EDEXCEL Advanced Level

Edexcel IAL Biology Unit 4

Summary©

HASAN SAYGINEL

HS
TOPIC 5; ON THE WILO S IDE
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ro"'
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if"\o~o..l\,c...

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ro.v /Y\c\.1-er,o.lr, C:O.<~

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rlo~/\Re_si'.s . fhe... \.JCU-+<2.. ro:!--c::..t ~ . /
o\Jjen.
co rbo f\
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 Light
J
NADP ' Stroma
ADP
p

ATP
I
ll [NADPH

Chloroplast/
 ::.-::....-_._..
. . . AT f
* f~o.sp'norjlo.1:o" of
/\Pf re q/--~res e"ersJ o("\ d ~j~:ko~.s, s
of Atr f rov'1Jes o._r, i1nm e d ~o-4e.. en~' 3J .suff~ of er.ery__J
f r b;d~, c°'\ proceJ:.Ses .
D,o:qro.rf\ +he.. \1 \... \ - de e/'"\de~ +- r<2 c-c_t; OA-...s
1e. -
~ -- I
~OCIJ UII Lr ;mspo, t
2 . chain
C _ NADPH

i =
t -e
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>-
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light .9
~ 0
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a..

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 1 "'2.11 The path of carbon in

101osynthes1s - a summary carbon dioxide

<ombin<>S w 1h I
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
(,<dtbon SUCJd' phosph.Jte,
~ Co<bon d,o,ide dCre/>!Ot molecule) frxation

formrng an u ~
!H:a,t,on sugar that
splits ,mmed!alei'/
to loon

l
input from the
hghHlei,endert usmg energy rrom All' -
•
{GP combont'S ~•,,th 2<1-rl from NADPk • ff'
AOP reduction

~•r-----•✓
_lor_~_------.
_ ~asec&

I glr<,e<aldehyde 3-phosphaie (GALP)

. (3<arbon suqarl
I
.
b),-pmdoo

regeMration
•
useddorectly,n
re5prdll0fl<X

/ <onwnedto ~
and th, Olhe, p,oduct,
glomse }
ol Pholo5\'T'Jhl-s,• .
,------~ ~9 lipd, produa • ~
dl'rWl()l(.it,
Cdlbat-,lic,ttxt,

~ .,--
i -€.. r rv--.~
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fec·,.,_, a f °'.'.)aM ,....-.1 Ii ✓: j A "' "' ""b; 't.}-\- o:+ °"j Cf'<2_ -! :ma .
e -~ ~ ~:- Tk rol- of Cf"' c,
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n, de_ - Food n~ c..h t.
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0 f- Q.A CY O/\~s.l,,.,,

(I, Bfj\.<- c.. .(.+o,~· ~:J or-e. +k \:\,~~ e\er()e~ :l.s o f- c. ~ brl-a. +- l,-,~c.Li
Cl ffee-f ~ e__ a ~-, \ ·, ) ~f a j ro-r Cf (j J Q A 'tJfY'J
·to ..S'--<v; vQ__ ~ e.. .
 ------ J

u~t btt\ind lhc ~COi'-;;;

t e,vct'I :r~~:s \lolh...JI tMI btutd
di..nt\ ~y u •'?fl:~ wrtd 't h.n
.or,.. :..i1r.d-t.<1.ngtoo~,Mld
t f..\tf"f .vhf,n bv,,t,.-d
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CQf\ Sv {r\ pr.s
tvl f =- C- f P- pl0-n~ re_s-f 1' ta. -1- : !} ~
- 18C:> . 0 x lO - 1 4-S >-- ( D '3
.J

x.. l Do

to h~r b; v Q { f-f/

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 Northern HemiJphere

0.5

flg, 5.3,6 The IPCC 'hodcey rtidc graph'

publlshtd in 2001 usu dar,, from a variety
of soun:cs to show how the temperature hn
changed owr centuries. The term 'hodcey s lick'
Data from thermometen (red) and Imm - rings,
comes from the shape of the graph. Note that
the grty is th<! error on uch meuurement. Le.
-1.0
'"°"'"
corals, ice mr?'I and historical (blu.).
the range In which the re.ii v«u. is thought to
lie, so we cannot actually be too acrurate! 1000 1200 1600 1800 2000

