Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Philippe Lebrun
CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
Ariane 5
25 t LHY, 130 t LOX
Phenomenon Temperature
Debye temperature of metals few 100 K
High-temperature superconductors ~ 100 K
Low-temperature superconductors ~ 10 K
Intrinsic transport properties of metals < 10 K
Cryopumping few K
Cosmic microwave background 2.7 K
Superfluid helium 4 2.2 K
Bolometers for cosmic radiation <1K
Low-density atomic Bose-Einstein condensates ~ K
Operating temperature
& DC performance of superconductors
J [kA/mm2]
• Superconductivity only exists
in a limited domain of
temperature, magnetic field and
current density
• Electrotechnical applications
require transport current and
magnetic field
• Operating temperature of the
device must therefore be
significantly lower than the
T [K] critical temperature of the
B [T] superconductor
Critical field vs. temperature
of LTS and HTS superconductors
Black: Hc2
D. Larbalestier et al.
Red: irreversibility field (jc = 0)
Optimization of operating temperature
for superconducting RF cavity
Arbitrary Units
0
1 1.5 2 2.5
T [K]
Useful range of cryogens
& critical temperature of superconductors
Nb3Sn
Nb-Ti Mg B2 YBCO Bi-2223
Helium
Below Patm
Above Patm
Hydrogen
Neon
Nitrogen
Argon
Oxygen
1.E+04
1.E+03
He
1.E+02 H2
1.E+01 Ne
1.E+00 N2
1.E-01 Ar
O2
1.E-02
CH4
Psat [kPa]
1.E-03
CO2
1.E-04 H2O
1.E-05
1.E-06
1.E-07
1.E-08
1.E-09
1.E-10
1.E-11
1.E-12
1 10 100 1000
T [K]
Saturation pressure of all gases except
helium vanish at cryogenic temperature
Rationale for superconductivity & cryogenics
in particle accelerators
Beam vacuum
Beam stability
Limit beam
stored energy
Reduce power
consumption
Contents
Property He N2 H 2O
[l.h-1] [l.min-1]
Cryogen [mg.s-1]
(liquid) (gas NTP)
10000
SOLID
1000 SUPER-
LINE CRITICAL
Pressure [kPa]
He II He I
CRITICAL
100 POINT
PRESSURIZED He II SATURATED He I
(Subcooled liquid)
10
VAPOUR
SATURATED He II
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Temperature [K]
Helium as a cooling fluid
Low temperature
Second-law cost
He II High conductivity
Subatmospheric
Low viscosity
High thermal conductivity of helium II
suppresses boiling
He I (T=2.4 K) He II (T=2.1 K)
Contents
Wmin = Q (Ta/T – 1) = Ta S – Q
[Carnot] [Clausius]
• At cryogenic temperature T « Ta
Wmin ≃ Q Ta/T ≃ Ta S
Q device
Shielding, heat interception
Q shield
Insulation
T [K]
Heat conduction in solids
S
T 2 Fourier’s law: Q con kT S
dT
dx
x
con
dT S T2
Integral form: Q con
L
k(T) dT
T1
Qrad1
• Wien’s law T1 T2 >T1
– Maximum of black body power spectrum
Qrad2
max.T = 2898 [ m.K]
1 2
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s law
– Black body Qrad = A T4
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
(Stefan Boltzmann’s constant)
– “Gray”body Qrad = A T4
emissivity of surface
– “Gray” surfaces at T1 and T2 Qrad = E A (T14 –T24)
E function of 1, 2, geometry
Emissivity of technical materials
at low temperatures
T1 T2
• Viscous regime
– At high gas pressure molecule << d
– Classical conduction Qres = k(T) A dT/dx
– Thermal conductivity k(T) independant of pressure
• Molecular regime
– At low gas pressure molecule >> d
– Kennard’s law Qres = A (T) P (T2 – T1)
– Conduction heat transfer proportional to pressure, independant of
spacing between surfaces
depends on gas species
