and i n
p a r t i c u l a r to other plane s t r a i n r e s u l t s using t i l t e d specimens.
Anisotropy i n Stress-Strain Behaviour
Studies on the drained anisotropic stress-strain behaviour of
pluviated sands, carried out i n the HCT device are reproduced in Fig.
2.4 (Miura, 1985; Symes et a l . , 1988). A strong decrease i n d i s t o r t i o n a l
s t i f f n e s s with increase i n a may be noted for both dense and medium dense
22
70
3 0 I— 1
1 1 1 1 1 L_
0 30 60 90
0", — d i r e c t i o n , o c ( d e g )
Symbol Sand D (%)

r CT(kPa) Condition
m Reference
A Ottawa 84 =^50 Tong, 1975

T Toyoura 82 98 Miura, 1985
H 1 drained Symes et al.1982
88
H2 Ham 200 Symes, 1983
river
H3 Symes et a
l,l
988
44
H4 200(init.) undrained Symes et al,l984
Note •- all t e s t s with b= 0 . 5 0
F i g u r e 2.3 Evidence of S t r e n g t h A n i s o t r o p y from HCT D e v i c e .

b) Ham river s a n d , water pluviation ( a f t e r Symes et a l ,
1988)
F i g u r e 2.4 Inherent A n i s o t r o p y of P l u v i a t e d Sands i n HCT Device.

24
sands. As already pointed out, excessive stress nonuniformity renders
r e s u l t s of Miura (1985) questionable. It may be noted that although the
t e s t performed with o x i n the v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n was terminated at R = 20
(mobilized <j>' = 65°), i n d i c a t i o n of f a i l u r e had not yet been observed.
At this stress condition, nonuniformities within the hollow cylinder
specimen would be unacceptably high (see Chapter 3).
Although to a much smaller scale, similar c r i t i c i s m may be raised
against Symes et a l . (1988) HCT tests on medium dense sand. When the
t e s t with a = 0 condition was terminated, mobilized f r i c t i o n angle was
already close to 47° and high levels of stress nonuniformities could be
expected. In addition, a l l tests reported by Symes and his co-workers
are not on virgin pluviated specimens, as noted by Sayao and Vaid
(1989a), since a drained "triaxial" compression cycle was routinely
applied to every HCT specimen. Dense specimens were v e r t i c a l l y preloaded
to a p r i n c i p a l stress r a t i o R = 2.6, and loose to R = 2.0 (Symes, 1983).
These R levels were shown to correspond to more than 50% of the maximum
shear strength. This load-unload cycle may have s i g n i f i c a n t hardening
effects on the strain response upon subsequent reloading stages. It
could also cause a l t e r a t i o n i n the inherent anisotropic fabric of the
sand.
Fabric Anisotropy
Also i n agreement with the experimental results presented i n Figures
2.2 to 2.4 are the concepts of fabric anisotropy introduced by Oda (1972
and 1976). The anisotropic response of homogeneous sand deposits i s
considered to be dictated by two factors: (1) preferred alignment of non-
spherical p a r t i c l e s ; and (2) preferred o r i e n t a t i o n of contact normals.

25
During deposition under the action of gravity, sand grains tend to
have t h e i r long axis aligned i n a nearly horizontal d i r e c t i o n . Examina-
tion of t h i s preferred alignment has been made possible by preparing
vertical and horizontal t h i n sections of both natural and reconstituted
sand samples. This was done after i n f i l t r a t i o n of a r e s i n binder into
the s o i l voids (Oda, 1972).
Experimental evidence i n d i c a t i n g that anisotropy i n shear strength
is s i g n i f i c a n t l y affected by the geometric shape of sand p a r t i c l e s has
been presented by Oda (1976). Anisotropy was i n t h i s case defined by the
r a t i o between shear strengths of specimens loaded at a = 90 and 0°. The
lower values of strength r a t i o obtained with sands containing elongated
grains was attributed to a pronounced horizontal orientation of
particles.
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to point out that sand deposits consisting of
perfect spheres would show, by d e f i n i t i o n , no preferred orientation of
grains. However, anisotropic response of specimens made of pluviated
spherical grains has been demonstrated by several investigators (Oda,
1981; Haruyama, 1981; Shibuya and Hight, 1987). This has been attributed
to the second factor, already mentioned, a f f e c t i n g anisotropy of sands:
preferred orientation of the normals to the planes of contact between
any two p a r t i c l e s .
Oda (1976) has indicated a marked preferred orientation of these
contact normals in a direction parallel to deposition, for specimens
composed of either elongated or spherical grains. The most important
conclusion from Oda's work seems to be that any granular s o i l , when
subjected to vertical gravitational deposition, tends to develop a
s i g n i f i c a n t l y anisotropic fabric. As a r e s u l t , inherently anisotropic

26
stress-strain-strength chara'cteristics are to be expected, with s t i f f e s t
response occurring for loading with o x i n the deposition d i r e c t i o n . This
has been already indicated i n F i g . 2.4.
It i s important to note, however, that other methods of specimen
preparation may r e s u l t i n less marked degrees of inherent anisotropy as a
consequence of a more random orientation of contact normals. An example
of this has been recently described by Chen et a l . (1988). Hollow
cylindrical specimens of glass spheres, prepared by compaction i n five
layers, were suggested to be nearly i s o t r o p i c .
2.2.1.2 Induced Anisotropy
The mechanism of fabric changes associated with shearing of a
granular mass is significantly dependent on the initial (inherent)
geometric fabric (Oda, 1976). Induced anisotropy i s more conveniently
studied from an i n i t i a l l y i s o t r o p i c f a b r i c . When subjected to shearing
stresses, the s p a t i a l arrangement of s o l i d p a r t i c l e s and the associated
voids of a granular mass progressively change (Oda et a l . , 1985). As a
result, new geometric fabric gradually evolves and the sand becomes
increasingly anisotropic. Elongated grains tend to become aligned i n a
direction perpendicular to the major principal stress o .

x
Simultaneously, increasing concentration of contact normals along the
d i r e c t i o n of o x i s produced (Oda et a l . , 1985).
Experimental observations of induced anisotropy have also been
carried out i n d i f f e r e n t shear devices. F i g . 2.5 reproduces the results
reported by Arthur et a l . (1981a) and Mould et a l . (1982) respectively
from the DSC and the cubical t r i a x i a l devices. In both cases sand
specimens were i n i t i a l l y preloaded by increasing o x i n the o r i g i n a l plane

DRY LEI6HT0N BUZZARD SAND ( D r = 95%)
,0 RELOADING o
4
* O
/ / / fj£ 14 KPa
P - AVERAGE PRE-
LOADING CURVE
(oc= 0)
J I I L_
A) PLANE STRAIN LOADING IN THE DIRECTIONAL

SHEAR C E L L ( a f t e r Arthur et al , 1981a )
DRY LEIGHTON BUZZARD SAND ( D r = 95 % )
"max = °i - <-3
B) A X I - S Y M M E T R I C A L LOADING IN THE CUBICAL

T R I A X I A L APPARATUS ( a f t e r Mould et al , 1982)
F i g u r e 2.5 Induced A n i s o t r o p y on Initially Isotropic Sand.

28
of isotropy (normal to the deposition direction) and then unloaded to a
hydrostatic stress condition.
Pronounced decrease i n s t i f f n e s s with increasing i n c l i n a t i o n s a of
o x d i r e c t i o n can be noted for subsequent reloading. Mould et a l . (1982)
have also carried out an additional test i n which the specimen was again
unloaded and then reloaded i n the o r i g i n a l preloading d i r e c t i o n . The
observed stress-strain behaviour i n this second reloading was nearly
similar to the f i r s t reloading, although the loading direction was
changed by 90°. This was simply suggested by Mould et a l to be "caused
by i s o t r o p i c processes taking place as the s o i l fabric d i l a t e s " , but no
further discussion was presented. I t i s clear.however that, after two
successive loadings i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , producing r e l a t i v e l y high
shear strain levels (Y = 3% i n each l o a d i n g ) , a r a t h e r complex

'max b r
geometric fabric should r e s u l t . This induced f a b r i c i s probably very
much dependent on the previous a l loading directions and s t r a i n levels
and thus no simple explanation of the observed behaviour can be offered.
2.2.2 Sand Response Under Continuous Rotation of P r i n c i p a l Stresses
As already discussed i n the previous section, sand deposits are
known to be inherently anisotropic. Yet, they are normally treated as
i s o t r o p i c i n most deformation or s t a b i l i t y analyses. Consequently, the
results of such analyses are independent of the directions of the
principal stresses. As c o r r e c t l y pointed out by Arthur et a l . (1980),
p r i n c i p a l stress rotations are a major feature of nearly a l l f i e l d stress
paths and yet l i t t l e i s known about the effects of these rotations. This
was a major incentive to the development of the d i r e c t i o n a l shear cell
(Arthur et a l . , 1977) and of recent versions of the HCT apparatus (Hight
et a l . , 1983).
29
Drained plane strain DSC tests on dense sand, with continuous
controlled rotations a, were reported by Arthur et a l . (1979 and 1980).
A steady accumulation of the major p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n (e ) was noted, even x
a f t e r 50 cycles of o x rotation, between a = -35° and +35°, at high values
of R (> 4.0). Unfortunately, variations i n other s t r a i n components were
not reported. Thus, a complete picture of the s t r a i n response of the
dense sand cannot be obtained, although weakening due to d i l a t i o n was
e x p l i c i t l y suggested. Since o^, R and b c o u l d not be kept constant
during rotations, effects of rotation alone on deformations cannot be
isolated.
Tests where the magnitudes of the principal stresses are kept
constant and only a i s continuously varied can only be performed i n the
HCT apparatus. Very l i t t l e information exists on this topic. Symes et
al. (1982) have reported such a t e s t , but at a r e l a t i v e l y high stress
ratio (R = 3.5). Drained principal stress rotation on dense sand
starting from a = 0 was shown to i n i t i a l l y induce moderate volumetric
contraction. After a = 35°, the specimen started to undergo strong d i l a -
t i o n and eventually f a i l e d at a = 65°.
The above r e s u l t i s reproduced i n F i g . 2.6, together with e n t i r e l y
contrasting results of similar HCT tests reported by Miura (1985). In
Miura's t e s t s , a steady moderate d i l a t i o n of dense sand was observed up
to a = 120°, regardless of the i n i t i a l d i r e c t i o n of a l p r i o r to rotation
(a. .^. , = 0 or 1 5 ° ) . F u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n r o t a t i o n angle a was

initial 6
accompanied by a steady volumetric contraction. No f a i l u r e resulted from
continuous rotation of a, even though the mobilized stress r a t i o was even
higher (R = 4.0) than i n the test reported by Symes et a l . (1982).

0.2
HCT tests, b = 0.50
J I L
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
CK ( deg)
Curve Sand D r (%) (TrnUPa) R înitial Reference

H Ham river 88 200 3.5 0 Symes et a l , 1982
Tl 0
Toyoura 82 98 4.0 Miura , 1985
T2 15°
F i g u r e 2.6 Volumetric S t r a i n s Due to P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s Rotation.

u>
o
31
Differences i n and R during continuous r o t a t i o n a of o x can only
partially explain the contrasting HCT results shown i n F i g . 2.6.
Different levels of stress non-uniformities across the specimen's wall
were probably also important f o r the d i f f e r e n t strain responses. As
discussed i n Chapter 3, non-uniformity effects are l i k e l y to be more
severe i n Miura's HCT r e s u l t s , because of smaller specimen dimensions and
higher values of stress r a t i o R.
I t should be pointed out that very l i t t l e i s known about the effects
of principal stress r o t a t i o n on sand response at moderate levels of
stress r a t i o . Accordingly, t h i s constitutes one of the main objectives
of the experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n of this thesis (section 5.3).
Under undrained conditions, a progressive increase i n porewater
pressure of a medium loose sand was shown to occur as a r e s u l t of
continuous r o t a t i o n a of a 1 (Symes et a l . , 1984). In these HCT t e s t s ,
the magnitudes of the three t o t a l p r i n c i p a l stresses were kept constant.
A simple framework f o r a q u a l i t a t i v e understanding of the e f f e c t s of
both p r i n c i p a l stress r o t a t i o n and i n i t i a l anisotropy has been proposed
by Symes et a l . (1984). The concept of a bounding surface (BS), o r i g i n -
a l l y introduced by Roscoe et a l . (1958), was extended to include a as an
additional parameter. The BS could be v i s u a l i z e d i n a 3-D space, by
keeping b constant i n undrained HCT t e s t s . The contractant region of the
BS obtained for medium loose Ham r i v e r sand i s reproduced i n F i g . 2.7a.
If the sand specimen i s subjected to a stress state corresponding to
the post-peak region of the BS, unstable response under stress controlled
conditions would occur. This i s normally followed by a tendency to
dilate, with corresponding reduction of pore pressures. The complete

°L°L(kPa> p k
2 P0S,
' i!l|Pre-pe k
pe
a
a) contractant region
Ham r i v e r sand
D r = 44 %
b = 0.50
°L°L(kPa>
2 AO
100
90 0
b) complete surface
F i g u r e 2.7 Undrained S t a t e Boundary S u r f a c e of Sand

( a f t e r Symes et a l . , 1984).
bounding surface, composed of both the contractant and the d i l a t a n t
regions, i s reproduced i n F i g . 2.7b.
Q u a l i t a t i v e predictions of the pore pressure response during general
stress path t e s t s can be i n f e r r e d from the p o s i t i o n of the observed
e f f e c t i v e stress path (ESP) r e l a t i v e to the bounding surface. Only small
pore pressures are expected to develop when the ESP l i e s beneath the BS
On the other hand, large pore pressures would develop when the ESP
t r a v e l s on the BS
It should be mentioned that the existence of the bounding surface
has been suggested only i f the e f f e c t s of induced anisotropy can be
neglected, (i.e., the induced shear strains are small). Experimental
evidence i n support of the BS has been also indicated f o r a d i f f e r e n t
granular material (pluviated glass spheres) i n similar undrained HCT
tests (Shibuya and Hight, 1987).
More recently, the concept of bounding surface has been further
expanded to include v a r i a t i o n s i n void r a t i o (e) under drained loading
conditions (Symes et a l . , 1988). HCT test results were reported to
substantiate the existence of a four-dimensional BS, defined i n terms of
q = (o -o )/2,
1 3 o^, a and e. T h i s BS was suggested to q u a l i t a t i v e l y
explain the behaviour of a cross-anisotropic medium loose sand undergoing
drained p r i n c i p a l stress rotations. A l l experiments were however limited
to constant values of o^ and b (200 kPa and 0.5, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .
Although very a t t r a c t i v e because of i t s s i m p l i c i t y , the concept of
bounding surface should be applied with caution. As indicated by Sayao
and Vaid (1989a) , not only induced anisotropy, but also previous stress
history effects are i n t r i n s i c a l l y neglected when the BS i s considered
unique i n i t s p o s i t i o n and/or shape. Apparent contradiction between

34
conclusions regarding the e f f e c t of p r i o r stress path on the subsequent
deformation response from two similar HCT investigations by Hight et a l .
(1983) and Symes et a l . (1988) seems to confirm that the concept of a
bounding s u r f a c e should not be widely applied to a l l combinations of
and R (Sayao and Vaid, 1989a).
2.2.3 E f f e c t of Intermediate P r i n c i p a l Stress
The effect or a 3 on the stress-strain-strength c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
soils i s frequently disregarded i n geotechnical engineering. This fact
can be explained by two traditionally strong reasons. First, the
Mohr-Coulorab f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n , usually incorporated i n analysis of l i m i t
e q u i l i b r i u m , i s formulated i n terms o f o 1 and o 3 only. Second, the
standard laboratory and i n - s i t u testing methods, commonly employed i n the
determination of design parameters, do not permit o 2 to be independently
monitored or c o n t r o l l e d .
As suggested by Bishop (1966), the influence of o a on s o i l response
can be more readily appreciated i n terms of parameter b = (o -o )/

2 3
(o -o ).
1 3 Being non-dimensional, b directly represents -the r e l a t i v e
magnitude of o 2 i n r e l a t i o n to the. major and minor p r i n c i p a l stresses.
Furthermore, b has a fixed range of v a r i a t i o n (between 0 and 1) and i s
independent of the drainage conditions imposed.
Although being sometimes the subject of discussions (Saada and
Bianchini, 1978; Saada, 1981; Saada and Puccini, 1985), the use of b,
rather than o , as a c o n t r o l l i n g stress parameter i n m u l t i a x i a l testing

2
of s o i l s seems to be well accepted. I t was introduced by Habib (1953) ,
who was i n v e s t i g a t i n g the shear strength c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of clays and
sands i n t o r s i o n a l t r i a x i a l t e s t s . Habib's conclusions however do not

35
reflect the influence of b alone, because the rotation angle o also
varied ( s i n a = b) i n his testing program.

2
The true t r i a x i a l device has been frequently used i n investigations
of the e f f e c t of b or a 2 on the shear response of reconstituted sand. It
is interesting to note that, as early as 1936, Kjellman was already
reporting r e s u l t s emphasizing the importance of taking the intermediate
p r i n c i p a l stress into consideration. Re-interpretation of his results i n
terms of more usual stress and s t r a i n parameters i s presented i n F i g .
2.8. The s i g n i f i c a n t differences that can be noted i n both volumetric
and shear s t r a i n responses i n the two tests can be mostly attributed to
the differences i n b values.
More recently, several detailed investigations on the v a r i a t i o n of
<j>' with b have been reported. These are schematically shown i n F i g . 2.9.
Most studies seem to indicate that c/>' increases from axisymmetric (b = 0)
to p l a i n s t r a i n conditions (b = 0.25 to 0.50, at f a i l u r e ) . This i s also
suggested by Kjellman's r e s u l t s i n F i g . 2.8. However, for larger values
of b, c o n f l i c t i n g trends of cf>' = f(b) have been reported. Several
factors can explain these c o n f l i c t i n g observations: (1) differences in
anisotropic f a b r i c ; (2) loading directions (a = 0 or 90°); (3) variable
°m* ^ testing techniques (loading or unloading shear); (5) experimental
errors (e.g., interference or r e s t r a i n t at the loading boundaries; stress
or s t r a i n nonuniformities). In cases where dispersion of results i s
accentuated, some degree of personal judgement may be required before
f i n a l conclusions are drawn. This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2.10, where the
i n d i v i d u a l test r e s u l t s and the average trend suggested by Green (1971)
are reproduced.
F i g u r e 2.8 I n f l u e n c e of S t r e s s Parameter b on S t r e s s - S t r a i n Behaviour i n True
T r i a x i a l Tests ( a f t e r K j e l l m a n , 1936).
37
Curve Reference Relat. Density

(a) Bishop ( 1966) Loose
Lade 4- Duncan ( 1973) Loose
lb)' Reades 4 Green (1976) Loose to Dense
Green (1971) Loose to Dense
(c) Dense
Lade 4 Duncan ( 1 9 7 3 )
Ergun (1981) Dense
(d) Haruyama (1981) Loose
Sutherland 4 Mesdary ( 1 9 6 9 ) Loose to Dense
(e) Ramamurthy 4- Rowot ( 1 9 7 3 ) Dense
( f) Shankariah 4 Ramamurthy(1980) Medium to Dense
F i g u r e 2.9 Reported V a r i a t i o n s of <J>' w i t h b i n Sands.