Te""f' Q.--l..,,re._ (fox~es

• T reQ r ~ ':js
• Coro.. \..s
• 1c.e. co re .s
• f eo.. t 1~ do-.-+o.
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r (]'0- d. -+~e/\ (N\o.._ G,Je_ -fht_
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(All() be_ 0/\<'-J,f e d 1~rs j ivef '"f"'""'- +,a~
+
G \i ~ 0C'0 1- \~ ~ l.s ;"- -\-~ pOJ'1 ,
\-

Changes to species dist ribution
As the average temperature rises.
species on the south of the UK
may withdraw northward and
those restricted to places further
north may extend southward
Also. species which cannot live
in these areas now may move in
(alien species) and out-compete
native species, rendering them
extinct in the area.
Plants uh ,nco 2,n photmyntht.>sts. and~ s1ore a
lot of CO2 ~ they g1.1n s,r.e. OefOfesWtion is thought
to b« ~n important au~ of C01 ,r,c~ in tlv o1ir
fhc- wgr--scale p:.ainting. ol new trtt1 could reduce thr
amount of COz in ~ atmosphere
• f> lo.~ 1·.'J More. \
+reeJ .,_k,ch ac+
CJ CcthOI'\ s: (\ ls
. 4·
\
~rf'.
,jt
~ f
(.Alb,t'<I
compounds
in pl.mts
b carbon compounds
/J
'of /
Global wanning
Rising temperatures,
changing rainfall patterns,
changes to seasonal cycles
Changes to development Changes to life cycles
In many reptijes. the Organisms where temperature
temperature aftects the sex of is an important tngger for
young that hatch from eggs, so development may well have their
warming could cause a change life cycles disrupted. Insects may
in sex ratios in these species. get through their life cycle more
quick! y and be ready to teed
before the plants they feed on
are mature.
Research has shown plants
f\owermg earloer, but by no
means always, on a sample of
500 analysed some flowered
later.
C.Or-lee.cl +o m e. t k oJs
ccr bo /\., d ~ o -x .~J e
One way ot l'l'duc~ C01 ~ts would be 10 rffN' p'"1nts
10 u\e as fuel Thty wouid OJn'f rdus.e th~ CO2 th,y hid
,usi. tWn ,n and so Yol0Uld b9 Qtbon ~utra Hc:,wevt,t
1..hopp,ng down ,anlo,et to grow ~ms lor oil rf!ie~
mo~ C.01 th.In it wkes in. and us,ng com to mike r ttwnol
few b.ofurl df,prNM people of food
.g
g
7-·
 £_t ec~e..s ·. A 3/0Jf ef 0:.30.._r,\J()'\J -..,be_ °1~'2.. y/le..J cal'\ ff o -----

be-t~er- 1/\d ;v;d...,QL~.

,~€,rfor7 +wo differe"'t sfec~e..s o. 1e_ f iesef\t- if -t~
,l\di ---,d--c l f
of t~e.. fOf '--la-L'o"s CG."-Aot if\1(-'rbree.d v-~-1--h e.cc h.. 0 -1k r .
--➔,,.. As Q re.s .... \i- of ,CU\ c:4 '0/V'\ /Y\ v-\°'~ :oru / -He. \-Of~a:t o 0 ..Jk '1 /\

O~A .n::t,,vet'ce. 6e.+we.e/\ ;/'\.d;..1:d~ls of O sr cc<?S of af\i Mc.lr Or

r'o"--\ 5 l f'\C(e_ose.s · ~(.)._~;'"' (\a·L ,ro.. \ se.led;"" R, S Cb " [eo,.d +0
e\folJ-: o r a." J ...rpec~a+~ on .
- ~ e c.;o.4- ; o n

J .:J""f~.{,; C
Sfe c.'lcd :o,..,
:t
G-~r~D~t~c. l( 1, N {) Qe-6\(~~ICO. ( b~rr; 0 /
I 1.sl)~ ~ J Jo