– Accommodation coefficient (T) depends on gas species, T1, T2,
and geometry of facing surfaces
Multi-layer insulation
(MLI)
0.5
Pressurised He II Saturated LHe II He I
Temperature difference [K]
0.4
SSC (HEB)
0.3
SSC (main Ring)
0.2
UNK
LHC
0.1 Tevatron
HERA
LEP2 TESLA
Tore Supra
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance [km]
Cryogenic distribution scheme: design issues
R W : mechanical Q0 Qi
work Second principle [Clausius]
T0 Ti
Qi
Ti
(= for reversible process)
Qi
Hence, W T0 Qi which can be written in three different ways:
Ti
Qi
1 W T0 ΔS i Qi introducing entropy S as ΔS i
Ti
2 T0
W Qi 1
Ti Carnot factor
T0
3 W ΔE i introducing exergy E as ΔE i Qi 1
Ti
Minimum refrigeration work
T0 300
Wmin Qi 1 1 1 65.7 W
Ti 4.5
Wmin 65.7
Wreal 220 W
η 0.3
Efficiency of cryogenic refrigerators
(Strobridge)
102
30 - 90 K
10 - 30 K
1.8 - 9 K
101
Percent Carnot
100
10-1
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Cryogenic power (W)
Refrigeration cycles and duties
Introduction to the T-S diagram
T
B Heat involved in thermodynamic transformation
from A to B, if reversible:
A B
ΔQ T dS
Q A
S, entropy
23
Isenthalp
22 130
Isobar 21
20 120
Isochore 19
110
18
17
100
16
Temperature [K] 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 P= 0.1 MPa
15
90
14
13
80
12
11
70
10
Critical point 9
100 50 20 10 5 = 2 kg/m³
60
8
7 50
6
Liquid only exists 5 40
in this area 4
3 H= 30 J/g
2
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Entropy [J/kg.K]
A Carnot cycle is not feasible for helium liquefaction
1.3 bar
4.5 K
S
300 K
20 bar
1.3 bar
4.5 K
S
A P2 (< P1)
B3
B1 H
isenthalpic
(Joule-Thomson valve)
B'2
isobar
(heat exchanger) B2
adiabatic (expansion engine)
isentropic
S
Brazed aluminium plate heat exchanger
Cryogenic
turbo-expander
Maximum Joule-Thomson inversion temperatures
Maximum inversion
Cryogen
temperature [K]
Helium 43
Hydrogen 202
Neon 260
Air 603
Nitrogen 623
Oxygen 761
While air can be cooled down and liquefied by JT expansion from room
temperature, helium and hydrogen need precooling down to below
inversion temperature by heat exchange or work-extracting expansion
(e.g. in turbines)
Two-stage Claude cycle
Commercial Claude-cycle helium refrigerators/liquefiers
(Air Liquide & Linde)
HELIAL SL HELIAL ML HELIAL LL
Max. Liquefaction capacity without LN2 25 L/h 70 L/h 145 L/h
Max. Liquefaction capacity with LN2 50 L/h 150 L/h 330 L/h
Compressor electrical motor 55 kW 132 kW 250 kW
Specific consumption for liquefaction w/o LN2 645 W/W 552 W/W 505 W/W
% Carnot 10% 12% 13%
E1 Process cycle & T-S diagram of
T1 LHC 18 kW @ 4.5 K cryoplant
E3
E4 T2
20 K - 280 K loads
(LHC current leads)
Pa
Pa
Pa
M
M
9
1
1.
0.
0.
LN2
Precooler 201 K
T1
from LHC loads
50 K - 75 K loads E6 T3
(LHC shields) T2
75 K
E7 T3
49 K
E8 T4 LHC shields
32 K
Adsorber T4
E9a
20 K
E9b 13 K T5 T7
from LHC loads
10 K
9K
E10 T5 T7 T8
4.5 K - 20 K loads T6
(magnets + leads + cavities) 4.4 K
Pa
M
E11
3
0.
To LHC loads
E12
T6
E13 T8
LHC 18 kW @ 4.5 K helium cryoplants
33 kW @ 50 K to 75 K
23 kW @ 4.6 K to 20 K
41 g/s liquefaction
4 MW compressor power
C.O.P. 220-230 W/W @ 4.5 K
Oil-injected screw compressor
Compressor station
of LHC 18 kW@ 4.5 K helium refrigerator
Carnot, Stirling and Ericsson cycles
Cooling
power
Gifford-McMahon cryocooler (Ericsson cycle)
105
REFRIGERATION POWER (W)
104
103
102
101
100
10-1
10-2
H. Quack
Some references