38
Ham river s a n d , D =90%

r
Figure 2.10 Influence of b on Strength and Strains at F a i l u r e

(after Green, 1971).
39
It should be pointed out that the investigations described above,
including those in Fig. 2.9, have a l l been limited to stress paths
corresponding to increasing shear stresses with a = 0 or 90°. For the
particular case of a = 45°, HCT tests reported by Symes et a l . (1982)
also indicate a higher value of <f>* at b = 0.5 than at b = 0. Standard
triaxial and plane s t r a i n tests on "tilted" specimens, at a = 30° and
60°, are also i n agreement with the conclusion that cj>' i s the lowest at
b = 0 stress condition (Lam and Tatsuoka, 1988).
In contrast with the r e l a t i v e l y larger number of studies on shear
strength, the effect of b on soil response at pre-failure stress
conditions has received l i t t l e attention. The results of Haruyama (1981)
on glass spheres indicate, however, that similar variations of mobilized
friction angle with b could be expected at both y i e l d i n g and failure
conditions (Fig. 2.11). Yielding was, i n t h i s case, defined as corres-
ponding to the point of maximum curvature i n the octahedral s t r e s s - s t r a i n
curve (T ./a' . vs r . ). As t h i s d e f i n i t i o n can lead to an imprecise

oct oct oct r
or subjective determination of y i e l d conditions, Haruyama's conclusions
should.also be accepted with some caution.
Earlier in this chapter, attention was drawn to the limitations
against investigations of failure c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s using either the HCT
apparatus or t i l t e d specimens i n t r i a x i a l or plane s t r a i n devices. In
both cases, s i g n i f i c a n t errors i n results may have been introduced by
non-uniformities i n stresses or strains within the test specimens. The
HCT device i s most suitable for studies of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour of
s o i l s with d i f f e r e n t values of b and a, at low levels of the mobilized
shear strength. In p a r t i c u l a r , the e f f e c t of b alone could be d i r e c t l y
assessed from HCT stress path tests i n which a l l other stress parameters
40
GLASS S P H E R E S , LOOSE
36
0>
32
failure
28
o
- E
5* 24 - yielding
20
0.2
_ » 0.1
a> o
o -0.1
-0.2
o» 0.4
0"
s
—
g » 0.3
E >»
o 0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
b * (cr;-cr;>/<<r;-cr;)
Figure 2.11 Influence of b on Mobilized Strength and Strains at

Yielding Condition (after Haruyama, 1981).
41
(° » m R and a) are h e l d constant and only b i s allowed to vary between 0
and 1 under drained conditions. Such tests have, not yet been reported
i n the l i t e r a t u r e .
2.3 SUMMARY
It i s apparent from the review presented i n t h i s chapter that a l l
laboratory stress path devices fail to meet the fundamental and ideal
requirement of uniform and well defined d i s t r i b u t i o n s of stresses and
strains within the test specimen. Furthermore each device i s ideally
suitable f o r investigations of only specific regions of the general
stress space. From a l l the devices currently a v a i l a b l e , the HCT i s the
only one that offers the p o s s i b i l i t y of independent control of 4 stress
components (R, o^, b and a). Consequently, studies on fundamental beha-
viour of i n i t i a l l y anisotropic materials and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s o l a t i o n of
the effects of continuous rotation a or intermediate p r i n c i p a l stress
parameter b can only be performed with a HCT apparatus. Although major
advances have recently been made i n understanding the effects of b and a
on cross-anisotropic s o i l s , most studies have been performed either on
tilted specimens or concentrated on behaviour at high shear stress
levels. Thus, some of the conclusions from these studies are question-
able due to r e l a t i v e l y large levels of stress nonuniformity. Further-
more, many investigations have been r e s t r i c t e d to dense sands. Also,
contradictory e f f e c t s of p r i n c i p a l stress rotation on s o i l behaviour have
been reported. The e f f e c t of b on deformations has not been d i r e c t l y
investigated. Only comparisons of tests with fixed b and increasing R
values have so far been reported with several contradictory trends.

42
Therefore, a more comprehensive and systematic fundamental investi-
gation on the e f f e c t s of b and a, at lower R l e v e l s , on anisotropic sands
is necessary. In order to accomplish this a^ new HCT apparatus was
developed at the University of B.C. (see chapter 4). Due to the inherent
nonuniformities of stresses associated with HCT specimens, a critical
assessment of the available d e f i n i t i o n s of nonuniformity has been made.
Accordingly, the experimental program was devised with proper considera-
t i o n as to the stress regions where nonuniformity levels are minimized.
Nonuniformity aspects are detailed i n the next chapter. The testing
program was designed to investigate the deformation response of sand
under general stress paths. Particular emphasis was placed i n delineat-
i n g how each s t r e s s parameter R, a, and b influences response when
others are held constant.

43
CHAPTER 3
STRESS NONUNIFORMITIES IN HCT SPECIMENS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Apart from those due to end r e s t r a i n t , stress nonuniformities arise
i n the wall of a hollow cylinder specimen as a result of curvature of the
wall. These nonuniformities develop when a torque or a difference i n
external and i n t e r n a l pressures are applied. T r a d i t i o n a l l y , the effects
of end r e s t r a i n t have been minimized by techniques that reduce radial
shear at the ends together with the use of s u f f i c i e n t l y long specimens.
This approach of minimizing effects of end r e s t r a i n t was also used i n the
design of the U.B.C. HCT apparatus (see Chapter 4).
No systematic analysis of stress nonuniformities due to curvature of
the wall i n HCT specimens was made p r i o r to the work of Hight et a l .
(1983). The analysis enabled them to select suitable specimen dimensions
that were considered to minimize the e f f e c t of stress nonuniformities i n
the wall. 'No go' regions of the stress space (R, b, a) were delineated
that would r e s u l t i n unacceptable levels of nonuniformities.
In t h i s chapter, Hight et a l . ' s c r i t e r i a of stress nonuniformity are
c r i t i c a l l y examined. I t i s pointed out that t h e i r approach of acceptable
level of nonuniformity i n individual stress components i s not s a t i s f a c -
tory. I t can lead to serious and unacceptable nonuniformities i n the
distribution of stress r a t i o R across the specimen wall. Since R i s
generally recognized as the most important stress variable controlling
response of f r i c t i o n a l granular materials, concepts of acceptable nonuni-
formity are advanced i n terms of R. Based on these concepts, new 'no go'
44
regions of the stress space are identified together with t h e i r i n t e r -
relationship to specimen geometry.
3.2 STRESSES AND STRAINS IN HCT SPECIMENS
The four s u r f a c e tractions - vertical f o r c e F , torque T^, and
external and i n t e r n a l pressures P g and P^ r e s p e c t i v e l y , a c t i n g on a
hollow c y l i n d r i c a l specimen are i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 3.1(a). These induce
s t r e s s e s a , a , a. and T' i n an element i n the wall of the specimen

z' r' 0 z0 r
(Fig. 3.1(b)). S i m i l a r l y the four non-zero s t r a i n components are e , e ,

Z IT
e
0
a n d
r-
zQ
Interpretation of r e s u l t s from HCT test i s made by considering the
entire specimen as a single element deforming as a right circular
cylinder. Since the stresses vary across the wall of the cylinder for a
v a r i e t y of loading conditions, i t becomes necessary to work i n terms of
average stresses and strains. The following expressions are used for
c a l c u l a t i n g average stresses:
F + TT(P R 3
- P.R?)
z e e i i , 0 ,v
Z
TT(R - R.)
e l
°r (P R 2
- P.RJ + 2(P - P.)R R £n(R /R.)
J 2
= ^ e £ i_e_i e_jL_ ( 3 > 2 )
°0 ( R
e " V
F i g u r e 3.1 Load and S t r e s s C o n d i t i o n s i n HCT Specimens.
A6
i n which R g and are r e s p e c t i v e l y the external and i n t e r n a l specimen
radii.
Only o z i s not dependent on the m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u i v e law and i s
obtained by equilibrium considerations only. The remaining stress
components correspond to the assumption of a l i n e a r e l a s t i c i s o t r o p i c
material. The expressions for o , o and x used above are obtained by

Q q
r u zo
averaging over the volume of the specimen. Hight et a l . (1983) and
others use s l i g h t l y different expressions f o r these stresses. The
differences arise p a r t l y on account of averaging across the wall instead
of the volume of the specimen as well as assuming p l a s t i c constitutive
law f o r evaluating x . Q These d i f f e r e n c e s , however, are minor and

Zo
usually do not exceed 2% among d i f f e r e n t expressions proposed. For the
sake of consistency, however, a l l stress components should be computed by
assuming a single constitutive law and not by a hybrid combination of
elastic f o r some and p l a s t i c f o r other components, as done by Hight et
al.
The r a d i a l stress o i n HCT t e s t s i s u s u a l l y the i n t e r m e d i a t e

r • J
p r i n c i p a l stress a . 2 Application of torque therefore causes r o t a t i o n (a)
of stresses a 1 and o 3 i n the v e r t i c a l plane perpendicular to the r a d i a l
d i r e c t i o n (Fig. 3.1(c)). Mohr's c i r c l e can be used to compute o , o and x 3
a from the known average stress components o , o Q and x . Q
Z U Zu
The various average strain components are calculated using the
following expressions: -AH

e (3.A)
z H
-(AR - AR.)
e l
e (3.5)
r R - R.
e I
where AG i s the angular displacement at the base.
These definitions stem from considerations of compatibility of
displacements together with the assumption of a linear variation of
displacement across the specimen wall. Expressions (3.4) to (3.7) are
i d e n t i c a l t o those used by Hight et a l . (1983). AR^ i s obtained from
measured volume change of the inner chamber and AR g can be computed from
t h e measured v a l u e s o f AR., e and e ,. Likewise f o r s t r e s s e s ,

l z vol '
p r i n c i p a l strains e x and e 3 can be computed from the known average strain
components e , e Q and y Q using Mohr's c i r c l e construction. The r a d i a l
strain corresponds to e . 2
3.3 STRESS NONUNIFORMITY IN THE WALL
The degree of stress nonuniformity i n the wall of the HCT specimen
depends on the stress state, specimen dimensions and constitutive law of
the s o i l . o i s u s u a l l y assumed uniform. The remaining stress compon-
ents o , o , T will a l l v a r y across the wall for generalized loading

r u Q
zb
Q
conditions, with torque T^ f 0 and confining pressures P ^ P •.
Hight et a l . (1983) defined the nonuniformity coefficient B 3 for
each i n d i v i d u a l stress component as follows:
R
1 1
(3.8)
Pa = R - R. S
e l
48
i n which S = stress component i n question (o , o or x ) , S = average Q Q
r o zo av
value of the stress component and S^ = stress l e v e l , taken as ( Q ) f ° T
Z a v
r
T, and 4[(o ) + (o-J ] f o r o and a . The l e v e l of stress nonuni-

z6 n
2 r av 0 av r 9 n
formity was considered acceptable i f B 3 < 0.11. In t h e i r analysis, non-
u n i f o r m i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s were c o n s i d e r e d for o r and only, since the
assumption of uniform iQ z implied B 3 = 0 for this shear stress
component.
F i g u r e 3.2 shows e l a s t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n s of o , o. and x across the

&
r' 0 z9 n
wall of a HCT specimen for two a r b i t r a r i l y selected stress states: (a)
= 300 kPa, R = 3, b = 0, a = 45°; and (b) o^ = 300 kPa, R = 3, b = 0.5,
a = 0. The r a d i i R g and R^ are considered to be 7.6 and 5.1 cm respec-
tively (the geometry adopted f o r the UBC-HCT apparatus). Both stress
s t a t e s r e s u l t i n B, (o or o ) = 0.07, implying an acceptable l e v e l of

Q
r o J
nonuniformity by the c r i t e r i a of Hight et a l . (1983).
Figure 3.2 also shows the computed d i s t r i b u t i o n of stress r a t i o R
across the specimen w a l l . For the stress state (a), R ranges between
2.64 and 3.61 and for (b) between 2.54 and 3.92. Such nonuniformities i n
R are c l e a r l y unacceptable f o r a f r i c t i o n a l material whose deformation
response i s intimately linked to the l e v e l of R. Figure 3.3 shows the
r e s u l t s of a conventional t r i a x i a l test on medium loose sand, carried out
in the HCT device. I t may be noted that the highest l e v e l of stress
ratio (R r a a x ) i n
F i g u r e 3.2 could possibly represent a state of f a i l u r e ,
whereas the lowest (R . ) could correspond to a state s u b s t a n t i a l l y below

mm r J
failure. Large differences between maximum and minimum R values would
thus imply very serious s t r a i n gradients across the specimen wall.
A more logical index of stress nonuniformity for a frictional
material would be expressed i n terms of R, i n preference to B 3 of Hight
et a l . (1983). This i s proposed as:

F i g u r e 3.2 E l a s t i c S t r e s s e s Across the W a l l o f HCT Specimens.
R
1.0 I . . . + , , , , , 1
-4 -2 0 2 4 6
STRAIN ( % )
F i g u r e 3.3 S t r e s s - S t r a i n Behaviour of Medium-Loose Sand i n T r i a x i a l Compression.

51
R - R
max mm (3.9)
R
av
It i s suggested herein that stress nonuniformity could be considered
acceptable if £ 0.20. This normally corresponds to a maximum of 10%
v a r i a t i o n i n R across the wall from the average value R » flV Based on t h i s
criterion, the levels of stress nonuniformity for the stress conditions
i n Figure 3.2 (B^ = 0.32 and 0.A6 for cases (a) and (b)) would be c l e a r l y
unacceptable.
3.A NONUNIFORMITY COEFFICIENTS FOR GENERAL STRESS STATES
Contours of B c o e f f i c i e n t s at mobilized R=3 i n b,a plane are shown
i n Figures 3.A and 3.5. The s p e c i f i c stress states considered e a r l i e r i n
Figure 3.2 correspond to points A and B i n these figures. Figure 3.A
shows contours of B 3 together with the B 3 surface and Figure 3.5
i l l u s t r a t e s s i m i l a r information for the proposed c o e f f i c i e n t B . D For a
given stress state (R, b, a ) , B contours do not depend on the l e v e l of
o^. I t may be noted i n Figure 3.A that, but for near the corners (b=l,
<x=0) and (b=0, a=90°), B 3 values are within the acceptable l i m i t s of
B 3 < 0.11; This implies that v i r t u a l l y e n t i r e (R = 3, b, a) space could
be open for i n v e s t i g a t i o n of sand response without introducing serious
stress nonuniformities. B D contours, on the other hand (Figure 3.5) show
t h a t o n l y l i m i t e d regions of stress space could be explored i f B D i s to
be limited to 0.20.
3.5 INFLUENCE OF PRINCIPAL STRESS RATIO
The l e v e l of nonuniformity decreases with decreasing R value. This
may be noted i n Figure 3.6 where B R contours and surface similar to those
° (a) UBC-HCT : /? R contours ; R = 3 (b) UBC-HCT : (3
R surface ; R = 3
Figure 3.5 Nonuniformity Coefficient 8 at R = 3.

R
Figure 3.6 Nonuniformity Coefficient B at R = 2
55
i n Figure 3.5 are presented at mobilized R = 2. The region i n b,a space
where B £ 0.20 i s now much more extensive than i n Figure 3.5. Thus a
larger region of stress space could be explored at lower R levels with
acceptable l e v e l s of stress nonuniformity For any given R l e v e l ,
largest nonuniformities are confined i n the v i c i n i t y of corners (b=l,
a=0) and (b=0, a=90°) and, unlike for B , also along a ridge near a = 45°
3
where large torque i s required. These rigdes appear because of e l a s t i c
assumption f o r T , Q as opposed to p l a s t i c used by Hight et a l . (1983).

Zo
As already pointed out, i t seems inconsistent to assume e l a s t i c c o n s t i t u -
t i v e law for some stress components and p l a s t i c for others. It would be
i n order to mention that for e l a s t i c T , n HCT tests with P = P.(in which

z0 e l
b = s i n a ) , can also be subject of unacceptable

2
nonuniformities i n terms
of B^ i n the neighbourhood of a=45°. For t h i s a range, the usual
consideration of P g = P^ as being superior for i t s minimization of stress
nonuniformities i s thus a misconception.
The manner i n which the nonuniformity c o e f f i c i e n t s vary with R i s
shown i n Figure 3.7 for two stress states (b=0.5, a=0) and (b=0, a=45°).
Both B 3 and (încrease with R. I f stress nonuniformity was assessed i n
terms of B , 3 f u l l range of R levels (in excess of 4) could be explored.
In terms of B^ however, unacceptable n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s occur for R i n
excess of about 2.0 to 2.2 for the specimen geometry under consideration
(R g = 7.6 cm, R^= 5.1 cm). Most HCT devices may thus be not suitable for
generalized stress path testing beyond R = 2.0 to 2.5 i f stress nonuni-
formities are to be kept within acceptable l e v e l s .
3.6 INFLUENCE OF MEAN EFFECTIVE STRESS
I t can be shown that for a given stress state (R, b and a ) , B does D
K
not depend on the l e v e l of a' . This i s a consequence of assuming o = 1
56
R = o"! / cr . 3
F i g u r e 3.7 Effect of R-Level on N o n u n i f o r m i t y Coefficients.

57
constant across the wall together with elastic isotropic constitutive
law. Thus, the l e v e l of o^ does not impose any new l i m i t a t i o n s on the
exploration of stress space than already dictated by (R, b, a) states.
3.7 INFLUENCE OF SPECIMEN GEOMETRY
The discussion of stress nonuniformity so far has been limited to a
fixed specimen geometry. As already pointed out, nonuniformity for a
given stress state (R, a, b) depends on the specimen dimensions. Wall
thickness, diameter and height constitute the three geometrical
components of hollow cylinders.
3.7.1 Specimen Thickness
Stress nonuniformity increases with wall thickness for a given
average specimen radius (R. + R )/2. This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 3.8

l e
for the stress state (b=0, a=45°) at R=2 and 3. It may be noted that,
for a given R l e v e l , acceptable nonuniformities i n terms of B 3 become
c l e a r l y unacceptable using $ u c r i t e r i o n , when larger wall thicknesses are
considered. However, a minimum wall thickness must be provided, even
though B D could be reduced further using thinner specimens. This minimum
thickness i s dictated by e s s e n t i a l l y two considerations (Hight et a l .
1983):
(i) Wall thickness s u f f i c i e n t l y large i n r e l a t i o n to the specimen's
maximum grain size so as to ensure uniform sand density across
the wall;
( i i ) Wall thickness sufficiently large so as to minimize r e l a t i v e
significance of p o t e n t i a l volume change corrections due to
membrane penetration.
58
10 20 30
Thickness , R - R, ( mm )e
F i g u r e 3.8 Effect of W a l l T h i c k n e s s on N o n u n i f o r m i t y Coefficients.

59
A wall thickness of 20 to 26 mm i s considered to meet the above c r i t e r i a
for tests on sands.
3.7.2 Specimen Diameter
Figure 3.9 shows the nonuniformity coefficients B 3 and as func-
tions of the inner radius of the specimen, for a fixed wall thickness of
25.A mm. The r e s u l t s are shown for the stress state (b=0, ot=45°) at R=2
and 3. At both R l e v e l s , B^ may be seen to be much more s e n s i t i v e to
changes i n inner radius than B . 3 Inner r a d i i smaller than even 20 mm
would be s a t i s f a c t o r y i f B 3 i s considered as a measure of nonuniformity,
but would c l e a r l y be unacceptable i f B^ i s considered. Figure 3.9 also
i n d i c a t e s t h a t not much g a i n i n reducing B^ i s accomplished for inner
r a d i i i n excess of about 40 to 50 mm.
Although B D decreases at both levels of stress r a t i o with increasing
R^, a very large inner radius may not be a p r a c t i c a l solution i n terms of
stress path c o n t r o l . This i s shown i n F i g . 3.10(a). For loading with a
given i n c r e a s e i n R, while o^, b, and a are held constant, the magnitude
of d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure P -P. decreases as the inner radius increases.

r
e l
For large R^ ( o f about 120 mm), P ~P^ equals
e a mere 20 kPa f o r an
increase i n stress r a t i o from 1.5 to 3.0. This extreme s e n s i t i v i t y of R
to s m a l l changes i n P ~P^ would be d i f f i c u l t to control experimentally.

e
Such a control will become even more difficult i f needed to be
accomplished at lower values of o' (Fig. 3.10b).

m
Based on the above considerations and considering a wall thickness
within the range of 20 to 26 mm, adequate geometry of HCT specimens ( i n
terms of both nonuniformity and experimental control c r i t e r i a ) may be

obtained i f R./R i s within 0.65 and 0.82.
I e
60
Figure 3.9 Effect of Inner Radius on Nonuniformity Coefficients.

61
F i g u r e 3.10 S e n s i t i v i t y of R to Changes i n D i f f e r e n t i a l Confining

P r e s s u r e as a F u n c t i o n of Inner Radius and a'.
m
62
3.7.3 Specimen Height
Radial f r i c t i o n a l r e s t r a i n t at the specimen boundaries causes stress
nonuniformities i n addition to those due to specimen curvature. These
have been considered to be minimal i f length (H) to diameter (2R ) r a t i o

e
of the specimen i s within the range 1.8 to 2.2. This conclusion i s
supported by t h e o r e t i c a l (Saada and Townsend, 1981; Hight et a l . , 1983)
as well as experimental studies (Lade, 1981; Fukushima and Tatsuoka,
1982). Techniques that aim to reduce radial friction at the end
boundaries will further minimize stress nonuniformities. Such a
technique was adopted i n the design of UBC-HCT device (see Chapter 4).
3.7.4 Recommended Geometry
Geometrical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of hollow cylinder shear devices used by
various researchers are l i s t e d i n Table 3.1. It may be noted that many
of these devices were used only for simulating multiaxial stress states,
with no rotation of p r i n c i p a l stresses. It i s clear that the hollow
cylinder device i s not superior to a true t r i a x i a l device for m u l t i a x i a l
stress paths with a=0 due to stress nonuniformities (see Figures 3.5 and
3.6 for values corresponding to a=0). Consequently, the use of a HCT
apparatus should be primarily to simulate p r i n c i p a l stress rotation
effects or to assess directional properties of inherently anisotropic
soils.
The three geometrical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of hollow cylinders i n Table
3.1 are i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 3.11 i n the form of specimen thickness
(R -R^) versus R^/R as well as H/2R .

g g g Desirable geometry i s suggested by
the two boxed areas i n the figure. The suggestions are based on both
p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l considerations of l i m i t i n g stress nonuniformi-

T
abl
e 3.1 - Stress Path Devices Using Hollov Cylinder Specimens
Speciaen Dimensions (ma)

Ho. Reference Institution Q.J 1 Control Applications
H .
R
R
i
SOU
Type R e s t r i c t i o n s
1 Cooling & Saith 1936 Building Research Station (ESC) 19-38 50.8 41.3 Clay
w i - ° Undrained shear strength
p
2 Norton 1938 M.I.T. (USA) 50.8 11.1 7.9 Clay Torsional deforraability ceraaic clays
3 Geuze & Kie 1953 S.H. Laboratory, Delft (HOD 80.0 19.0 13.0 Clay Undrained creep
4 Kirkpatrick
5 Haythornthvaite
1957 university of Glasgov (SCOT) 152.4 50.8 31.8 Sand
vv° o, e f f e c t on f a i l u r e condition
1960 Brom University (USA) I t t Silt o, e f f e c t on f a i l u r e condition
6 Whitman & Luicher 1962 H.I.T. (USA) 76 or 127 25 or 19 12.7 Sand S o i l - s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n at f a i l u r e
V 0 :
V°
7 Wu et «1. 1963 Michigan State University (USA) 127.0 50.8 38.1 CSS
v° o, e f f e c t on f a i l u r e condition
8
Brorai t Ratntn
9 Broms & Casbarian
1963 Cornell University (USA) 114.3 76.2 38.1
38.1
Clay
v° 3-D consol. e f f e c t s on strength
1965 Cornell University (USA) 254.0 63.5 Clay o a and a effects on strength
10 Brora & Jaaal 1965 Cornell University (USA) 304.8 76.2 38.1 Sand
v° V a l i d i t y of ° '°g assumption
r
11
Esrlg i Beaben
12 Suklje & Drnovsek
1965 Cornell University (USA) 203.2 50.8 38.1 Sand
v° o, and t , e f f e c t s on strength
1965 University of Ljubljana (TOG) 80.0 32.0 20.0 Clay Deformability under plane stress
V 0 :
V°
13 Jamal 1966 Cornell University (USA) 203.2 50.8 13-38 Sand Wall thickness e f f e c t on strength
V 0 : P
.- i
p
1* 1967 Case W.R. University . (USA) 151.1 35.1 25.4 Clay Influence of anisotropy
Saada h Baah
p
.- i p
IS Proctor
16 lomize et a l .
1967 University of Manchester (EKG) 152.4 50.8 19.1 Sand
v° Drained shear strength
1969 C i v i l Engineering Institute (USSR) 180.0 155.0 125.0 Clay Drained creep under 3-D stress state
17 Frydman et a l .
18 Drnevich
1971 Israel I n s t i t u t e of Tech.
1972 University of Kentucky
(ISRL) 203.2 50.8
25.0
25.4
20.0
Sand
v° End r e s t r a i n t ; membrane penetration
Torsional resonant column tests
(USA) 100.0 Sand p
.- i p
19 Arnold & M i t c h e l l
20 Ishibaahi 4 Sherif
1973 University of Adelaide
1974 University of Washington
(AUS) 142.0 76.0 51.0
25.4
Sand
v° 3-D stress e f f e c t on strength
(USA) 13 to 25 50.8 Sand Liquefaction characteristics
21 Tong 1975 University of Waterloo (CAN) 203.2 50.8 31.8 Sand Y i e l d and f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a
22 Lade 1975 U.C.L.A. (USA) 50.0 110.0 90.0 Sand a e f f e c t on s t r e s s - s t r a i n
p
.- i p
23 Ivaiaki et a l . 1978 Inst. Ind. Science (JAP) 100.0 50.0 30.0 Sand S t r e s s - s t r a i n for y > 10-'X
p
.- i p
2* Ude 1981 U.C.L.A. (USA) 400.0 110.0 90.0 Sand Influence of specimen's height
p
.- i p
25 Dusseault 1981 University of Alberta

26 Fukuehiaa & Tatsuoka 1982 Inst. Ind. Science
(CAN) 200-240 50.8 25.4 Sand
v° Tune11ing and pressuremeter paths
(JAP) 200.0 50.0 30.0 Sand p
.- i p
Deformation k strength behaviour

27 Symes et a l . 1982 Imperial College (EHG) 254.0 127.0 101.5 Sand b and a e f f e c t s on s t r a i n response
28 Ishihara & Tovhata 1982 University of Tokyo (JAP) 104.0 50.0 30.0 Sand a effects; liquet, characteristics
p
.- i p
29 Ishibashi et a l . 1985 Cornell University (USA) 142.0 35.5 25.4 Sand Liquefaction characteristics
p
.- i p
30 Miura et a l . 1986 Hokkaido University (JAP) 200.0 50.0 30.0 Sand -J a e f f e c t on s t r e s s - s t r a i n & strength
31 Alarcon et a l . 1986 Purdue University (USA) 203.0 35.5 19.0 Sand
v l p
S t r e s s - s t r a i n for r > 10">t

32 Anderson et a l .
33 Chen et a l .
1988 University of Sheffield
1988 Cornell
(EHG) 150.0 75.0 12.5 Clay
v° Pressuremeter paths; undrained creep
University (USA) 193.0 51.0 35.5 Sand Dynamic shear mod. of glass spheres
p
.- i p
34 Sayao & Vaid 1988 University of B.C. (CAN) 304.8 76.2 50.8 Sand Effects o f o.R.b & o' on s t r a i n resp.
is
121 refer to
40 (FVRj=62)
8 = 10 I3c 10=13c Table 3.1
E
E
35-f or
9
15 J5
or
16 J6
30 +
-9 J3b = l7 20 .27
20:25
25
m
27 9=l3b 25
19 19
17=34
22=24 23=26=28=30 22 23 28 24 26=30

"4=21
20 M •
'21
.31 .31
.33
.33
7=11 = 13a 6c = 6d
15
7 ,6c 6d^ll = l3a
* 29
• 0
•|2
•|2 I 29.
14 10 -
14
6a = 6b
_6a ,6d
18' 5- 18'
1.0. 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4
RiVR
e H/
2R E
Figure 3.11 Specimen Geometry of Reported Hollow Cylinder Devices.

65
t i e s due t o specimen curvature (B^) and end r e s t r a i n t t o acceptable
levels. The suggested geometry i s also consistent with the a b i l i t y to
explore a reasonably large region o f (R, b, a, o^) space. The
recommended dimensions for HCT specimens are:
a) wall thickness: R - R. = 20 to 26 mm
e l
b) inner radius: 0.65 * R./R * 0.82
l e
c) height: 1.8 «; H/2R <; 2.2
66
CHAPTER 4
APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTATION
4.1 THE UBC-HCT TESTING DEVICE
In t h i s section, the hollow cylinder t o r s i o n a l device developed at
the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia (UBC-HCT) i s described i n d e t a i l . The
preliminary design started early i n 1984 and the f i r s t successful experi-
ment was performed about two years l a t e r .
The development of the UBC-HCT apparatus was directed towards
achieving an optimum combination of three d i s t i n c t requirements:
(a) s i m p l i c i t y i n design and construction,
(b) v e r s a t i l i t y i n operation, and
(c) r e l i a b i l i t y i n measurements at small s t r a i n l e v e l s .
In d e t a i l i n g loading and measuring systems, f u l l use was made of the
experience gained at UBC through the development of earlier research
testing devices (Vaid, 1968; Finn et a l . , 1971; Carapanella and Vaid,
1972; Bosdet, 1980; Vaid and Negussey, 1983).
4.1.1 General Description
In i t s present configuration, the UBC-HCT device i s suitable for
controlled stress path t e s t i n g of reconstituted sand specimens under
drained or undrained, monotonic or cyclic stress conditions. Hollow
c y l i n d r i c a l specimens can be subjected to a x i a l load, d i f f e r e n t external
and i n t e r n a l confining pressures and torque about the v e r t i c a l a x i s . Any
pre-failure region i n the four-dimensional stress space ( o , O j , o , a )

x 3 is
thus open for investigations. For the chosen geometry, however, c e r t a i n

67
regions of stress space cannot be investigated without significantly
compromising stress uniformity, as already discussed i n Chapter 3.
A schematic layout of the UBC-HCT apparatus i s shown i n Figure 4.1.
The specimen dimensions are: height = 30.2 cm, outer diameter =15.2 cm,
and wall thickness = 2.5 cm (cross-sectional area = 100 cm ). 2

Selection
of r e l a t i v e l y large dimensions permitted improved r e s o l u t i o n of strains
together with acceptable levels of stress non-uniformities i n a l l tests
reported i n Chapter 5.
The test specimen i s l a t e r a l l y confined by internal and external
fluid pressures acting on flexible rubber membranes 0.3 mm thick.
Torsional and vertical loads are transmitted through annular ribbed
aluminum platens at the top and bottom boundaries. Drainage from the
specimen i s provided by s i x interconnected small porous discs i n b u i l t i n
the end platens.
The specimen i s fixed at the top. Normal and shear loads are
applied at the bottom. This configuration has two main advantages: (1)
facilitates test preparation procedures; and (2) avoids corrections i n
o due to the weight of l o a d i n g ram and load c e l l . The -steel loading

z
frame provides a r i g i d reaction for v e r t i c a l and torque loads.
A t o t a l of nine transducers i s needed to measure the pore pressure
and four stress and four s t r a i n components i n general stress path tests
with the HCT device. In most situations, i n t e r a c t i v e use of a micro-
computer i s required for a proper stress path control.
4.1.2 Loading and Measuring Systems
Normal and shear t r a c t i o n s to the HCT specimen are applied by means
of controlled air pressures, using p r e c i s i o n pneumatic regulators.

68
LVDT ( A H )
POSITIONING
BOLT TOP CROSS BEAM
CHAMBER TOP
TOP CAP
TOP PLATEN
NOTE :
SEE FIG. 4.8 PLEXIGLASS CELL
FOR DETAILS
LOADING FRAME
SOIL SPECIMEN
RIGID ROD
BASE PLATEN
BASE PEDESTAL
PRESSURE
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
PORE PRESSURE
INTERNAL PRESSURE
SUPPORTING LVDT (6)
TABLE
i
LINEAR - ROTARY LOADING SHAFT
BEARINGS
TORQUE CELL
TORQUE CABLES
CENTRAL PULLEY
TORQUE
If PULLEY
TORQUE
PISTON
THRUST BEARING AXIAL LOAD PISTON
AXIAL LOAD CELL
0 20
SCALE (cm)
Figure 4.1 The UBC-Hollow Cylinder Torsional Apparatus.

69
Supply pressure to the test frame was regulated to a maximum of 750 kPa,
that was below the operating range i n the laboratory's main l i n e .
Continuous monitoring of loads, pressures and deformations i n the
UBC-HCT tests i s achieved by using e l e c t r o n i c transducers placed outside
the cell chamber. During the i n i t i a l stages i n the development of the
apparatus, consideration was given to the possible use of internal
instrumentation, as recommended by Hight et a l . (1983). However, a
critical evaluation of recent developments i n laboratory instrumentation
reveals that both external and i n t e r n a l approaches have advantages and
limitations. There i s no consensus for or against either approaches, as
exemplified by Atkinson and Evans (1985) and Jardine et a l (1985). This
is probably due to the differences in external measurement system
configurations, leading to different amounts of bedding, seating and
tilting errors i n displacement and loads. Moreover, i n s t a l l a t i o n of
internal transducers poses additional difficulties in the specimen
preparation procedures and i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of test results, as
discussed l a t e r i n t h i s chapter.
Preliminary experimental comparisons between i n t e r n a l and external
measurements of axial displacements i n dense triaxial specimens were
performed at UBC. Sensitive displacement transducers were used to
monitor relative displacements between two reference footings mounted
over a central gage length on the specimen's membrane. This technique i s
s i m i l a r to that described by Daramola and Vaughan (1982) and Costa F i l h o
(1985). The results indicated no significant differences between
vertical strains derived from external or internal measurements i f
appropriate care was taken to eliminate bedding, seating and/or tilting
errors.
70
It was therefore decided to benefit from UBC's previous experience
on improved techniques of external intrumentation (Negussey, 198A). The
philosophy adopted has been to recognize p o t e n t i a l errors associated with
external measurement systems and take suitable measures to eliminate or
minimize these e r r o r s .
Integrated Bottom Loading System
A double acting a i r piston i s mounted at the bottom of the support-
ing table (Fig. 4.1) to apply compressive or extensional a x i a l load to
the HCT specimen. The load i s transmitted through a 25 mm diameter
polished s t e e l shaft, that has i t s v e r t i c a l alignment guaranteed by two
frictionless Thompson combination bushing bearings. These bearings
permit l i n e a r and rotary motions of the loading shaft and are placed i n
series at the base of the c e l l chamber. The specimen's base platen and
pedestal are mounted on the upper end of the loading shaft.
A 25 mm diameter 0-ring provides seal for the c e l l ' s f l u i d pressure
at the l o c a t i o n where the shaft emerges from the c e l l chamber. Friction
between the 0-ring and the shaft may be neglected, since i t was found to
be less than 2 N, regardless of c e l l pressure. V e r t i c a l stress o as low

z
as 0.2 kPa can be accurately measured with a force transducer placed
outside the c e l l chamber. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that, although the
internal load cell developed at Imperial College (El-Ruwayih, 1975;
Hight, 1983) eliminates the problem of loading ram friction, i t s large
vertical deformability introduces significant errors in external
measurements of a x i a l displacements of dense specimens (Costa F i l h o and
Kupper, 1983; Campos, 1984).

71
The integrated bottom loading system encompasses torque loading to
the central v e r t i c a l shaft underneath the supporting table, as shown i n
Figures 4.1 and 4.2. Torsional loads are applied by two pairs of
i d e n t i c a l single-acting a i r pistons and a system of cables and pulleys.
Diametrically opposite pistons are interconnected to a common regulated
pressure supply. This configuration i s necesary to eliminate horizontal
side forces on the central shaft and also allows a p p l i c a t i o n of torque i n
either direction.,
A dual thrust bearing i s placed below the central torque p u l l e y i n
order to prevent r o t a t i o n a l movements of the v e r t i c a l load piston rod.
Placement of l a t e r a l pulleys was found necessary to avoid side load on
the torque piston rods due to v e r t i c a l movements of the torque p u l l e y
when the specimen deforms v e r t i c a l l y . This integrated bottom loading
system i s an improved version of the system described by Lade (1981).
Torque measurements as low as 0.05 Nm can be r e l i a b l y obtained by a
bonded s t r a i n gage transducer placed above the central pulley. This
corresponds t o an average shear s t r e s s T i n the order o f 0.1 kPa.

ZD
Cross t a l k between a x i a l load and torque was made n e g l i g i b l e by careful
placement of the s t r a i n gages at 45° to the transducer's axis. This
torque transducer i s i n fact a double load c e l l , since i t was also gauged
for measuring v e r t i c a l force. This was p a r t i c u l a r l y useful i n permitting
comparisons with v e r t i c a l force measurements obtained from the load c e l l
below the torque system. No s i g n i f i c a n t differences could be observed
between the two measurements.
Adequate transference of both t o r s i o n a l shear and v e r t i c a l normal
stresses from the loading shaft to the s o i l specimen requires prevention
of r e l a t i v e displacement between the specimen and the end platens i n the

scale (cm)
Figure 4.2 Torque Loading System.

73
tangential d i r e c t i o n only. A good approximation of these ideal boundary
conditions i s achieved by using polished anodized aluminum platens having
twelve t h i n r a d i a l r i b s (1 mm thick and 2.3 mm deep), as i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Figure A.3. S i x 12.8 mm diameter porous discs are set 60° apart, flush
with each platen surface, for drainage i n and out of the specimen.
Ribbed boundaries have been considered necessary to e f f i c i e n t l y
transmit shear stresses to sand specimens i n simple shear (Finn et a l . ,
1971), i n ring shear (Hvorslev, 1939; Wijewickreme, 1986) and i n hollow
cylinder t o r s i o n a l devices (Miura et a l . , 1986; Tatsuoka et a l . , 1986).
Many HCT devices use porous discs over the f u l l platen surface and thus
impose undesirable f r i c t i o n a l restraint i n the r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n . This
may introduce s i g n i f i c a n t stress and s t r a i n non-uniformities close to the
specimen ends, with considerable effects on short specimens (Lade, 1981;
Fukushima and Tatsuoka, 1982).
Some researchers have used annular end platens with a layer of glued
sand grains f o r transmitting tangential shear stresses. While Lade
(1981) has reported success with t h e i r use, Tatsuoka et a l . (1986) have
noted s i g n i f i c a n t slippage between the specimen and the end -platens.
Broms and Casbarian (1965) , and Hight et a l . (1983) used enlarged
outer diameter end platens. This was intended to provide an increased
frictional contact area with full annular porous stones. The same
a r t i f i c e had also been reported by Habib (1953) i n torsion tests on f u l l
cylinders. The r e s u l t i n g i r r e g u l a r specimen shape, however, could only
be acceptable i f a l l stresses and strains were referred to a central
portion of the test specimen. The need f o r l o c a l i z e d i n t e r n a l instru-
mentation then becomes mandatory.

74
A) Perspective
•—' n
I
r-i I-I
C) S i d e view
;
uJ
111
I—I—I
0 5
scale (cm)
Figure 4.3 Polished End P l a t e n w i t h R a d i a l Ribs.

75
F l u i d Pressures
Backpressure and internal and external confining pressures are
applied through air-water interfaces, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 4.4. Air
d i f f u s i o n into the specimen or into the c e l l ' s de-aired water i s preven-
ted by using 1.5 m long, 4 mm i . d . saran tubings as a i r intercepting
d i f f u s i o n loops.
Control of the a i r pressure i s obtained by p r e c i s i o n regulators.
Pressure monitoring i s done on the water side by pressure transducers
placed close to the cell's base plate. This minimizes compliance
effects. Resolution of a l l pressure measurements was i n the order of
0.24 kPa.
The air-water interface cylinder of the external pressure system was
made large enough to accommodate expected variations i n the confining
chamber volume. Air-water interfaces of both i n t e r n a l pressure and pore
pressure systems are located i n graduated pipettes of suitable sizes.
These pipettes are required for volume monitoring systems, as described
later.
S t r a i n Measurements
Four transducers are required for measurements of the four non-zero
strain components in general stress path tests. Two displacement
transducers (LVDT) are used for monitoring vertical and angular
displacements of the specimen's base pedestal. From these, average axial
and shear strains (e and y .) can be computed. In a d d i t i o n , two
d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure transducers are used to r e g i s t e r volume changes of
the s o i l specimen and of the inner pressure chamber. These are required
76
LEGEND
PT •« gage pressure
transducer
DPT * differential pressure

transducer
WS B
de-aired water
WS supply
SOIL
SPECIMEN
B
non - displacement
valve
t
^fc 1
- diffusion spiral
(Z|.5m)
DPT
(b) BACKPRESSURE
Figure 4.4 F l u i d Pressure and Volume Change Measuring Systems.

77
f o r d e f i n i t i o n of average r a d i a l and tangential normal strains ( e r and
e ) , as explained i n Chapter 3.
Q
The v e r t i c a l LVDT i s mounted on the loading frame's top cross beam,
as shown i n F i g . 4.1. The transducer's core reacts against the top of a
t h i n v e r t i c a l s t e e l rod (10 mm o.d.), r i g i d l y attached to the centre of
the specimen's pedestal. In this manner, v e r t i c a l movements of the
specimen base only are transmitted to the transducer's core. An 0-ring
placed in the top cap seals the inner chamber pressure around the
v e r t i c a l rod.
With t h i s configuration, compliance errors frequently asociated with
external axial displacement measurements (Daramola and Vaughan, 1982;
Costa F i l h o , 1985) are greatly minimized. Displacements are measured at
the "unloaded" side, where there i s no influence of compliance of the
loading components. In addition, the top cross beam constitutes a fixed
reference unaffected by v a r i a t i o n s i n chamber pressure.
Further improvement i n the accuracy of a x i a l displacement measure-
ments i s obtained by minimization of bedding and seating errors (Jardine
et a l . , 1984; Atkinson and Evans, 1985). This has been achieved by
adopting several improvements i n the t e s t i n g technique: (a)~use of small
diameter porous stones flush with the platens surface; (b) careful
levelling of the specimen's top surface p r i o r to placement of the top
platen; (c) d e n s i f i c a t i o n of the specimen after placement of the top
platen; and (d) a p p l i c a t i o n of 50 kPa i n i t i a l hydrostatic stress state
that eliminates subsequent bedding movements. Items (b) to (d) are
described i n d e t a i l i n section 4.3.
Rotation of the specimen's base platen i s converted to l i n e a r tan-
g e n t i a l displacement by using the system schematically shown i n F i g . 4.5.

78
counter
weight
Figure 4.5 Rotational Displacement Measuring

System.
79
The LVDT i s placed at a distance large enough to avoid need for
corrections i n the measured tangential displacement due to vertical
movements of the rotation arm when the specimen deforms v e r t i c a l l y .
Both displacement transducers were calibrated against a p r e c i s i o n
micrometer. They can r e l i a b l y detect displacements of the order of 1 um.
This gives a resolution i n both v e r t i c a l and shear s t r a i n measurements of
about 5x10"*%.
Volume changes of the inner chamber and s o i l specimen are obtained
by monitoring the height of water column i n graduated pipettes. Membrane
penetration corrections were made to the measured volume changes when
stress paths involving variations i n Pe and/or P i were applied. Such
corrections are detailed i n the Appendix. I l l u s t r a t i o n s of both systems
are presented i n Figure 4.4. Sensitive d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure transducers
(DPT) are used to electronically register the water level in the
pipettes, as described by Campanella and Vaid (1972) and Tatsuoka (1981).
The specimen's drainage system i s provided with two 5.4 mm bore
pipettes placed i n p a r a l l e l . In tests where small volume changes are
anticipated, one of the pipettes i s i s o l a t e d from the drainage l i n e . A
backpressure of 200 kPa was normally used to ensure f u l l saturation of
the soil specimen. With this system, variations of 3 mm 3

i n the
specimen's volume can be reliably detected. This corresponds to a
r e s o l u t i o n i n volumetric s t r a i n measurements better than 5x10"*%, a f t e r
correcting f o r membrane penetration e f f e c t s (see Appendix).
In monitoring changes i n the inner chamber's volume, only one
pipette (7.9 mm bore) i s needed. Variations of about 10 mm, 3

equivalent
to 2x10"*% of the inner chamber volume, can be r e l i a b l y detected.
Several c a l i b r a t i o n s of both DPT's under backpressures i n the range
0-500 kPa were performed, with no s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n c a l i b r a t i o n
factors being detected with change i n backpressure.

80
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the use of i n t e r n a l instrumentation
does not necessarily imply a better resolution i n s t r a i n measurements.
Hight et a l . (1983) have reported resolution values of 2 p and 6x10" %,

3
respectively for localized axial displacement and shear strain
measurements i n HCT t e s t s , using the e l e c t r o l y t i c level transducers
described by Symes and Burland (1984). Another aspect to be considered
is that, i n order to obtain representative average values, internal
measurements must be made at several locations. For example, with the
HCT device described by Hight et a l . (1983), a x i a l and shear strains are
recorded i n , respectively, two and s i x d i f f e r e n t locations on the hollow
specimen's external wall and s i x i n t e r n a l proximity transducers are used
for obtaining average radial displacements near the centre of the
specimen's i n t e r n a l and external walls. The use of a large number of
i n t e r n a l displacement transducers introduce severe p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s
in terras of preparation time, physical installation space, and data
acquisition/processing requirements.
4.2 DATA ACQUISITION
A micro-computer based data acquisition system was used i n this
research. The system has two main components: a HP-3497A data-logger
consisting of multi-channel scanner and analog/digital converter, and an
IBM-PC micro-computer controlled by a BASIC program. A l l transducers
were excited by a common power supply which was set at 6.00 v o l t s .
Control of the laboratory temperature to 20±1°C made thermal effects
insignificant.
Data scanning i s i n i t i a t e d by a single i n s t r u c t i o n on the computer's
keyboard. Output voltages from 10 channels (excitation voltage and 9

81
transducer signals) are monitored i n each scan. After transformation
from analog to d i g i t a l form, the readings are transmitted to the computer
for processing into stress and s t r a i n units. Voltages, stresses and
s t r a i n s are then l i s t e d on a video display monitor, and the operator i s
given three options: storing the data on magnetic floppy discs,
monitoring one channel's output voltage, or triggering another scan.
For each selected scan, output voltages and processed test data are
stored i n separate disc f i l e s f o r further analysis upon test completion.
Test data i s also simultaneously output to a l i n e p r i n t e r f o r ready
comparison with previous scans. Printer output serve as a duplicate test
record i n the u n l i k e l y event of system failure. Pressure gages,
graduated pipettes and d i a l gages are also used as backup measuring
devices, i n addition to the electronic transducers.
4.3 SPECIMEN PREPARATION
4.3.1 Reconstitution of Sand Specimens
Standard undisturbed sampling techniques a f f e c t s i g n i f i c a n t l y the
mechanical properties of sands (Seed et a l . , 1982). Therefore, funda-
mental property characterization of sands i s frequently carried out using
reconstituted specimens.
Several techniques of reconstituting sand specimens i n the
laboratory have been developed, the most common being moist tamping
(Lambe, 1951; Ladd, 1978) and p l u v i a t i o n (Kolbuszewski, 1948; Chaney and
M u l i l i s , 1978; Miura and Toki, 1982). Comparative reviews of the methods
of sand specimen preparation have been presented by M u l i l i s et al.
(1977), Mortensen (1982) and Vaid and Negussey (1988).

82
Water p l u v i a t i o n followed by v i b r a t i o n was selected as the most
suitable technique for reconstituting HCT specimens. This technique
enables preparation of homogeneous saturated specimens of uniform sands
with controlled density (Vaid and Negussey, 1984), and has been
frequently used at UBC over more than twenty years (e.g., Vaid, 1968;
Finn et a l . , 1971; Negussey, 1984). Pluviation i s considered to
duplicate the sedimentation process, and hence the fabric, of many
natural or a r t i f i c i a l sand deposits (fluvial and lacustrine sediments,
hydraulic fills, etc.). Laboratory studies on pluviated sands should
therefore give a close i n d i c a t i o n of the behaviour of these deposits (Oda
et a l . 1978; Miura and Toki, 1984).
The main limitation of water pluviation i s the segregation of
p a r t i c l e s during sedimentation of well-graded and s i l t y sands. For these
materials, an a l t e r n a t i v e technique has been developed recently by
Kuerbis and Vaid (1988) for preparing homogeneous saturated triaxial
specimens. Simple modifications i n procedures would be necessary for
preparation of HCT specimens of well-graded sands.
4.3.2 Preliminary Preparation Steps
The initial step for specimen preparation is to establish a
reference height. This i s done by placing an aluminum dummy sample of
known height between the bottom and top platens. A d i a l gage mounted on
a movable stand i s then used to obtain a reference reading on the top
platen. This reading i s l a t e r used for determining the height of the
sand specimen a f t e r deposition and d e n s i f i c a t i o n .
The two rubber membranes are positioned and sealed to the inner and
outer surfaces of the Base platen. De-aired water i s flushed through the
83
base drainage l i n e and saturated porous discs are placed i n p o s i t i o n .
The inner and outer s p l i t molds are then assembled. The outer mold has
its inner surface lined with porous p l a s t i c , through which vacuum i s
applied for stretching the outer membrane. The inner membrane i s
stretched v e r t i c a l l y around the four-piece inner s p l i t mold. These four
pieces are held together by two i n t e r n a l metallic discs, the annular base
platen and one 0-ring at the top.
A known amount (about 5 kg) of sand i s placed i n several flasks
containing de-aired waterj boiled for 10 minutes and left to cool
overnight under 70 kPa vacuum.
A.3.3 Specimen Preparation Steps
A special tapered rubber stopper with a glass tube nozzle i s f i t t e d
to the sand f l a s k s . De-aired water i s added to f i l l the flasks up to the
top of the tubes. The annular cavity formed by the molds i s then f i l l e d
with de-aired water. Once the sand flask i s inverted and has i t s tube
tip submerged i n the specimen's water cavity, sedimentation of the sand
proceeds under g r a v i t a t i o n a l influence and mutual displacement with water
(Fig. 4.6). During the pluviation process, the "flasks are slowly
traversed over the annular area in order to deposit sand with an
approximately l e v e l surface at a l l times.
Control of the height of sand drop i s not necessary, because sand
grains reach a constant terminal v e l o c i t y almost i n s t a n t l y during p l u v i a -
t i o n i n water (Vaid and Negussey, 1984). No vibrations are imparted to
the specimen u n t i l after placement of the top platen. Exception i s made
only to dense specimens, which are gently vibrated during p l u v i a t i o n .

84
Figure 4.6 Specimen Preparation by Water

Pluviation.
85
t
This i s done to reduce an excessive descent of the top platen during
final densification.
Sedimentation is continued until an excess of sand over that
required for the final grade has been deposited. The upper surface i s
then c a r e f u l l y l e v e l l e d by siphoning o f f excess sand using a suction of
about -2 kPa (Fig. 4.7). This causes minimal disturbance of sand grains
below the surface. The excess sand i s oven-dried to allow determination
of the dry weight of sand used i n the specimen.
The top platen containing saturated porous discs i s then c a r e f u l l y
seated on the l e v e l l e d sand surface. Disturbance of the top layers due
to penetration of the platen's r i b s has i n s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s because of
the specimen's large dimensions (Tatsuoka et a l . , 1983) and also because
the specimen i s s t i l l i n a loose state (Vaid, 1983). The desired density
i s then achieved by applying high frequency low amplitude vibrations to
the specimen's pedestal and by monitoring the changes i n specimen height
with the reference dial gage. During d e n s i f i c a t i o n , the specimen i s
maintained f u l l y drained by keeping top and bottom drainage l i n e s open to
the same height of water column (corresponding to the" top platen
elevation).
D e n s i f i c a t i o n under small v e r t i c a l confinement provided by the top
platen has been found e f f e c t i v e i n obtaining a uniform void r a t i o d i s t r i -
bution throughout the specimen (Vaid and Negussey, 1984). The top platen
follows the settlement of the top surface and any tendency for t i l t i n g i s
promptly corrected. This technique proved to be very effective in
p r a c t i c a l l y eliminating subsequent bedding errors which plague external
deformation measurements.
86
levelling
I
bar
extension
container
outer E
u
former
::r::''.\".
O
C
M
tl
sand
specimen
.•••v.i;\-v
p.- •;
••»; v. •**
inner excess
former water
excess
sand
Figure 4.7 Levelling the Specimen's Upper Surface.

87
De-aired water i s then percolated upwards through the specimen under
a very small gradient (about 5 to 10 cm of water). This i s done to
remove entrapped a i r bubbles between the rubber membranes and the top
platen. A f t e r sealing both membranes to the top platen with 0-rings, the
top drainage i s closed and a vacuum of about 20 kPa i s applied to the
bottom drainage line. This provides an effective confinement to the
specimen prior to dismantling the split molds. At this stage, the
specimen dimensions are recorded. Height and outer circumference are
determined r e s p e c t i v e l y with the reference dial gage and a measuring
tape. Inner diameter i s obtained i n d i r e c t l y from the volume needed to
r a i s e the water l e v e l by 50 mm i n the inner chamber. Corrections to the
specimen dimensions due to thickness of membranes are taken into
consideration. The top loading cap i s now i n s t a l l e d , thus completing the
specimen preparation.
4.3.4 Test Preparation Steps
The c e l l chamber i s placed i n p o s i t i o n and de-aired water i s slowly
introduced into the inner and outer confining chambers. Care is
exercised to ensure f u l l saturation of the inner chamber. The top cross
beam i s then swivelled to i t s p o s i t i o n and firmly bolted to the reaction
frame. The c e n t r a l rod used for monitoring vertical displacements is
then i n s t a l l e d , thus sealing the inner chamber (Figure 4.8).
The specimen i s then moved upwards by pressurizing the vertical
loading piston u n t i l the top cap contacts the top cross beam of the
r e a c t i o n frame. The top cap i s secured against the cross beam by a b o l t .
This set-up ensures coincidence between the specimen's v e r t i c a l axis and
the frame's centre a x i s . A locating p i n , protruding from the cross bar,

88
TOP CROSS BEAM

( LOADING FRAME)
BOLT il LOCATING PIN
ir*
ii
CELL TOP u
T - : -o-
TOP
LOADING
PEXI GLASS CAP
CELL
II
il
TOP DRAINAGE
CENTRAL
ROD
TOP
PLATEN
fit I I
I i
i i
IT
11
SOIL
OUTER INNER SPECIMEN
LVEMBRANE MEMBRANE
'.•.v\'-.*.;
•.V . V . V -.J';'
i'. -i.Cf>A'
;
POROUS
DISC
| DRAINAGE
GROOVE
BASE
PLATEN
PEDESTAL
CELL BASE
EXTERNAL PORE LOADING INTERNAL

PRESSURE PRESSURE SHAFT PRESSURE
I I I I I I
0 5
SCALE (cm)
F i g u r e 4.8 D e t a i l s o f the UBC-HCT D e v i c e .

89
is then inserted into the loading cap at 30 mm from the specimen axis.
The p i n serves to arrest any r o t a t i o n a l movement of the loading cap i n
tests requiring a p p l i c a t i o n of torque.
A hydrostatic confining pressure of 30 kPa i s then applied to the
specimen under undrained conditions. This i s sufficient to r a i s e the
porewater pressure to a small p o s i t i v e value. Measurement of Skempton's
B-value f o r checking specimen's saturation then proceeds i n several
increments of confining pressure.
Full saturation of the t e s t specimen i s ensured by i n s i s t i n g on a
B-value of at l e a s t 0.98. The specimen i s allowed to consolidate over-
n i g h t under an e f f e c t i v e h y d r o s t a t i c s t r e s s o' = 50 kPa, with a back-

m
p r e s s u r e o f 200 kPa. The h y d r o s t a t i c s t r e s s conditions (o' = 50 kPa)
m
together with the updated geometry constitute the i n i t i a l state of every
test specimen.
4.4 PERFORMANCE AND CONTROL
4.4.1 Reproduction of Conventional Test Results
A basic requirement of the newly developed HCT apparatus was to
prove its ability to duplicate r e s u l t s previously obtained with other
testing devices. A series of preliminary experiments was then designed
to reproduce conventional t r i a x i a l and hydrostatic compression tests on
Ottawa sand reported by Negussey (1984).
Medium dense specimens of water pluviated sand were used. Compara-
tive r e s u l t s using the two test devices are presented i n Figure 4.9.
Very l i t t l e difference i n the s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour obtained with the
two devices may be noted f o r similar i n i t i a l consolidation and density
states.
90
F i g u r e 4.9 Comparison of R e s u l t s from HCT and T r i a x i a l Devices.

91
4.A.2 Stress Path Control
Simultaneous and independent control of four stress parameters i s
required for general stress path tests with the HCT device. In order to
follow the prescribed stress path precisely, smooth changes i n the
control pressures must be made, either continuously or i n small
increments. Moreover, f o r the study of drained behaviour, the rate of
loading should be slow enough so as to allow for f u l l pore pressure
dissipation together with measurement of time independent strain
response. A l l HCT specimens were loaded i n gradual, slow increments.
Creep deformations of sand were noted to become increasingly s i g n i f i c a n t
for higher levels of stress ratio R. This i s i n agreement with
experimental observations i n the t r i a x i a l device (Mejia and Vaid, 1988).
Accordingly, the time corresponding to each load increment increased with
R. A l l s t r a i n measurements reported i n t h i s study refer to equilibrium
conditions, i n which creep e f f e c t s can be neglected. In low permeability
s o i l s , t h i s would require an automatic servo-system for c o n t r o l l i n g long
duration t e s t s . However, i n sands, reliable r e s u l t s were obtained by
manual operation of the p r e c i s i o n pressure regulators and interactive use
of a computer based data a c q u i s i t i o n system.
A t y p i c a l example of stress path control i s shown i n Figure 4.10.
In this test, a l l four surface tractions had to be smoothly varied i n
order to impose a continuous rotation a of o x d i r e c t i o n (Figure 4.10a).
During rotation, since the magnitudes of the three p r i n c i p a l stresses
were h e l d constant (Figure 4.10(b)), derived stress parameters o^, R and
b were also constant. The prescribed variations i n tractions (full
l i n e s ) may be seen to be c l o s e l y followed by the actual data points. The
remarkable stress path control capability of the UBC-HCT device i s

CT= 300 kPa ; R * 2.0 ; b -
:
0.5
2000T — — '
Figure 4.10 Experimental Control i n P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation Tests.

vo
93
illustrated i n Figure 4.10(c). The maximum excursion i n any of the
s t r e s s parameters a^, R and b, from the prescribed constant values, may
be noted to be less than 1%.
4.4.3 Repeatability of Test Results
Repeatability of test r e s u l t s i s an important requirement f o r the
consistency of conclusions to be derived from UBC-HCT test results.
Strict adherence to i d e n t i c a l specimen preparation technique and test
control routines i s central to achieving repeatable test r e s u l t s .
Good r e p e a t a b i l i t y can be noted i n the r e s u l t s of hydrostatic com-
pression of three identical specimens (Figure 4.9(a)). Repeatable
r e s u l t s on i d e n t i c a l specimens may also be noted f o r tests with p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s r o t a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 4.11). Two specimens at D r = 25% were f i r s t
s e q u e n t i a l l y brought t o a s t r e s s s t a t e o f R = 2, b = 0.5 and = 300
kPa, before being subjected to a continuous principal stress rotation
under constant values of a , x a 2 and o .s Considering the small magnitude
of induced strains, excellent repeatability may be noted in both
volumetric and shear s t r a i n response.
4.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
4.5.1 Materials Tested
HCT tests were conducted on two granular materials: Ottawa sand
(ASTM C-109) and Erksak sand. Both are uniform, medium, predominantly
quartz sands, with s i m i l a r grain size d i s t r i b u t i o n curves (Figure 4.12).
Table 4.1 summarizes t h e i r index properties.
Erksak sand was made available through the courtesy of Gulf Canada
Resources Ltd. This sand has been used as a hydraulic f i l l material i n
the Molikpaq caisson i s l a n d i n the Canadian A r c t i c . As received, the

0' = m 300 kPa ; R = 2.0 ; b = 0.5
F i g u r e 4.11 R e p e a t a b i l i t y of HCT Test Results.

95
SIEVE SIZE (meshes/inch)

4 10 20 40 60 100 200
GRAIN SIZE (mm)
COARSE | MEDIUM | FINE
GRAVEL SAND SILT
Figure 4.12 Grain Size D i s t r i b u t i o n : Ottawa and

Erksak Sands.
Table 4.1
Index Properties and Grain C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of Ottawa and Erksak Sands
PROPERTY OTTAWA SAND ERKSAK SAND
Median Size D so (mm) 0.39 0.34
Uniformity Coeff. C u 1.9 1.8
S p e c i f i c Gravity G g 2.67 2.66
Limiting e 0.82 0.82

max
Void
Ratios e . 0.50 0.51
min
Roundness 0.60 0.35
Sphericity 0.85 0.83
Mineral Content .,, , 100% quartz . , 80% quartz

t
io% feldspar
(plagioclase)
10% others
97
sand contained about 1% material passing #200 sieve. In order to prevent
segregation of fines during water p l u v i a t i o n , a l l HCT tests on Erksak
sand were performed after removing the fines by washing with a large
quantity of water.
As indicated i n the next item, most of the tests i n t h i s study were
carried out on Ottawa sand and only a limited number on Erksak sand.
Both sands were recycled among the various HCT t e s t s . This was done on
the presumption that the predominantly quartz grains would not suffer
degradation under the moderate stress levels used i n the testing program.
It can be noted from Table 4.1 that the grain shape of both sands
has been characterized by two geometrically distinct parameters: (1)
Roundness, defined as the r a t i o between the curvatures of the corners
(and edges) and the average curvature of the grain (Wadell, 1935); and
(2) Sphericity, defined as the cube root of the r a t i o between the volume
of the grain to the volume of the smallest circumscribing sphere
(Krurabein, 1941).*
Based on the above d e f i n i t i o n s , sand grains can be characterized by
values between zero and unity for both roundness and sphericity.
Systematic determination of both parameters for several gradations of
Ottawa and other sands i s described by E d i l et a l . (1975).
Apart from the minor d i s t i n c t i o n s i n mineralogy, the main difference
between the two sands used i s the greater angularity (lower values of
*This d e f i n i t i o n of s p h e r i c i t y i s p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l to the one

e a r l i e r suggested by Wadell (1935). A simpler d e f i n i t i o n , which also
y i e l d s e s s e n t i a l l y the same r e s u l t s , was proposed by R i l l e y (1941) as
the square root of the r a t i o of the inscribed to the circumscribed
c i r c l e diameter.
98
roundness) of Erksak sand (Table 4.1). The implications of this
difference on the mechanical properties are addressed in the next
chapter.
4.5.2 Testing Program
The main objective of this thesis i s to investigate the behaviour of
sands subjected to general stress paths. In p a r t i c u l a r , the anisotropic
stress-strain characteristics and the effects of continuous and
independent changes i n a and b are intended to be studied. Accordingly,
the experimental program was composed of three main groups of t e s t s .
• R-tests: p r i n c i p a l stress r a t i o R increased from 1.0 to R , with

max
c o n s t a n t v a l u e s of o', b and a. The value of R is
m max
dictated by considerations of stress non-uniformity
within the specimen (see Chapter 3).
• a-tests: r o t a t i o n angle a cycled between 0 and a m a x (usually 60°),
with constant values of o', R and b.

m*
• b-tests: intermediate p r i n c i p a l stress parameter b cycled between
0 and 1.0, with constant values of o^, R and a.
The initial s t r e s s state of a l l specimens was hydrostatic (.a^ = 50
kPa, see section 4.3.4). This condition, corresponding to R = 1.0, has
no defined values of b and a. Starting with t h i s stress state, each test
i s then performed i n various sequential phases, i n which only one stress
variable (o^, R, b or a) i s allowed to vary. Fig. 4.13 i l l u s t r a t e s the
stress paths followed i n t y p i c a l t e s t s . The detailed manner i n which the
loading phases for each test were applied i s presented i n Table 4.2.
CT= 300 kPa
m
N
max
A B
50 3 0 0 or ( k P a ) o
AB =Cf' — p
has
e
a) P o - test
m
BC = R - p
has
e
25 a
AB = R- phase
b) b - test BC
CD
= or -
=G' - m
phase
phase
DED = b - phase
AB = R- phase
c) OC - test BC
CD
= b -
=(J' - m
phase
phase
DED -<X- phase 0" (kPa)
m
F i g u r e 4.13 T y p i c a l Examples o f G e n e r a l S t r e s s Path Tests.

Table 4.2
HCT Tests - Summary of Main Testing Program
R-phase (shear)
R-Tests o^-phase
(Consolidation) b a(deg) R - o|/o)
Rl 0.0 45
R2 0.3
R3 o' - 50 to 0 R'1-0 to R^
g
< ID
C/l RA 300 kPa 15
< R5 34% 0.5 20
<
P
© R6 (R - 1.0) 30
R7 45
R8 55 to
R9 0.8 . 45
b-phases
b-Tests D
r R-phase o-phase o^-phase
bl b2
o Bl R-1.0 to 1.3 a-0 to 25" —

TAWA SA
B2 — o m - 50 to b«0 to 0.5
34% b-0^1-0
B3 R=1.0 to 2.0 o=0 to 25* 300 kPa
(-
o B4 a-0 to 45°
a-phases
a-Tests D
r R-phase b-phase o^-phase
al a2
al R-1.0 to 1.3 b-0.0 to 0.5 a-O-oO'-O* a-0-90 -0* o
a2 — a-O»60*-0°
a3 34% R-1.0 to 2.0 b«0.0 to 0.3 o' « a-O-eO'-O"
OKVS
m
a4 50 to a«0-.60*-0°
o5 R-1.0 to 3.0 300 kPa a=0-55 -0° a-0-55"-0
6 c
OTT
a6 60% b-0.0 to 0.5 a-0—45'

a.7 42% R-1.0 to 2.0 a-0-60°-0° a-0-45*
a8 20% a=o—eo^-o 0
all a=0->-45*
50%
al2 u
m
R=1.0 to 2.0
AND
al3 50 to a-0—45*
u> 25% b-0.0 to 0.5 a-0-60 -0o
al4 300 kPa a-0-45*

IT.
tui al5 50% R-1.0 to 3.0 a-0—45°
et
U
al6 35% R-1.0 to 1.8 b-0.0 to 0.5 a-35-45-35'
(*) a-0 to 35° }8 cycles
o'-50
in to 300 kPa R-1.8-2.B-1.8
(*) Note: Test al6 - after R-phase, simultaneous variations
occurred i n more than one stress parameter
101
Additional tests were performed i n order to elucidate specific
aspects related to the investigation program. Examples of these aspects
are: ( i ) comparison of a x i a l compression tests performed on i d e n t i c a l
specimens i n the HCT and standard t r i a x i a l devices; ( i i ) e f f e c t of stress
history (from HCT tests with different sequences of loading phases);
( i i i ) d i r e c t i o n of c y c l i c a rotation (positive or negative); (iv) s t r a i n
response with further rotation cycles (after 2 c y c l e s ) ; (v) rotation of
p r i n c i p a l stresses at increasing R-levels.
All loading phases were performed under fully drained, stress
controlled conditions, with a back pressure of 200 kPa. Loading steps
within each phase were made small (e.g., changes i n a or R were con-
trolled to about 1° or 0.05, respectively). Only time independent
readings were associated with corresponding loading steps.

102
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The deformation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sands that r e f l e c t an inherently
cross-anisotropic fabric will be examined i n this chapter. The
discussions are based on HCT test r e s u l t s i n the general stress space a^ t
R, b and a. A systematic assessment of the i s o l a t e d influence of each
stress variable i s presented f o r medium-loose Ottawa sand. The effects
of other variables, l i k e r e l a t i v e density, stress path h i s t o r y and sand
type are also investigated, with attention focussed mainly on p r i n c i p a l
stress r o t a t i o n .
The behaviour o f sand under general stress path tests i s presented
i n terms of both volumetric and maximum shear s t r a i n responses. Varia-
tions of the observed direction of major p r i n c i p a l strain increment
( a ^ ) , i n r e l a t i o n to the d i r e c t i o n of applied p r i n c i p a l stress increment

£
(a^) and the d i r e c t i o n of p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s (a) , are p r e s e n t e d and
discussed i n a systematic manner. Strain paths i n p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n space
(e l f e,
3 e ) are also examined.
3 These provide a s i g n i f i c a n t insight into
any changes i n inherent anisotropy on loading.
5.2 INITIAL ANISOTROPY
5.2.1 Hydrostatic Loading
The degree of inherent or i n i t i a l anisotropy i s r e f l e c t e d by the
relative values of volumetric and axial strains under hydrostatic
loading. I d e n t i c a l p r i n c i p a l strains e =e =e
1 2 3 (or e ,= 3 e ) would be
x
103
observed i f sand was isotropic. Hydrostatic compression tests were
p e r f o r m e d on medium loose (D r = 34%) Ottawa sand, s t a r t i n g from an
i n i t i a l hydrostatic stress state of = 50 kPa and proceeding up to o^ =
300 = kPa. Typical r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g . 5.1. A l i n e a r s t r a i n path
e v Q ^ = 4.5 e l may be noted. T h i s i m p l i e s higher deformability i n the
h o r i z o n t a l than i n the v e r t i c a l d e p o s i t i o n d i r e c t i o n ( i . e . e = e. =
r
r 8
1.75 e ), which i s t y p i c a l of cross-anisotropic granular materials (Oda,
z
1972; Arthur & Menzies, 1972). Due to the l i n e a r i t y of the s t r a i n path,
it may be pointed out that the degree of initial anisotropy i s not
a l t e r e d by h y d r o s t a t i c compression at moderate stress l e v e l s (o^ < 300
kPa). The behaviour i n F i g . 5.1 i s consistent with the observations in
the t r i a x i a l device reported by Negussey (1984) on the same material.
5.2.2 Shear Loading
Stress-Strain Behaviour
Detailed observations of the d i r e c t i o n a l dependence of s t r e s s - s t r a i n
behaviour can be made by shearing the s o i l with d i f f e r e n t directions a of
Oj i n r e l a t i o n to the deposition d i r e c t i o n . A series of such d i r e c -
tional shear tests was performed on medium-loose Ottawa sand. The
initial c o n d i t i o n of a l l specimens was o' = 300 kPa, R = 1.0 and D =

r
ra ' r
36%. During shear, the values of o 1
and b were held constant at 300 kPa
m
and 0.50 respectively, while the stress r a t i o R was increased i n i n c r e -
ments of about 0.05 under drained conditions. As indicated i n Table 4.2
(tests R3 to R8), the range of a selected for t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was 0 to

*
55°. Only p o s i t i v e values of a are considered, since symmetry of the
In t h i s t h e s i s , p o s i t i v e v a l u e s of a correspond to an anti-clockwise
application of torque Tjj at the base of the HCT specimen.
104
Figure 5.1 S t r a i n Response Under H y d r o s t a t i c Loading.

105
mechanical properties about the vertical axis of deposition can be
assumed v a l i d for cross-anisotropic sand (Symes et a l . , 1985; Miura et
al., 1986). At R-levels of about 2.5 or greater, equilibrium strains
were not recorded for every load increment, i n order to cut down the test
duration. At these higher R l e v e l s , both volumetric and shear creep
deformations became s i g n i f i c a n t and each loading increment would t y p i c -
a l l y take more than 20 rain for s t r a i n equilibrium to be reached. Never-
theless, time-independent equilibrium data was obtained under s u f f i c i e n t
R values.
Figure 5.2 presents the s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour observed i n these
d i r e c t i o n a l shear t e s t s . A very profound e f f e c t of i n i t i a l cross- aniso-
tropic fabric of medium-loose sand i s apparent i n both volumetric and
shear s t r a i n responses. The s t i f f e s t response can be noted to correspond
to shear loading i n the v e r t i c a l deposition d i r e c t i o n ( i . e . , a=0). This
is i n agreement with the observations from hydrostatic loading (section
5.2.1). Increasingly softer s t r a i n response i s observed with increasing
values of a.
In Figure 5.3, the strains developed at R = 2 and R = 3 are compared
for loading along d i f f e r e n t a d i r e c t i o n s . Both stress states correspond
to contractive volumetric s t r a i n conditions. Stress r a t i o s i n excess of
3 (and, i n particular, failure stress conditions) are not considered
because of serious stress non-uniformities within the specimen (see
Chapter 3). Two aspects may be pointed out from the data i n Figures 5.2
and 5.3. F i r s t , the e f f e c t of anisotropy on shear and volumetric strains
becomes more accentuated with increasing levels of stress r a t i o . Second,
the d i r e c t i o n a corresponding to the largest shear deformability seems to
increase with R. At R = 2, the specimen sheared at a = 45° showed the

106
D r = 36 % : <T
m = 300 kPa : b= 0.5 (a)
Figure 5.2 Strain Response Under Shear Loading.

108
softest shear s t r a i n response. However, with increasing R l e v e l s , the
largest shear strains were observed i n specimen R8 (a = 55°).
I t may be pointed out that similar behaviour has been observed by
Miura (1985) i n HCT tests on dense pluviated sand (Fig. 5.4). In this
figure, the strains are normalized by a c o e f f i c i e n t K, which i s a func-
t i o n of R only. Miura explained h i s observations by invoking Matsuoka's
concept of mobilized planes (Matsuoka, 1974). These planes are defined
as those corresponding to the maximum r a t i o between shear and normal
*m
s t r e s s e s and are thus i n c l i n e d at an angle i = 45° - • j - to the d i r e c t i o n
R-l
o f o, . i s the m o b i l i z e d f r i c t i o n angle ( s i n 4' = zr-r). Due to the
1
m ° T
ra R+l
cross-anisotropic fabric of pluviated sands, maximum deformability i s
expected to be observed when the mobilized and the bedding planes are
coincident. In the e a r l y stages of the shearing process, i = 45° and
thus maximum deformability occurs at a = 45°. With increasing R-levels,
the angle i progressively decreases and consequently the i n c l i n a t i o n a,
corresponding to the softest shear s t r a i n response, increases. Accord-
i n g l y , shearing at a = 60 to 70° r e s u l t s i n the lowest values of shear
stiffness. Other investigations on inherent anisotropy with the HCT
device (Symes e t a l . , 1982) and the DSC (Arthur et a l . , 1981a) have
focussed mainly on strength c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . They do not permit any
r e l i a b l e conclusion to be drawn as to deformations at low stress l e v e l s .
The observed rate of volumetric contraction (Figure 5.2b) agrees
w e l l with the r e s u l t s of HCT tests reported by Symes et a l . (1988). For
the medium-loose sand, the rate of contraction i s seen to depend not only
on R-level but also on the d i r e c t i o n a. At any R, progressively larger
contractions may be noted f o r shearing at higher values of a. If
undrained conditions prevailed, shearing would be accompanied by large

109
F i g u r e 5.4 A n i s o t r o p y i n S t r a i n Response of Dense Sand

( a f t e r M i u r a , 1985).
110
reductions i n e f f e c t i v e stresses. Thus, s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to l i q u e f a c t i o n
or contractive deformations would increase with shearing at increasing a.
Undrained HCT r e s u l t s presented by Symes et a l . (1984, 1985) give support
to such a conclusion.
Direction of S t r a i n Increment
Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c feature of inherently anisotropic materials
when subjected to shear loading at constant d i r e c t i o n a, i s the non-
coincidence of the directions of the major p r i n c i p a l strain increment
( a ^ ) and major p r i n c i p a l stress (a). The experimental data presented i n
Figure 5.5 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s aspect. Behaviour of pluviated Ottawa sand
i s such that a ^ £ > a i n a l l HCT tests reported herein. This implies that
the major principal strain increment (de ) always

x tends to deviate
towards the horizontal d i r e c t i o n of the bedding plane, the only excep-
tions being f o r d i r e c t i o n a l shearing at a = 0 or 90°. In these cases
principal stress axes coincide with axes of cross anisotropy and thus
d i r e c t i o n s of p r i n c i p a l stresses and s t r a i n increments coincide.
It may be of interest to note that t h i s important characteristic
behaviour of cross-anisotropic materials has been the subject of contra-
dictory observations. Arthur et a l . (1981a) reported no differences
between a and i n DSC t e s t s , d e s p i t e marked differences i n s t r e s s -
s t r a i n behaviour at d i f f e r e n t a-values. Miura et a l . (1986) presented
r e s u l t s i n agreement with those i n F i g . 5.5 only f o r a < 45°. For shear
tests with a > 45°, they observed an opposite trend, with < a even at
small shear stress l e v e l s . This i s i n contradiction with t h e i r observa-
tions of s o f t e r shear s t r a i n response at these larger i n c l i n a t i o n s of a[,
already discussed. On the other hand, Symes et a l . (1982, 1988) have

Ill
90
80
70
V)
QJ
if 60 H
50 -
8 40 -
S 30-
20 -
10 -
1.0
Figure 5.5 Directions of P r i n c i p a l Strain Increments

in Directional Shear.
112
reported HCT results on dense and medium-loose pluviated sand, with
conclusions very much similar to those suggested by Figure 5.5. It i s
interesting to note that, i n most cases, the magnitude of differences
between a ^ g and a tends to decrease with increasing R l e v e l s . This may
be explained p a r t l y by a continuous a l t e r a t i o n of the i n i t i a l anisotropic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the sand on account of induced shear s t r a i n s .
S t r a i n Paths
The s t r a i n paths observed i n the d i r e c t i o n a l shear tests of medium-
loose pluviated sand are presented i n F i g . 5.6a. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to
note that regardless of a d i r e c t i o n , i n i t i a l l y l i n e a r s t r a i n paths (gj vs
e ) were followed i n the small s t r a i n (or stress ratio) region.

s This can
be better appreciated i n F i g . 5.6b, where the s t r a i n paths up to R = 1.8
are replotted for 3 selected tests with an enlarged scale. The initial
slope of the s t r a i n path increases somewhat with a. Similar initially
linear strain paths were observed i n the other two principal strain
spaces ( e l t e ) and ( e , e ) .
a a 3 Figure 5.6(c) shows the paths i n the ( e , a
e,) space up to R=1.8 f o r the same 3 tests i n F i g . 5.6(b). The observed
linearity i n s t r a i n paths indicates that, i n t h i s small R region, the
degree of i n i t i a l anisotropy i s preserved, regardless of the loading (o )

x
direction. T r i a x i a l compression (a=0, b=0) data presented by Rowe (1971)
and Negussey (1984) on sand also shows i n i t i a l l y linear strain paths
regardless of o' l e v e l .
m
At values of R higher than 1.8 to 2.0, s t r a i n paths become progress-
i v e l y nonlinear, suggesting a gradual evolution of the i n i t i a l anisotropy
due to induced s t r a i n s . As shown i n F i g . 5.6a, at any given stress r a t i o
R, the minimum s t r a i n increment r a t i o {de /de )

l 3 i s associated with the
v e r t i c a l shear loading (o=0).

Figure 5.6 Strain Paths i n D i r e c t i o n a l Shear.
114
Further experimental observations regarding the i n i t i a l l i n e a r i t y of
the s t r a i n paths up to R = 1.80, at d i f f e r e n t values of b 0.5), are
presented l a t e r (section 5.4).
5.2.3 Conclusions
Based on the experimental evidence described i n t h i s section, i t may
be concluded that the stress-strain behaviour of medium-loose sand
deposits i s highly dependent on the loading d i r e c t i o n . Even materials
with nearly rounded grains, such as Ottawa sand, r e f l e c t a marked inher-
ent cross-anisotropy. The stiffest response occurs i n the vertical
d i r e c t i o n of deposition. The degree of inherent anisotropy i s preserved
d u r i n g i n c r e a s e s i n mean e f f e c t i v e stress (a'). The e f f e c t s of induced

• m
anisotropy become s i g n i f i c a n t only for R-levels i n excess of about 1.8 to
2.0. One important p r a c t i c a l implication of these observations i s that
deformations predicted based on conventional testing procedures (triaxial
tests on " v e r t i c a l " specimens) would be on the unconservative side.
5.3 CONTINUOUS PRINCIPAL STRESS ROTATION
The experimental findings presented i n the previous section indicate
a marked inherent anisotropy of pluviated medium loose sand. As a
consequence of t h i s anisotropy, s i g n i f i c a n t deformations may be expected
when the sand is subjected to a rotation of the principal stress
directions.
Several p r i n c i p a l stress rotation tests on Ottawa sand were carried
out under drained conditions (Sayao and Vaid, 1989b). Throughout each
t e s t , the p r i n c i p a l stresses a lf a2 and o 3 are kept constant i n magni-
tude, while the rotation angle a i s varied in a continuous manner.

115
These tests included both monotonic and c y c l i c rotations, over a range of
r e l a t i v e densities and diverse initial stress conditions. A series of
r o t a t i o n tests on a d i f f e r e n t sand (Erksak sand) was also performed to
explore r o t a t i o n e f f e c t s as a function of sand type. In a l l t e s t s , the
stress state prior to principal stress rotation was achieved by
sequential application of i n d i v i d u a l changes i n each stress parameter (R,
b and o'), with o=0 (see Table A.2).

m
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c features of p r i n c i p a l stress r o t a t i o n paths may
be better v i s u a l i z e d i n the modified stress space (Ishihara and Towhata,
1982; Miura et a l . , 1986) i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 5.7(a). The corresponding
path i n (R, a) space i s shown i n F i g . 5.7(b). Point A corresponds to the
i n i t i a l hydrostatic s t r e s s conditions (o' = 50 kPa). From A to B, the

m
desired changes i n s t r e s s s t a t e (R, b, a^, a=0) p r i o r to rotation are
applied t o the specimen. From B to C, p r i n c i p a l stress o x i s rotated
from 0 to 60° i n a continuous manner, under condition of constant R, b
and o'.
m
It i s noted that such rotation tests are represented by a c i r c u l a r
path i n F i g . 5.7(a). Three important geometric features can be seen i n
this figure. F i r s t , the radius AS (denominated as stress vector) numer-
ically equals sine of the mobilized friction angle ( s i n 4> ^

mo
=
(R-1)/(R+1)). Second, the stress vector at any given stress condition i s
inclined at 2a to the v e r t i c a l axis. The t h i r d feature i s that the

->
stress increment v e c t o r (ST), i n c l i n e d at 2 a ^ o to the v e r t i c a l , i s
tangent to the c i r c u l a r path. This i s because the stress r a t i o R i s held
constant during r o t a t i o n . It also implies that = a + 45° during
forward r o t a t i o n (increasing a). Similarly, a^ o = a - 45° when a i s
decreased towards the v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n (backward r o t a t i o n ) .

116
R - I
R +1
(a) Modified stress space
(b) ( R , oc) space
Figure 5.7 P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation Paths at Constant

a' and b.
m
117
5.3.1 Rotation Tests on Loose Sand
T y p i c a l s t r a i n response o f a loose specimen (D = 20%) to c y c l i c

r
changes i n a i s shown i n F i g . 5.8. During r o t a t i o n the specimen was
under a constant stress state of o' = 300 kPa, b = 0.5 and R = 2.
P r i n c i p a l stress r o t a t i o n may be noted to induce contractive volume
changes regardless of whether a i s increased or decreased on either side
of the v e r t i c a l direction, e , tends t o be more s i g n i f i c a n t f o r

vol 6
increasing phases of a than f o r the decreasing phases, with the largest
contraction being associated with the f i r s t time increasing rotation
phase. Contractive strains become progressively smaller with further
rotation phases, regardless of direction. This behaviour is in
accordance with the interpretations suggested by Symes et a l . (1988).
After the f i r s t forward r o t a t i o n phase, the stress path moves beneath the
bounding surface. As a consequence, irrecoverable strains become much
less dominant, giving rise to smaller contractions with further
rotations. This cumulative contraction would c l e a r l y imply progressive
pore pressure build-up under c y c l i c undrained conditions.
Like volumetric contractions, maximum shear strains accumulate pro-
gressively under c y c l i c changes i n a. The strains increase, however,
only on increasing rotation. Decrease in a towards the v e r t i c a l
direction tends to r e s u l t i n some recovery i n the magnitude of shear
strains. Residual shear strains nevertheless increase with each cycle
(a=0 -» ±60 -* 0) of p r i n c i p a l stress rotations, though at a decreasing
rate per cycle i n the same d i r e c t i o n .

118
F i g u r e 5.8 S t r a i n Development Due to C y c l i c Principal

Stress Rotation.
119
D i r e c t i o n of Strain Increment
Figure 5.9 shows the observed directions of stress and s t r a i n incre-
ments ( a j ( a and a ^ g t respectively) during three rotation cycles on loose
Ottawa sand. I t may be noted t h a t the requirement o f = a ± 45°
during forward or backward rotation was followed very c l o s e l y . Forward
(loading) rotation i n the f i r s t cycle i s seen to r e s u l t i n progressively
larger deviations between directions of s t r a i n increments and stress
increments. This i s probably associated with the progressive accumula-
t i o n of predominantly irrecoverable s t r a i n s as forward rotation proceeds,
as already indicated i n F i g . 5.8.
On the other hand, decreasing rotation from 60° to 0° (i.e.,
"unloading") r e s u l t s i n closer to <*j « a This may be considered asso-
ciated with a predominance of recoverable s t r a i n s . These observations
agree with the concept of a drained bounding surface (BS), suggested by
Symes et a l . (1988).
Similar trend i n the r e l a t i v e v a l u e s of and o ^ may also be

o
noted i n F i g . 5.9 f o r the second and t h i r d rotation cycles. Increasing
rotation (a from 0 to ±60°) seems to always r e s u l t i n large deviations
between and regardless of p r i o r rotations on the opposite side.
Decreasing a towards zero from i t s maximum amplitude on either side tends
to make closer to o ^ o instead o f a. I t appears that alternating
p o s i t i v e and negative rotation cycles s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces the hardening
e f f e c t s usually associated with one-way rotation cycles (Sayao and Vaid,
1989a). The r e s u l t s i n F i g . 5.9 suggest that i n t h i s case the p o s i t i o n
and/or shape of the BS should have been greatly affected by previous
p r i n c i p a l stress r o t a t i o n cycles. This would be an i n d i c a t i o n that the
initial anisotropic f a b r i c of the sand i s permanently changed due to

120
Figure 5.9 Strain Increment Directions During Cyclic

P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation.
121
induced s t r a i n s during c y c l i c rotation. However, t h i s i s not i n agree-
ment with the indications of Symes et a l . (1988) who maintain that the BS
remains symmetric about the a=0 plane, a f t e r the sand has been subjected
to p r i n c i p a l stress rotation on either side of the v e r t i c a l .
5.3.2 E f f e c t of Relative Density
All specimens for t h i s test series were f i r s t brought to an i d e n t i -
cal i n i t i a l stress state (o^ = 300 kPa, b = 0.5 and R = 2) p r i o r to i n i -
t i a t i n g p r i n c i p a l stress rotation. The r e s u l t s of f i r s t cycle rotation
are i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 5.10. Both e , and Y induced due to rotation

vol max
decrease progressively with increase i n r e l a t i v e density. This would be
expected because the degree of inherent anisotropy i n pluviated sands,
which i s p r i m a r i l y responsible f o r p r i n c i p a l stress rotation effects,
decreases as the r e l a t i v e density increases (Negussey and Vaid, 1986),
Only sand with high r e l a t i v e density (60%) responds with small d i l a t i o n
at initial stages of rotation. In a l l other cases, p r i n c i p a l stress
rotations induce progressive volume contractions, regardless of the
r e l a t i v e density and the d i r e c t i o n of rotation.
S i m i l a r l y , induced shear strains decrease with increasing r e l a t i v e
density under s i m i l a r changes i n a. Except f o r the dense sand (D = r
60%) , T max c o n t i n u e s increasing somewhat even a f t e r a s t a r t s decreasing
from i t s maximum amplitude. Recovery i n f max on decreasing a also varies
with r e l a t i v e density.
D i r e c t i o n of S t r a i n Increment
The above observations of smaller volume changes and irrecoverable
shear s t r a i n s i n dense sand under p r i n c i p a l stress rotation are r e f l e c t e d

122
Figure 5.10 E f f e c t of R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y on S t r a i n Development

Due to P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s R o t a t i o n .
123
F i g u r e 5.11 E f f e c t of R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y on S t r a i n Increment
D i r e c t i o n s During P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s R o t a t i o n .
i n smaller deviations between a, and a, than f o r the loose sand (Fig.
do de
5.11). The r e s u l t s i n t h i s figure show directions of stress and s t r a i n
increments f o r the f i r s t rotation cycles on specimens at D r = 20 and 60°.
In p a r t i c u l a r , during backward rotation (from 60 to 0°), the r e s u l t s f o r
the dense sand suggest a predominance of recoverable strains ( i . e . , =

"do ' 5
5.3.3 E f f e c t of Mean E f f e c t i v e Stress
Figure 5.12 shows the e f f e c t s of forward p r i n c i p a l stress rotation
on two medium loose (D = 34%) specimens that have i d e n t i c a l R=2 and b=0,
r
but d i f f e r e n t a' o f 50 and 300 kPa. These t e s t s are l a b e l l e d as B4
(a-phase) and cx2 i n Table 4.2. Test results are shown f o r forward rota-
tion (a=0 to 45°). Much large volumetric and shear s t r a i n s are induced
in sand at higher confining stress f o r a given rotation angle. The
nature of the differences are q u a l i t a t i v e l y s i m i l a r to those between
loose and dense specimens at i d e n t i c a l o^, i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 5.10. The
similar effects of decreasing r e l a t i v e density at constant confining
s t r e s s , and increasing confining pressure at constant r e l a t i v e density,
are a well recognized c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of granular materials.
The s t r a i n increment directions are shown i n F i g . 5.13. For rota-
t i o n angles smaller than about 35°, deviation of and may be noted
to be larger at the lower confining stress. At larger r o t a t i o n angles,
the data i n F i g . 5.13 suggests that the directions of the s t r a i n incre-
ments become i n s e n s i t i v e to the l e v e l of o'.

125
F i g u r e 5.12 E f f e c t o f E f f e c t i v e C o n f i n i n g S t r e s s on S t r a i n
Development Due t o P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s R o t a t i o n .
126
Ottawa sand
1 I 1 1 1 1 f
0 20 40 60
Rotation Angle oc °
F i g u r e 5.13 E f f e c t of E f f e c t i v e C o n f i n i n g S t r e s s on S t r a i n
Increment D i r e c t i o n s D u r i n g P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s
Rotation.
127
5.3.4 E f f e c t of P r i n c i p a l Stress Ratio
The three medium loose (D = 34%) specimens i n t h i s t e s t series were

r
s u b j e c t e d to i d e n t i c a l o' = 300 kPa and b = 0.5, but d i f f e r e n t values of

m
R = 1.3, 2.0 or 3.0 p r i o r to imposing p r i n c i p a l stress rotations. The
results of f i r s t p r i n c i p a l stress rotation cycle, illustrated i n Fig.
5.14 show t h a t , f o r a given a, both e , and r induced increase with

' ' 6
vol 'max
the l e v e l of R. Even at low R = 1.3, s i g n i f i c a n t strains are induced as
a consequence of rotation. At high R = 3, p r i n c i p a l stress rotation
leads to substantial contractions. These findings are i n good agreement
with recent investigations reported by Symes et a l . (1988).
Decrease i n a, following i t s peak value i n the forward d i r e c t i o n , i s
associated w i t h some r e c o v e r y i n Y s i m i l a r to that observed i n pre-

J
'max
vious t e s t s e r i e s . The magnitude of recovery as a percentage of forward
developed s t r a i n s , however, decreases s u b s t a n t i a l l y with increase i n R.
Direction of Strain Increment
The observed directions of the s t r a i n increments are shown i n F i g .
5.15. The r e s u l t s indicate that the p o s i t i o n of r e l a t i v e to a or
i s highly dependent on the l e v e l of stress r a t i o . At high stress r a t i o
(R=3) , l a r g e r d e v i a t i o n s occur between a ^ and£ , which i s consistent
with larger irrecoverable strains (Fig. 5.14). Unloading ( i . e . , decreas-
i n g a) , on the other hand, results i n closer to ^ ta

0 p a r t i c u l a r l y at
low l e v e l of R = 1.3, which now suggests a predominance of recoverable
strains.
Two factors could contribute to the large difference between beha-
viour under p r i n c i p a l stress rotations at low and high stress r a t i o s .

128
Figure 5.14 E f f e c t of E f f e c t i v e S t r e s s R a t i o on S t r a i n
Development Due t o P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s R o t a t i o n .
129
F i g u r e 5.15 E f f e c t of E f f e c t i v e S t r e s s R a t i o on S t r a i n
Increment D i r e c t i o n s D u r i n g P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s
Rotation.
130
First, s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n the inherent anisotropy of the sand are
l i k e l y to r e s u l t from increasing R to a l e v e l i n excess of 2.0 p r i o r to
rotation. This has been already suggested i n section 5.2.2. Second,
p r i n c i p a l stress rotation from a=0 to 55°, at stress conditions b = 0.5
and R = 3, i s l i k e l y to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y affected by stress nonuniformi-
t i e s (see Chapter 3). Values of B D i n excess of 0.20 are expected during
most of the r o t a t i o n . I t i s , however, very d i f f i c u l t to assess the
extent of the e f f e c t s of these high stress nonuniformities on the r e s u l t s
shown i n Figures 5.14 and 5.15.
5.3.5 E f f e c t of Intermediate Stress Parameter
In t h i s t e s t s e r i e s , t h r e e medium loose specimens (D = 34%) were r
s u b j e c t e d t o o' = 300 kPa, R = 2.0, a = 0 and d i f f e r e n t values of b =

J
m ' '
0.0, 0.3 and 0.5, prior to imposing principal stress rotations.
Volumetric and maximum shear strains induced during the f i r s t rotation
cycle are presented i n F i g . 5.16. I t may be noted that the value of b
does not appear to influence the s t r a i n response of sand to p r i n c i p a l
stress rotations i n a major way.
Figure 5.17 shows the directions of s t r a i n increments. I t i s noted
that the r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of a ^ , d u r i n g e i t h e r forward or backward
rotation, seems to be independent of the b-value. This may have
contributed to the r e l a t i v e i n s e n s i t i v i t y of 'b' l e v e l on p r i n c i p a l
stress rotation e f f e c t s .
131
F i g u r e 5.16 E f f e c t of I n t e r m e d i a t e S t r e s s Parameter on S t r a i n
Development Due to P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s R o t a t i o n . .
132
F i g u r e 5.17 E f f e c t of I n t e r m e d i a t e S t r e s s Parameter on
S t r a i n Increment D i r e c t i o n s D u r i n g P r i n c i p a l
Stress Rotation.
133
The conclusions drawn from Figures 5.16 and 5.17 have important
implications, since the range of b selected represents the majority of
practical loading situations ranging from axisymmetric to p l a i n strain.
Previous experimental investigations aimed at i s o l a t i n g the e f f e c t s of
principal stress rotation (drained or undrained) have concentrated on a
single a r b i t r a r y value of b = 0.50 (Symes et a l . , 1982,1984,1985,1988;
Miura et a l . , 1986). As suggested by the experimental r e s u l t s presented
in t h i s section, the conclusions from these previous investigations may
thus be extended to other intermediate stress conditions with b i n the
range 0.0 to 0.5.
5.3.6 Rotation Tests on Erksak Sand
Like the tests on Ottawa sand, a l l specimens of Erksak sand were
sequentially brought to the desired i n i t i a l state (stress r a t i o R = 2.0
or 3.0, mean e f f e c t i v e stress o' = 300 kPa and intermediate stress para-
m
meter b = 0.50) p r i o r to i n i t i a t i n g p r i n c i p a l stress rotations. Specimens
were tested at two r e l a t i v e densities (D = 25% and 50%).

r
E f f e c t of Relative Density
The volumetric and shear s t r a i n responses of both loose and medium
dense sands are compared i n F i g . 5.18. The f i r s t p r i n c i p a l stress rota-
t i o n cycle may be seen to induce s i g n i f i c a n t contraction and shear defor-
mations at both densities, although of smaller magnitudes f o r the denser
state. The r e s u l t s of Erksak sand are very similar to those observed on
Ottawa sand ( F i g . 5.10), despite some differences i n mineralogy and
angularity of the grains (see Table 4.1).

134
C T M = 300 kPq ; R = 2.0 ; b = 0.5

0.20 i
Rotation Angle OC °
F i g u r e 5.18 S t r a i n Development Due to P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation
on Erksak Sand: E f f e c t of D .
135
After the f i r s t rotation cycle, the specimens were subjected to a
second forward rotation phase (a=0 to 45°). Significant hardening
e f f e c t s may be seen to r e s u l t from previous rotation cycle i n the same
direction. The magnitude of contraction i s d r a s t i c a l l y reduced i n the
loose, whereas a small dilation may be noted in the medium-dense
specimen. These experimental observations are also i n accordance with
the concept of bounding surface (Symes et a l . , 1988) previously
discussed.
The observed strain increment directions are shown i n F i g . 5.19.
Only small differences may be noted between the two densities, tends
to be c l o s e r to a ^ o for the denser than the looser state, during forward
rotation. The s m a l l d e v i a t i o n between a, and a, at low values of a

de do
(corresponding to small s t r a i n magnitudes) was also observed i n rotation
tests on Ottawa sand. During backward r o t a t i o n , a closer coincidence
between the d i r e c t i o n s of s t r a i n and stress increments may be associated
with the predominantly recoverable strains i n both medium-dense and loose
sand (Fig. 5.18).
E f f e c t of P r i n c i p a l Stress Ratio
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the marked e f f e c t s of stress r a t i o on
the volumetric s t r a i n response of Ottawa sand during p r i n c i p a l stress
rotation (Fig. 5.14) are not observed with Erksak sand (Fig. 5.20). The
different range of r e l a t i v e densities of the two sands can be a major
factor contributing to the differences i n behaviour. Figure 5.20a shows
that contractive volumetric strains differ only s l i g h t l y for rotation
tests at R=2 and R=3. Small d i l a t i o n i s observed at the i n i t i a l stages
of both forward and backward rotations on the sand subjected to high

136
Figure 5.19 S t r a i n Increment D i r e c t i o n s D u r i n g P r i n c i p a l

S t r e s s R o t a t i o n on Erksak Sand: E f f e c t of D .
137
0 20 40
Rotation Angle OC °
F i g u r e 5.20 S t r a i n Development Due to P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s Rotation
on Erksak S and: E f f e c t of S t r e s s R a t i o .
138
stress ratio. Nevertheless, shear strains induced by p r i n c i p a l stress
r o t a t i o n increase s i g n i f i c a n t l y with R-level (Fig. 5.20(b)).
Also only small differences i n directions may be noted i n Figure
5.21 for rotation tests on medium-dense Erksak sand under different
l e v e l s of stress r a t i o .
5.3.7 Conclusions
Continuous p r i n c i p a l stress rotation tests on two sands (Ottawa and
Erksak sands) show no major differences in s t r a i n response, despite
differences i n grain angularity and, to a smaller extent, i n mineralogy
(see Table 4.1).
Progressive accumulation of both volumetric contraction and shear
d i s t o r t i o n was observed. At constant s t r e s s s t a t e (o^, R, b), these
deformations increase with decrease i n r e l a t i v e density. Similarly,for a
g i v e n r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , deformations increase with the l e v e l of o" , and

6
m J
*
with the l e v e l of R.
The l e v e l of p r i n c i p a l stress parameter b between 0.0 and 0.5 seems
to have no influence on the s t r a i n response of medium-loose sand during
p r i n c i p a l stress rotations.
Both volumetric contractions and shear strains were found to be more
significant i n the f i r s t rotation cycle. Progressively smaller cumula-
t i v e s t r a i n i n g was observed i n subsequent cycles. The d i r e c t i o n of the
major p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n increment deviated more from the d i r e c t i o n of the
major stress increment during the first forward rotation on either side
of the vertical. This was associated with strains that were predomi-
nantly irrecoverable. During backward rotation and with subsequent

139
F i g u r e 5.21 S t r a i n Increment D i r e c t i o n s D u r i n g P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s
R o t a t i o n on Erlcsak. Sand; E f f e c t of S t r e s s R a t i o .
140
cycling, the directions of the s t r a i n and stress increments tend to
coincide (a^ e = ), i n d i c a t i n g predominance of recoverable s t r a i n s .
Under drained loading conditions, t h i s implied hardening e f f e c t s of
the previous r o t a t i o n cycles. This type of behaviour, under undrained
conditions, would lead to progressive softening due to accumulation of
p o s i t i v e excess pore pressure. For certain states of stress and r e l a t i v e
density, t h i s could lead to l i q u e f a c t i o n (contractive deformation).
5.4 INTERMEDIATE PRINCIPAL STRESS PARAMETER
The influence of the intermediate principal stress parameter
b = ( O j - O j J / t O j - O j ) on the s t r a i n response of sands i s assessed i n two
basic manners. The f i r s t one i s through a series of tests i n which the
sand i s sheared at several constant values of b. Such experiments have
been c a r r i e d out i n true t r i a x i a l devices under a = 0 condition, with
contradictory conclusions as to the e f f e c t on peak strength characteris-
t i c s (see F i g . 2.9). The results of a series of drained shear tests with
a = 45° i n the HCT apparatus are discussed i n d e t a i l i n t h i s section.
In the second and more d i r e c t manner, the e f f e c t of the intermediate
stress parameter on s t r a i n response can be evaluated i n tests i n which b
i s the only stress parameter that i s varied. V i r t u a l l y no information is
so f a r a v a i l a b l e on the behaviour of sands under such continuous v a r i a -
tions i n b at constant values of R, and a. Symes et a l . (1985) report
a t e s t of t h i s type i n which focus was on pore pressure response under
undrained conditions only. In the second part of t h i s section, the
effect of drained c y c l i c variations i n b at several inclinations a i s
examined i n d e t a i l .
141
5.4.1 Shear Tests at Various b
Four tests on medium-loose sand were carried out, each with a
d i f f e r e n t b-value. A l l specimens were f i r s t brought to a hydrostatic
s t r e s s s t a t e o' = 300 kPa. The stress r a t i o R was then increased with

m
c o n s t a n t v a l u e s o f b (0.0, 0.3, 0.5 and 0.8), a = 45° and o' = 300 kPa.
' ' ' m
The shear and volumetric s t r a i n responses are shown i n Figures 5.22(a)
and (b). I t may be noted that the deformation response of sand due to
increasing shearing stresses i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y dependent on the value of
b. S t i f f e s t response i s obtained when b = 0.3. This b value i s usually
considered to be within the range associated with plane strain
conditions.
Except at small levels of shear s t r a i n (Y < 0.3%), softest shear

max
response and largest volumetric contractions may be noted to correspond
to b = 0. At larger strains (r > 1.5%), the mobilized shear strength
max
(R) tends to become nearly independent of b, for b values i n excess of
0.3, but considerably lower for b = 0. This behaviour i s consistent with
previous investigations at a = 0 (section 2.2.3), although at these high
l e v e l s of stress and s t r a i n the degree of nonuniformity i n HCT tests may
be s i g n i f i c a n t (see Chapter 3). The development of shear strains (Fig.
5.22(a)) i s i n agreement with drained HCT r e s u l t s reported by Symes et
al. (1982) for dense sand at a = 45°. However, they report the s t i f f e s t
volumetric response corresponding to b = 0, as opposed to b = 0.3 to 0.5
in Fig. 5.22(b).
D i r e c t i o n of Strain Increment
Figure 5.23 shows the directions of the p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n increments
( a , ) d u r i n g these d i r e c t i o n a l shear t e s t s w i t h a = 45°. Deviations

143
55 - r
Ottawa sand
CT = 300 kPa b = 0
m
53 H D = 34 % b = 0.3
r
51 H -x- -x- b = 0.5
v/ — ^ V v. b = 0.8
49
Co
•8 4 7
H X..A
a = 45
45
43 — I —
1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2
—r—
2.6 3.4
3.0
R - CT; /a 3
Figure 5.23 E f f e c t of b on S t r a i n Increment D i r e c t i o n s During

Shear Loading.
144
between a ^ e and a may be noted to be s i m i l a r , regardless of the b-value.
The magnitude of the deviation tends to reduce on shearing. This may be
attributed to a progressive a l t e r a t i o n of the i n i t i a l anisotropic fabric
of the sand due to induced shear s t r a i n s . The inherent (or i n i t i a l )
cross-anisotropy of the material tested (see section 5.2) i s again i n d i -
cated by the deviation of the s t r a i n increments towards the horizontal
direction ( a ^ > a, i n F i g . 5.23).
Strain Paths
The s t r a i n paths observed i n shear tests with d i f f e r e n t b-values are
presented i n F i g . 5.24. I t i s interesting to note that the s t r a i n paths
are initially l i n e a r i n the small stress r a t i o region (R £ 1.8), regard-
less of b-value (Figures 5.24(b) and ( c ) ) . This i n i t i a l l i n e a r i t y i n the
s t r a i n paths i s an i n d i c a t i o n that changes i n the i n i t i a l anisotropy of
the sand, due to induced s t r a i n s , are only s i g n i f i c a n t when R exceeds
1.8. Experimental evidence i n support of t h i s conclusion at several
i n c l i n a t i o n s a has been shown i n F i g . 5.6. S i m i l a r l y , the l e v e l of
(within the range 50 to 500 kPa) has been reported not to a f f e c t the
initial linearity of strain paths in triaxial shear tests (Negussey,
1984).
Figure 5.24c also indicates that shearing at b = 0.3 corresponds
c l o s e l y to the condition of plane s t r a i n , since very small strains e 3
develop i n the sand specimen throughout the t e s t . This has significance
in that the s t i f f est response was shown to r e s u l t when b = 0.3 (Fig.
5.22). Thus, unwanted conservatism may be introduced i f s o i l parameters
obtained from conventional t r i a x i a l tests (b = 0) are used i n analysis of
plane s t r a i n problems.
146
5.4.2 Continuous Variations i n b
A s e r i e s of b - t e s t s on medium-loose Ottawa sand ( D = 34%) was

r
c a r r i e d out under drained conditions. Throughout each t e s t , the stress
parameters R, a and were kept constant, while b was cycled between 0
and 1 i n a continuous manner. As indicated i n Table 4.2 (tests B2 to B4)
the values of a selected were 0, 25° and 45°.
Figure 5.25 presents the volumetric and shear s t r a i n responses of
the sand due to one cycle v a r i a t i o n i n b. Although small i n magnitude,
both e , and Y increase progressively as b increases. Differences i n

vol 'max J
inclination a do not seem to be e f f e c t i v e i n producing significant
differences i n s t r a i n response. Volumetric contractions may be noted to
become s i g n i f i c a n t only when b exceeds about 0.40, regardless of the
d i r e c t i o n o.
I t may be noted i n F i g . 5.25 that about 50% of the maximum shear
strains induced during b-loading (b = 0 to 1) i s recovered on b-unloading
(b = 1 to 0). Volumetric contractions, on the other hand, continue
occurring, although at a reduced rate, when b i s decreased back to zero.
The rates of volumetric contraction and shear distortion during
b-loading have been observed to be lower for denser sand (Sayao and Vaid,
1988a). As a consequence, c y c l i c variations i n b may be expected to have
more s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on looser sand.
Examination of the p r i n c i p a l strain increment directions could
perhaps permit further insight into the nature of strains induced by a

147
148
continuous variation i n b. Difficulty arises, however, due to some
inherent features of stress and s t r a i n paths i n b-tests. Figure 5.26
shows magnitudes of stresses and strains observed i n test B3 (a = 25°),
p l o t t e d as f u n c t i o n s of b. I t may be noted that the i n i t i a l stress
(=Oj) i s the o n l y s t r e s s component that increases with b, from a' = a' 2 3
(at b = 0) to oj = a[ (at b = 1). As a consequence, the major p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s increment occurs i n the r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n (&a[ = Aop , while Ao a
and Ao 3 are confined i n the vertical circumferential plane (specimen
wall). Accordingly, the major p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n (e ) and the major p r i n -

t
c i p a l s t r a i n increment (Ae ) x are fixed i n the r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , while e 2
and e 3 are confined i n the plane of the specimen wall (Fig. 5.26b).
The d i r e c t i o n s of the intermediate s t r a i n increments for a = 0, 25
and 45° are shown i n F i g . 5.27. I t i s interesting to note that, except
when a = 0 (axes of loading ( O j ) and anisotropy are coincident), e 2 and
e s do rotate i n the plane of the w a l l , even though a l l three p r i n c i p a l
stresses are f i x e d i n d i r e c t i o n . This i s probably r e l a t e d to the initial
anisotropy of the sand (see s e c t i o n 5.2), since continuously
increases (i.e., e 3 rotates towards the horizontal direction) during
b-loading.
Strain Paths
Figure 5.28 presents the s t r a i n paths observed when b was increased
from 0 to 1 under various constant a d i r e c t i o n s . S i g n i f i c a n t nonlinear-
ity i n the s t r a i n paths may be noted for the tests with a > 0. This i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y accentuated i n the s t r a i n space (e , 2 e ) , which corresponds

3
to the vertical circumferential plane (Fig. 5.28b). The r o t a t i o n of
principal strains i n this plane, associated with the initially cross-

149
F i g u r e 5.26 P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s e s and S t r a i n s i n b-Tests on Medium-

Loose Sand.
150
F i g u r e 5.2 7 D i r e c t i o n of I n t e r m e d i a t e S t r a i n Increment
During b-Tests.
151
0.4
D r = 34 % ; CT = 300 kPa ; R = 2
m
0.3 H
0.2 -i
0.1 -A • a = 0
0 a = 25
a = 45
0.0
0.0
-0.02 H
-0.04 H
-0.06 -4
Ottawa
sand
-0.08 I 1 1 1 — i i i i 1 1 1 —
-0.26 -0.22 -0.18 -0.14 -0.10 -0.06 -0.02
£ o (%)
Figure 5.28 Strain Paths During b-Tests.

152
anisotropic f a b r i c of the sand, contributes to the observed nonlinearity
of the s t r a i n paths.
Strain path n o n l i n e a r i t y i s much less evident i n the specimen tested
under a = 0 condition. In t h i s case, p r i n c i p a l strains are a l l fixed i n
d i r e c t i o n due to the coincidence of p r i n c i p a l axes of loading and aniso-
tropy, as already pointed out i n the previous section. The slight
nonlinearity observed i n the final stages of this test (Fig. 5.28),
however, corresponds to a stress region where b i s greater than 0.5. In
t h i s region ( R = 2 , a=0, b > 0.5), greater stress and s t r a i n nonuni-
formities within the specimen wall (see chapter 3) may have contributed
to t h i s observed nonlinearity i n the s t r a i n paths.
5.A.3 Conclusions
Significant differences i n strain response were observed i n shear
tests at c o n s t a n t v a l u e s o f b, o' and a. The experimental r e s u l t s

m
suggest that plane s t r a i n problems (b = 0.3) may have t h e i r deformations
l a r g e l y overpredicted, when data from conventional t r i a x i a l tests (b = 0)
i s used. Regardless of b-value, however, the i n i t i a l cross-anisotropy of
the sand i s maintained for loading below R = 1.8 to 2.0. At higher
levels of stress ratio, effect of strain-induced anisotropy becomes
progressively more evident.
Continuous i n c r e a s e i n b-value under constant R, a and o' induces

m
progressive accumulation of volumetric contraction and shear strains i n
the medium-loose sand. These strains are, however, r e l a t i v e l y small i n
the range b = 0.0 to 0.4, which corresponds to most loading conditions i n
geotechnical p r a c t i c e .
153
5.5 PROPORTIONAL LOADING
Along a proportional loading path i n general stress space, the mean
e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s o' v a r i e s under constant values of R, b and a. This

m
corresponds to loading paths i n which proportional increments of stress
components are imposed to the s o i l . Typical examples of proportional
loading at R = 2 are i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 5.29. I t may be noted that a l l
three p r i n c i p a l stress r a t i o s (a[/a ,

2 o\/a\ and R = a[/a ) 3 stay constant,
together with the d i r e c t i o n a. This implies that the o v e r a l l o b l i q u i t y
of the applied stress vector remains f i x e d .
Study of proportional loading paths i n general stress space i s of
fundamental importance for anisotropic f r i c t i o n a l materials, whose s t r a i n
response i s governed mainly by the values of R and a. Previous investi-
gations on proportional loading of sands have, however, been confined to
conventional t r i a x i a l stress conditions (e.g., El-Sohby, 1969; Negussey,
1984). A systematic study of proportional loading paths i n general
stress space ( 0 £ a £ 90°; 0 £ b £ 1) i s presented herein. The s t r a i n
response of medium-loose Ottawa sand i s examined f i r s t under selected
i n c l i n a t i o n s a. Observations are based on stress conditions correspond-
ing to b = 0 and R = 2, i n order to minimize e f f e c t s of non-uniformity
within the HCT specimen. The study i s then extended to other initial
density and stress conditions.
5.5.1 Increase i n o' at various a

m •
Initial conditions for t h i s test series were D r = 34%, R = 2, b = 0
and o' = 5 0 kPa. Three d i f f e r e n t directions a were selected: a = 0, 25

m '
and 45°. During each t e s t , was monotonically increased from 50 to 300
kPa, under constant R, a and b.

154
500 —i ,
CT' (Wo)
F i g u r e 5.29 S t r e s s Components During P r o p o r t i o n a l Loading

i n G e n e r a l S t r e s s Space.
155
Figure 5.30 shows the s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour of pluviated Ottawa
sand under p r o p o r t i o n a l l o a d i n g . For a g i v e n increment i n o^, both
volumetric contractions and shear d i s t o r t i o n s may be noted to increase
with the loading (o ) d i r e c t i o n a.

x In p a r t i c u l a r , the response at o = 0
is much stiffer than at other directions. These observations are
consistent with shear and hydrostatic compression results previously
reported (section 5.2), which indicated a marked i n i t i a l (or inherent)
cross-anisotropy of the sand.
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that, at higher values of a, large shear
s t r a i n s o c c u r r e d under changes i n o^ o n l y . This would imply, under
undrained conditions, p o s i t i v e excess pore pressures much larger than
Ao .
m
Direction of S t r a i n Increment
The observed d i r e c t i o n s ( a d g ) of the major p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n i n c r e -
ments are compared to corresponding constant p r i n c i p a l stress directions
a i n F i g . 5.31. Behaviour under monotonic increase i n a' i s such that

m
a ^ g i s n e a r l y constant and s l i g h t l y greater than a, for a-values greater
(*)
than zero . T h i s may a g a i n be e x p l a i n e d by the i n i t i a l cross-
anisotropy of the sand, which causes a small deviation of e x towards the
h o r i z o n t a l direction. Constancy of a s u n d e r constant i n c l i n a t i o n of the
applied stress vector suggests that effects of s t r a i n induced anisotropy
may be considered insignificant i n proportional loading paths, at the
i n i t i a l stress and density conditions considered i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

(*)as already pointed out i n e a r l i e r sections, there i s a coincidence of
axes of loading and anisotropy when pluviated sands are loaded
v e r t i c a l l y . Thus, a^ = a = 0 under t h i s condition.
e
156
F i g u r e 5.30 E f f e c t o f a on S t r a i n Development Due t o

P r o p o r t i o n a l Loading.
157
90 -
Dr = 34 % ; R = 2.0 ; b = 0
80 -
Ottawa sand
70 -
degi"ees )
60 -
50 - o
Q
75 0 £>
40 - a = 45°
UJ
TJ 30 - •
~~ B • n
20 - a = 25°
10 -
0 -
u
I . I i . i - 1 I
100 200 300
c
(J ' ( kPa )
F i g u r e 5.31 S t r a i n Increment D i r e c t i o n s D u r i n g Proportional

Loading.
158
S t r a i n Paths
Any induced anisotropy in proportional loading may be further
investigated by examining the s t r a i n paths followed in principal strain
spaces ( e l t e,) and (e , e ) .

a 3 I t i s apparent, from the r e s u l t s shown i n
Fig. 5.32, that proportional loading paths r e s u l t i n linear s t r a i n paths,
regardless of inclination a. These observations give support to the
above suggestion that little change i n inherent anisotropy occurs on
straining under proportional loading at R = 2 and b = 0. Similar
conclusion, based on proportional loading r e s u l t s i n the t r i a x i a l device
(o = 0), has been presented by Negussey (1984).
Marked differences i n s t r a i n response as a function of a are also
apparent i n F i g . 5.32. Under v e r t i c a l loading conditions (o = 0), a l l
p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n s are contractant and are of r e l a t i v e l y small magnitudes.
Under inclined loading conditions (a = 25° and 45°), a substantial
increase i n major p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n s (£j) may be noted (Fig. 5.32a). As
already pointed out, t h i s i s due to the inherently anisotropic character-
i s t i c s of the sand. Associated with these larger contractant s t r a i n s e , x
negative (dilatant) s t r a i n s e 3 are observed i n the plane of the specimen
wall, at a = 25 and 45°. These s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n p r i n c i p a l
strains e x and e s explain the occurrence of much larger shear strains
(r ) at o > 0, shown i n F i g . 5.30.

'max ' 6
5.5.2 Behaviour at Other I n i t i a l Conditions
The r e s u l t s of proportional loading tests presented i n Figures 5.30
to 5.32 correspond to medium-loose sand at stress conditions R = 2 and
b = 0. Additional series of proportional loading tests were c a r r i e d out
at other s e l e c t e d values of D , R and b, i n an attempt to v e r i f y the

160
extension of the experimental observations pointed out i n the previous
section.
Interpretation of results i s made simpler by keeping a 1 in the
v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n i n a l l remaining t e s t s . As a consequence, the d i r e c -
tions of p r i n c i p a l stress and s t r a i n increments were coincident with the
axis of i n i t i a l anisotropy i n the pluviated sand (a = = 0).
E f f e c t of Relative Density
Figure 5.33 shows the volumetric and shear s t r a i n responses of loose
(D r = 20%) , medium-loose (D r = 33%) and dense (D r = 60%) Ottawa sand.
Monotonic i n c r e a s e i n o' from 50 to 300 kPa was imposed at constant

m r
stress parameters R = 2, b = 0.5 and a =0. As expected, induced con-
tractions and distortions are noted to be larger with decrease in
relative density.
The observed s t r a i n paths i n p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n space are plotted i n
F i g . 5.34. It i s important to point out that behaviour i n proportional
loading, at the selected stress conditions described above, i s such that
the major p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n e x occurs i n the r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , regardless
of the v a l u e of D . r Accordingly, e, i s v e r t i c a l and e s occurs i n the
circumferential direction. This i s d i r e c t l y related to the inherent
cross-anisotropy of the sand tested. I f the sand was isotropic, strain
response under a = 0 c o n d i t i o n would be necessarily such that e 1 = e.^.
In addition, the stress system (R = 2, b = 0.5) imposed to the specimen
also contributes to the dilatant response in the circumferential
direction. This i s discussed i n the next section on the e f f e c t of b.
A detailed examination of Figs. 5.34(a) and (b) reveals that, at a
g i v e n l e v e l of v e r t i c a l s t r a i n (e = e ), a larger contractant radial

161
0.5
0.8 -
D r = 20%
33%
0.6 -
(t>)
X
D
^ E
0.4 -
/O-^ 60%
0.2 -
0.0 -
W i • i 1 1 1 •
C
100 200 300
Cm ( kPa )
Figure 5.33 Effect of D on Strain Development Due
r
to Proportional Loading.
162
Figure 5.34 E f f e c t of D
r on S t r a i n Paths During
Proportional Loading.
163
strains (e r = e ) and s l i g h t l y less d i l a t a n t circumferential strains (e^

x
= e ) are associated with lower r e l a t i v e d e n s i t i e s . As a r e s u l t , o v e r a l l

3
deformations i n the h o r i z o n t a l plane are greatest for the loose (D r =
20%) sand. This behaviour suggests that a higher degree of initial
anisotropy i s present i n the loose sand. Such conclusion i s consistent
with the greater e f f e c t of p r i n c i p a l stress r o t a t i o n observed on loose
sand (section 5.3) and with hydrostatic compression data reported by
Negussey (1984).
Another important aspect to be pointed out i n F i g . 5.34 i s related
to the linearity of the s t r a i n paths. The dense sand exhibits essen-
tially linear strain paths, which are an indication that the initial
anisotropy i s maintained throughout the proportional loading. On the
other hand, a small curvature may be noted i n the s t r a i n paths followed
by the loose (D r = 20%) sand. T h i s suggests t h a t the larger strains
experienced by the loose sand tend to induce a small but gradual change
in the initial anisotropy. Consistent with the above observations, a
very small curvature may be noted i n the s t r a i n paths corresponding to an
i n t e r m e d i a t e r e l a t i v e density (D r = 33%), between loose and dense. But,
the s t r a i n paths followed by the medium-loose sand may be considered as
nearly l i n e a r , for a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes. Small changes i n inherent
anisotropy under proportional loading may therefore be confined to very
loose sands only.
This important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c response of loose sand has apparently
not been detected i n previous investigations on proportional loading.
This i s probably due to the fact that these studies were carried out i n
the t r i a x i a l device, where uniform sand specimens looser than about 30%
are difficult to prepare. Moreover, the stress system in triaxial

164
compression i s l i m i t e d to b = 0 conditions. The e f f e c t of b on the
strain response to proportional loading i s examined i n the following
section.
E f f e c t of Intermediate Stress Parameter
In t h i s t e s t s e r i e s , three medium-loose specimens (D r = 33%) were
subjected to R = 2.0, a = 0 and d i f f e r e n t values of b = 0.0, 0.3 and 0.5,
p r i o r t o i n c r e a s i n g o' from 50 to 300 kPa. The range of b selected

m
represents the majority of practical loading situations ranging from
axisymmetric to plane s t r a i n .
Volumetric and maximum shear s t r a i n s are shown i n Figs. 5.35(a) and
(b), respectively. It is apparent that, even though volumetric
contractions are nearly s i m i l a r , shear d i s t o r t i o n s are highly dependent
on b-value.
The observed differences i n shear s t r a i n response to proportional
loading may be explained by examining the strain paths followed in
principal strain space (Fig. 5.36). Under axisymmetric conditions
(b = 0, a = 0), a l l three p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n s are contractant and the major
strain e x occurs i n the v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n . On the other hand, under
more general stress conditions (b = 0.3 and 0.5), d i l a t a n t minor
principal strains e 3 are noted. Moreover, major p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n s e 1 are
developed i n the radial direction. This observed switch in e 1 from
vertical to r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , when b changes from 0.0 to either 0.3 or
0.5, may be attributed to two main factors: the stress system imposed to
the specimen and the inherent cross-anisotropy of the sand. As already
illustrated i n F i g . 5.29, increase i n o^. (= a' ) 2 i s g r e a t e r when
proportional loading i s imposed at b = 0.5 than at b = 0. In addition,

Figure 5.35 Effect of b on Strain Development Due to
166
F i g u r e 5.36 E f f e c t of b on S t r a i n Paths During

167
i n c r e a s e i n a' 3 i s a l s o smaller at b = 0.5. Consequently, i f the stress
ratio is relatively low, becomes the major p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n i n
inherently anisotropic sand.
I t may be noted i n F i g . 5.36 that e t and e 3 increase i n magnitude
(with opposite signs) with an increase i n b-value. This explains the
differences i n shear strain response under d i f f e r e n t b-values already
pointed out (Fig. 5.35).
The s t r a i n paths shown i n Figs. 5.36(a) and (b) are essentially
linear. Thus, the i n i t i a l cross-anisotropy of the medium-loose sand may
be assumed unaltered during proportional loading at the selected stress
conditions, R = 2.0 and a = 0.
E f f e c t of Stress Ratio
All proportional loading tests reported i n the previous sections
correspond to only one R-level (R = 2.0). In t h i s test s e r i e s , three
medium-loose sand specimens were subjected to d i f f e r e n t values of R =
1.3, 2.0 and 3.0, and to i d e n t i c a l b = 0.5 and a = 0, p r i o r to imposing a
monotonic increase i n o' from 50 to 300 kPa.

m
Figure 5.37(a) shows the s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour of the medium-loose
sand i n terms of volumetric deformations. Larger contraction i s induced
i n sand at R = 3.0, f o r a given l e v e l of o^. At R i 2.0, volumetric
contractions are seen to be nearly s i m i l a r . In contrast, much larger
differences in shear distortion may be noted (Fig. 5.37(b)) as R
increases from 1.3 to 3.0.
The s t r a i n paths observed in this test series are shown i n F i g .
5.38. In a l l t e s t s , e l = e r and e 3 = e^. At R = 1.3 and 2.0, principal
s t r a i n s induced i n the medium-loose sand follow nearly linear paths. At

168
Figure 5.37 Effect of R on Strain Development Due to

169
0.0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0
( % )
Figure 5.38 E f f e c t of R on S t r a i n Paths During

170
higher stress ratio (R = 3.0), however, p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n paths are
c l e a r l y nonlinear. This suggests that large s t r a i n s may have induced
gradual changes i n the i n i t i a l anisotropy of the sand tested at R = 3.0.
It should be pointed out, however, that s i g n i f i c a n t stress nonuniformity
may have also p a r t l y contributed to the differences i n s t r a i n response
observed at t h i s higher R-level, even though the degree of nonuniformity
(B ) stays constant during proportional loading paths (see Chapter 3).

R
5.5.3 Conclusions
Experimental r e s u l t s on proportional loading i n general stress space
indicate that volumetric contractions and shear d i s t o r t i o n s induced i n
Ottawa sand are highly dependent on the i n i t i a l stress and density condi-
tions. At a g i v e n
o ' - l e v e l , deformations are observed to increase with
ra
decrease i n D and increase i n a, b and R.
r '
Examination of p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n paths suggest that the sand's inher-
ent anisotropy i s gradually affected by induced s t r a i n s at low relative
density (D r = 20%) or at h i g h stress r a t i o (R = 3.0). Under a l l other
initial conditions investigated, s t r a i n paths were shown to be e s s e n t i -
ally linear during proportional loading, implying preservation of the
nature of inherent anisotropy.
5.6 ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS ON STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR
The investigations described i n previous sections focussed on the
s t r a i n response of sands subjected to diverse loading paths i n general
stress space. In each test s e r i e s , a l l specimens were f i r s t brought to
the d e s i r e d i n i t i a l state (D , o^, R, b, a) i n an i d e n t i c a l manner, as a

r
part of their preparation and set-up phase. During loading only one
171
stress parameter was varied while others were held constant. Observed
differences i n s t r a i n response to i d e n t i c a l loading paths may thus be
a t t r i b u t e d only to differences i n i n i t i a l state.
S t r e s s - s t r a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sands are, however, known to depend
not only on the i n i t i a l state, but, at a current stress state, they
depend on both the previous stress history and the subsequent stress
path. A preliminary assessment of the influence of these last two
factors was the primary objective of two additional series of HCT tests
on medium-loose Ottawa sand.
In the f i r s t t e s t s e r i e s , i d e n t i c a l specimens were subjected to a
common loading paths after being brought to the same initial state
through d i f f e r e n t preparation stress paths. Differences i n stress-strain
behaviour during subsequent shear loading and p r i n c i p a l stress rotation
are examined independently.
In the second test s e r i e s , two specimens were sheared by increasing
R under constant o^, b and a, a f t e r i d e n t i c a l preparation stages to a
common i n i t i a l state. In one t e s t , however, shear loading was interrup-
ted at selected R-levels and a c y c l i c rotation of p r i n c i p a l " stresses was
applied before shearing was resumed. E f f e c t s of these c y c l i c rotations
on strain response during subsequent shearing stages are examined.
Comparisons of deformation response are made with the second t e s t , i n
which no such rotations of p r i n c i p a l stresses were imposed.
5.6.1 E f f e c t of Previous Stress History
Shear Loading
Stress conditions at the commencement of each test represent
o' = 300 kPa, R = 2.0, b = 0.5 and a = 45°. This i n i t i a l stress state
m
172
corresponds to p o i n t I (=1') i n F i g . 5.39(a). Two medium-loose (D r =
36%) specimens (T2 and R7) were brought to t h i s common i n i t i a l stress
state by following d i f f e r e n t stress paths (OABI and O'l', r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .
Identical shearing stress paths (IF = I'F') were then imposed, under
c o n s t a n t o', b and o. It should be pointed out that 0 and 0' are points
m
representing the same s t a t e of hydrostatic stresses (R = 1.0, = 300
kPa, b and a = undefined).
Shear and volumetric s t r a i n responses from both tests are compared
i n F i g . 5.39(b) and (c), respectively. Values of Y max were computed with
reference to specimen dimensions at initial points 0 and 0'. That
represents a hydrostatic state = 50 kPa. This i s to avoid problems
with possible interchange i n £j and e, d i r e c t i o n s , as observed i n b and
o m loading (see sections 5. A and 5.5, respectively). It may be noted
that s t r a i n response during initial shearing from R = 1.0 to 2.0 is
highly dependent on (b, a) state. Strains developed under axisyraraetric
conditions (b = 0, a = 0, i n test T2) are much smaller than when the
stress condition i s more general (b = 0.5, a = 45°, i n test R7). This i s
c l e a r l y r e l a t e d to inherent anisotropy of sand. On subsequent shearing
from R = 2.0 to 2.4 along the common path (IF or I'F'), specimen T2 again
shows the stiffest response. The results suggest that s i g n i f i c a n t
hardening may have occurred in the sand specimen subjected to the
particular sequential stress path OABI, as opposed to the more d i r e c t
path O'l'. This s t i f f er response shown by specimen T2 may also be due
p a r t l y to a sudden change i n the d i r e c t i o n of stress increment vector i n
g e n e r a l s t r e s s space (R, o^, b, a) at point I. In contrast, the stress
path imposed on the sand i n t e s t R7 i s continuous. Consequently, the
stress increment vector i n general stress space does not suffer a change
173
tTJ^ = 3 0 0 kPa
D r = 36 %
b) Shear Strain Response c) Volumetric S t r a i n Response
Figure 5.39 E f f e c t o f S t r e s s Path H i s t o r y on S t r a i n Response

Under Shear Loading.
174
i n i t s d i r e c t i o n at point I'. Less severe e f f e c t s on deformations may be
associated with sudden changes i n stress increment vector. This occurs
in spite of the d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n states (larger d i s t o r t i o n and smaller
contraction in specimen T2) initially present at the stress state
represented by the common stress points I and I 1

i n F i g . 5.39.
P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation
Two medium-loose sand specimens (Al and o4) followed different
s t r e s s paths to a common s t r e s s state (o^ = 300 kPa, R = 2.0, b = 0.5,
a = 0), represented by point P (Fig. 5.40 insert). From P, a continuous
rotation of p r i n c i p a l stress directions from a = 0 to 45° was imposed to
both specimens, under constant R, and b conditions.
The s t r a i n s accumulated at stress state P i n specimen A l represent
y = 0.23% and E , = 0.28%. At the same i n i t i a l state P, much larger

'max vol e
shear d i s t o r t i o n and v o l u m e t r i c c o n t r a c t i o n (y = 0.75% and e , =

max vol
0.34%) were observed i n specimen a4. This i s p r i m a r i l y due to the
p r o p o r t i o n a l l o a d i n g stage (o^ = 50 to 300 kPa) imposed on specimen a4
under more severe stress conditions (b = 0.5, R = 2) than i n the case of
specimen A l (R = 1, b = undefined), as suggested by the r e s u l t s presented
i n section 5.5.
Volumetric and shear strains observed during p r i n c i p a l stress r o t a -
t i o n only are shown i n F i g . 5.40. Volumetric contraction at any given
r o t a t i o n angle a i s again larger i n specimen a4. In contrast, stiffer
shear response may be noted at i n i t i a l rotation stages (a < 20°) i n
specimen o4, when compared to that i n A l , but no ready explanation may be
suggested for t h i s observation. As p r i n c i p a l stress rotation proceeds,
specimen o4 shows a softer shear s t r a i n response than A l .

175
Figure 5.40 E f f e c t o f S t r e s s Path H i s t o r y on S t r a i n Response

Under P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s R o t a t i o n .
176
Results i n F i g . 5.40 i l l u s t r a t e the e f f e c t that previous stress path
history may have on subsequent strain response of sand subjected to
r o t a t i o n of p r i n c i p a l stress d i r e c t i o n s .
5.6.2 E f f e c t of Rotation Cycles on Subsequent Shearing
In t h i s t e s t s e r i e s , two medium-loose (D r = 35%) specimens were
initially subjected to a monotonic increase i n R under constant = 300
kPa, b = 0.5 and a = 0 . At R = 1.3, shearing was interrupted i n one
specimen (Tl) and two cycles of drained p r i n c i p a l stress rotations from 0
to 90° were imposed i n a continuous manner, under constant principal
s t r e s s magnitudes. Shearing was then resumed under stress conditions
identical to those before rotation. Similarly, at higher selected R
values (R = 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0), one drained rotation cycle (a = 0 •+ 60° -*
0) was imposed to specimen T l under constant R, and b.
Figure 5.41 shows the shear and volumetric strain responses of
specimen T l . For comparison, response of specimen R3, i n which R was
i n c r e a s e d under no h i s t o r y of rotation cycles, i s also shown. Values of
r and e , i n specimen T l r e f e r to s h e a r i n g phases o n l y , after

max vol
discounting the shear distortion and volumetric contraction which
occurred during previous rotation cycles.
S i g n i f i c a n t hardening may be noted to r e s u l t from previous rotation
cycles. Immediately after each cycle, a marked increase i n shear
s t i f f n e s s i s observed i n specimen T l ( F i g . 5.41(a)). Moreover, at any
given R - l e v e l , the tangent shear modulus i s always greater i n specimen T l
than i n R3. S i m i l a r l y , after each rotation cycle, d i l a t a n t volumetric
strain response i s seen i n specimen T l (Fig. 5.41(b)). This i s i n
contrast with the contractant response immediately before each rotation

177
Figure 5.41 E f f e c t o f P r e v i o u s R o t a t i o n C y c l e s on Strain

Response Under Shear Loading.
178
cycle was applied. Again, at any given R-level, volumetric response of
specimen T l i s much s t i f f e r than specimen R3.
5.6.3 Conclusions
Based on the experiental data presented i n the two previous
sections, stress path h i s t o r y may be considered to have a profound i n f l u -
ence on the s t r a i n response of medium-loose sand during subsequent
loading paths. This conclusion confirms the need f o r systematic prepara-
tion and set up of sand specimens up to the selected initial stress
state, when laboratory investigations on fundamental stress-strain
behaviour are to be c a r r i e d out. Also, i n p r a c t i c a l applications of
stress path t e s t i n g , sand specimens should be brought to the i n i t i a l
in-situ conditions through a stress path representing as close as
possible the past stress h i s t o r y i n the f i e l d .
Significant hardening effects are noted to r e s u l t from previous
cycles of drained p r i n c i p a l stress rotation on subsequent shearing. The
results suggest that cyclic rotation, under drained conditions, has
beneficial practical effects. I t makes the medium-loose, sand behave
effectively as a dense sand immediately after each rotation cycle,
regardless of the R-level.
It should be pointed out that i n most loading conditions i n the
field, simultaneous variations i n two or more stress parameters are
l i k e l y to occur. In f a c t , situations where a l l four parameters (R, o^ t b
and a) vary simultaneously, over a l i m i t e d loading range, may represent
the majority of p r a c t i c a l problems.
Research on t h i s broad topic i s currently under way using the HCT
apparatus at UBC. Preliminary results show differences i n strains

179
induced i n sand specimens by simultaneous, as opposed to sequential,
variations i n R and a under drained conditions (Wijewickreme, 1989).

180
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The behaviour of sands which are inherently anisotropic has been
studied under general stress paths. A hollow cylinder t o r s i o n a l (HCT)
apparatus was developed as a part of the research program. The HCT is
the only device that enables independent control of four stress para-
meters: s t r e s s r a t i o R, mean normal s t r e s s a^, intermediate p r i n c i p a l
stress o 2 (or b) and d i r e c t i o n a of the major p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s . These
constitute four parameters that influence behaviour of inherently aniso-
tropic materials.
Very little amount of research has been previously done on the
independent e f f e c t of p r i n c i p a l stress rotation under m u l t i a x i a l stress
conditions. In devices other than the HCT, controlled p r i n c i p a l stress
rotations are either impossible or are accompanied by uncontrolled
changes i n other stress parameters. Where HCT devices have been used,
investigations have often focussed on stress states near or at failure
conditions. At such states, unacceptable l e v e l s of stress and strain
nonuniformities are likely to be present across the wall of hollow
c y l i n d r i c a l specimens.
Minimization of these nonuniformities can however be achieved
through careful selection of specimen geometry and avoiding certain
regions of the stress space to be investigated. I t i s argued i n t h i s
thesis that evaluation of nonuniformity levels i n HCT specimens should
not be done on the basis of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l stress compon-
ents. Rather, these nonuniformities should be defined i n terms of stress
r a t i o , which controls deformation response of f r i c t i o n a l materials.

181
The experimental program was designed to examine systematically the
response of anisotropic sands to i n d i v i d u a l changes i n each stress para-
meter (R, a, b and o*). A l l t e s t s were c a r r i e d out on saturated

m
specimens of pluviated sand under f u l l y drained conditions. Additional
investigations on the e f f e c t of stress h i s t o r y during shear loading and
p r i n c i p a l stress rotations were also performed.
Based on the experimental evidences presented i n t h i s t h e s i s , i t i s
concluded that the s t r a i n response of medium-loose sand to shear loading
i s strongly dependent on the i n c l i n a t i o n a of the major p r i n c i p a l stress
r e l a t i v e to the deposition d i r e c t i o n . The observations suggest that the
sand tested (Ottawa sand) i s inherently cross-anisotropic, i n spite of
i t s r e l a t i v e l y rounded grains. Larger volumetric and shear deformations
are shown to be associated with loading i n which a > 0. This implies
that deformations predicted based on conventional t e s t i n g procedures
( t r i a x i a l t e s t s on " v e r t i c a l " specimens, a = 0) may be on the unconserva-
tive side. P r i n c i p a l s t r a i n increment directions ( a ^ ) always deviate
towards the h o r i z o n t a l , when compared to p r i n c i p a l stress directions (a =
a^ ) , f o r a l l l o a d i n g
o conditions other than the v e r t i c a l compression.
The magnitude of t h i s deviation tends to reduce at high shearing levels,
due to possible e f f e c t s of induced strain anisotropy. S t r a i n path
linearity i n principal strain space at R-levels lower than about 2.0
implies preservation of inherent anisotropy during shear loading.
During continuous p r i n c i p a l stress r o t a t i o n at constant R, b and o^,
progressive accumulation of both volumetric contractions and shear
distortion occurs. These deformations increase significantly with
decrease i n r e l a t i v e density. S i m i l a r l y , for a given density, larger
deformations r e s u l t a t higher l e v e l s of R and o'. On the other hand,

182
p r i n c i p a l stress rotation e f f e c t s are found to be r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e
to differences i n b-value within the range 0.0 to 0.5, which corresponds
to most p r a c t i c a l loading s i t u a t i o n s . The s t r a i n response of Erksak and
Ottawa sands to principal stress rotation are found to be similar,
despite some differences i n mineralogy and grain angularity.
During cyclic principal stress rotation, deformations are more
s i g n i f i c a n t i n the f i r s t rotation cycle. In addition, larger deviations
between a ^ e and occur i n the f i r s t forward rotation cycle on either
side of the v e r t i c a l . These observations indicate the predominance of
irrecoverable strains during p r i n c i p a l stress rotation.
The value of the intermediate stress parameter b was found to a f f e c t
s t r a i n response to d i r e c t i o n a l shear loading. At b = 0.3, which may be
c l o s e l y related to plane s t r a i n conditions, the response was much s t i f f e r
than at b = 0.0. The effect of continuous c y c l i c variations i n b at
constant R, o ' and o has been evaluated for the f i r s t time. Test r e s u l t s
m
on medium-loose sand show that, regardless of loading d i r e c t i o n a, both
volumetric and shear strains increase progressively as b increases from 0
to 1. Changes i n b alone w i l l thus add deformations to those already
induced by changes i n R, o ffi and a, under general loading conditions. The
s t r a i n s caused by change i n b i n the range 0.0 to 0.4 were found to be
r e l a t i v e l y small i n magnitude.
Changes i n o^ at several levels of constant R, b and a correspond to
proportional loading paths i n general stress space. Experimental results
on medium-loose Ottawa sand i n d i c a t e t h a t , at a given o l e v e l , both 1
shear d i s t o r t i o n and volumetric contraction increase with increase i n R,
b and a. During proportional loading, the nature of inherent anisotropy
was e s s e n t i a l l y preserved at a l l stress conditions investigated, the only

183
exception being at high R = 3. S i m i l a r l y , induced anisotropy tend to
become noticable at low r e l a t i v e density states.
All findings summarized above are related to comparisons between
specimens with i d e n t i c a l stress h i s t o r y p r i o r to loading along a selected
stress path. The e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t stress h i s t o r i e s on the s t r a i n
response to i d e n t i c a l subsequent loading are shown to be very s i g n i f i c a n t
i n both shear loading and p r i n c i p a l stresses rotation. This indicates
the importance of duplicating not only the stress path during loading,
but also the past stress h i s t o r y i n the f i e l d , i n p r a c t i c a l applications
of stress path t e s t i n g .
184
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195
APPENDIX
MEMBRANE PENETRATION CORRECTIONS
The experimental studies described i n t h i s thesis required adequate
control of boundary stresses and precise determination of boundary
displacements (or s t r a i n s ) . As indicated i n section 3.2, strain
components e and e Q i n UBC-HCT tests are computed from volume changes of
the i n t e r n a l confining chamber (AV.) and of the s o i l specimen (AV ).

X s
In the HCT device, both the i n t e r n a l and the external surfaces of
the hollow c y l i n d r i c a l specimen are covered by f l e x i b l e rubber membranes.
When drained loading paths of changing cell pressures are followed,
measured volume changes of coarse grained s o i l s are subjected to error,
caused by changes i n penetration of each membrane into or out of the
soil's interstices.
In a l l experimental results presented i n this t h e s i s , membrane
penetration corrections were applied i n accordance with the method

(*)
proposed by V a i d and Negussey . I t i s considered that the correct
volume change o f the s o i l specimen (AV ) i s equal to the t o t a l volume
s
change r e c o r d e d (AV^,) minus the volume change caused by membrane
penetration (AV ). The value of AV i s defined as:

m m
AV «= Ae • A + Ae •A
m m. s. m s
1 1 e e
where Ae amd Ae are the v a r i a t i o n s i n u n i t membrane penetration,

m. m
l e
r e s p e c t i v e l y on the i n t e r n a l and the external boundary surface areas (A
s *
1
(*)Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, V o l . 7, No. 2, June 1984, pp.

70-76.
196
and A ). For a given v a r i a t i o n i n the e f f e c t i v e confining pressure ( A P !

S X
e
(or A P ' ) , the v a l u e of Ae (or Ae ) was estimated from the l i n e a r log
e m. m
1 e
r e l a t i o n s h i p reproduced i n Fig. A l . This relationship was obtained f o r
Ottawa sand, with 0.3 mm thick membranes s i m i l a r to the ones used i n the
investigations with the HCT device. Essentially identical relationship
for membrane penetration corrections was obtained f o r Erksak sand, as
described i n Golder Associate Report No. 862-2089 (Feb. 1987).
Similarly, the volume change o f the i n t e r n a l chamber (AV^) i s
obtained by correcting the t o t a l recorded value f o r the penetration of
the i n n e r membrane ( A V ) . Thus AV = Ae * A , where Ae i s also

m. m. m. s. m.
I i i i I
estimated from F i g . A . l , f o r a given change i n AP£.
50 100 200 300 500

E f f e c t i v e confining p r e s s u r e , kPo
Fig. A . l . Membrane Penetration Correction Curve (after Vaid and

Negussey, 1984).

Ubc - 1989 - A1 S29

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BEHAVIOUR OF SAND UNDER GENERAL STRESS PATHS

IN THE HOLLOW CYLINDER TORSIONAL DEVICE

ALBERTO S.F.J. SAYAO

B.Sc, Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, 1976

M.Sc, Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, 1980

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

We accept this thesis as conforming

to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

©ALBERTO S.F.J. SAYAO, 1989

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or

Date 05 Mav. 1989

A fundamental investigation of the stress-strain behaviour of

inherently anisotropic sands i s p r e s e n t e d . The s t u d y was c a r r i e d out in

a newly developed hollow c y l i n d e r t o r s i o n a l apparatus (HCT). The HCT is

the only apparatus that permits a soil specimen to be subjected to

multiaxial stress states with controlled variations in four stress

parameters: the magnitudes of the three p r i n c i p a l stresses (o , a o 2 and

o ) 3 and the d i r e c t i o n o f one of these stresses.

The e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o g r a m was aimed at a s s e s s i n g the isolated effects

of continuous changes in only one derived stress p a r a m e t e r , o^ (mean

effective stress), R (principal stress ratio), b (intermediate stress

parameter), or a (direction of o x relative to the vertical) on

deformation response. Minimization of s t r e s s and strain nonuniformities,

inherenly present in HCT specimens, was achieved through careful

selection of specimen geometry and regions of the stress space to be

investigated. A new approach to define these nonuniformities i s proposed

in terms of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of stress ratio R a c r o s s the specimen w a l l .

All tests were carried out on saturated specimens of pluviated sands

under f u l l y drained conditions.

Inherent anisotropic behaviour of sand i s c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d by the

deformation response that i s strongly d e p e n d e n t on the loading direction

a. Contractive volume changes and shear deformations are shown to

increase with increase in a. When compared to the principal stress

directions, p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n increment d i r e c t i o n s always deviate towards

the horizontal, with the exception of loading at a=0 (vertical

n e g l i g i b l e at R-levels less than 2.0.

Continuous principal stress rotation at constant p r i n c i p a l stress

magnitudes induces progressive accumulation of both volumetric

contractions and shear d i s t o r t i o n s . Additional cycles of rotation i n the

same direction result i n progressively smaller incremental strains,

implying hardening e f f e c t s of previous rotations. Deformations are shown

to increase s i g n i f i c a n t l y with decrease i n r e l a t i v e density and increase

a, has been evaluated for the first time. Deformations increase

progressively as b increases from 0 to 1, regardless of the d i r e c t i o n a.

During p r o p o r t i o n a l l o a d i n g i n g e n e r a l s t r e s s space, which

preserved at R-levels up to about 2.0 and at r e l a t i v e densities greater

than about 30%.

2. REVIEW OF STRESS PATH TESTS AND BEHAVIOUR OF SANDS 6

2.1 LABORATORY SHEAR TESTING DEVICES 7

2.1.1 Devices w i t h Fixed P r i n c i p a l Stress D i r e c t i o n s . . 7

2.1.2 Devices Allowing P r i n c i p a l Stress Rotation 12

2.2 SAND BEHAVIOUR UNDER GENERAL STRESS PATHS 16

2.2.1.1 Inherent Anisotropy 17

2.2.1.2 Induced Anisotropy 26

2.2.2 Sand Response Under Continuous Rotation of

2.2.3 E f f e c t of Intermediate P r i n c i p a l Stress 3A

3. STRESS NONUNIFORMITIES IN HCT SPECIMENS 43

3.2 STRESSES AND STRAINS IN HCT SPECIMENS AA

3.3 STRESS NONUNIFORMITY IN THE WALL A7

3.A NONUNIFORMITY COEFFICIENTS FOR GENERAL STRESS STATES 51