B<)-+~
r e <f v~ re re.p rcclvc-f,' ve iso\ct.ti'ol"
Prezygotic reprodutive barriers
Habitat isolation
Temporal isolation
Mechanical isolation
Behavioural isolation
Gametic isolation
Postzygotlc reproductive barriers
Hybrid sterility
Hybrid inviability
Explanation
Populations occupy different habitats in the same area so do not
meet to breed.
Species exist in the same area but are active for reproduction at
different times.
The reproductive organs no longer fit together.
Populations do not respond to each other's reproductive displays.
Male and female gametes from two populations are simply
incompatible with each other.
Explanation
Healthy individuals produced from the mating of two different
species cannot themselves reproduce.
Individuals produced from the mating of two different species are
not healthy and do not survive.
TQP\C G·. INFECT! ON,, H NU tv I -, y l
A\JO r-oRE(\)SILJ

tl y tempe•a·u·e 6ody terrri('.'a·ure ,s us'-<ll!y 37 but · h(, borly 1,;M1ns ·o

cool str J11hl titer <:l Jlh DV<l'>y ·t-,~ I,- 1 1 11 hour, ahi flt!, ,1
ir(' "E-rT'l)eratJt'O1 ti-<' bodyw•,~n r rs ' • un• ca'l O<' use• to
wo•• au· how torg ;igo the pe1son died
0'C'g·ee of 'Tiu t.•con·r JC' r Ahr d,:>,ith. mu- P uolly · · ,", reldx and then SI ·•i,n h
s:,f·en,'lg ,s c ailed •111or mor·,s This happens w 1thn aoout
• -'J IIOUl'S (a ·pend,ng on 1errp<•r;i1ure) he st,lffl!'Ss '>C'L.rs
bC'cause rru,c C' cor"•act,on ·el• -s or 11n• wh,ch cwro, o;
r•a• r orice rrspra:101 has stopprd So , he rnuscl<'s Ix-com('
•,,ca lne s:,1'nesswP.ltSofl 'l-"'r ;i'·er .1bou· 3G hours ,n
l oclC'r condt1tons as ;he muse IC' ttssue, • ·s to brec\ tJowr·

l ad <'S ;,s:.iallv lonow a sta-ldai • oa· ·e•r o' decay (-izy'T'les

or tl1f' gut s",Yt to°'""" tJown 1hr w •II ril the gut ard ther
•tip s.1r•o:.rd1'lg a·ra A, cells e 1r they rp'rase e'l1yrres wr.Kh
hC'lp to b•e~1< 11owr tissues Th> signs • f • ec omr-0s1t,o'>, !>UCh
.J\ 1liscolo(at,or1 of the s ..,n no J forrr ,,t,on. < 'l':11n1•J w,th
,, lorn JlhJr ab0u• p1•11,onrr e·1:al cono ·,ors allow t,rre of
CX'atl1 to be es:imatetl
' lo· .., ,c er 1 >n 1091 0°1( l'TlUllng the •gP 01 an, insect 01d<JgD"S on lhC' body
,111~ the t !Tl{' the eggs we•p laid ·o bP dP1ermw,•d ~h,s
p,o•,ides a·1 Ps,ma:e of t ,me o · eea•h assJm,'lg a,,., eggs •~.err-
la,rl soon ,1t1, r d<'ath
As a body dc>cays ,he POOJla110n~ of ,nsects ·our • 011 11
ct-a'lge There- rs a succesSI0'1 o ' s::iec,Ps The comm,11,·y o'
pr-<ies pir¼·nt wh('n ·he bo<ly •~ found allows th, tilge oi
,c -css,011 ;o be drtermrrrd a:,,: ·me o· • ea11 e,trrnated

Putting ,,II this 1nf rmat1on together can q1ve the forens,c soen11st a verv nood estimate
of trme of opa· ·
 1 lRAIGCRll'TION
DNA lnfc,motlon COfl'ec! to mllNA

mr.;N~ m~
codirg ,i,,rd of ()NA beont eu=bl• d
,- ;1~~666 1c1 Acc 6~~~b "-
c c CCAC,.UCCCCCIIC ____,
A UC

•
....
~ T GGCCCAC,.TGCCCCAC

lrcc mkNA
nu:.I c ~

ON1' rtl4nth i:p.:,r-.:te .:tone t,enc

ritN~ Hr.>nd coptod /rem codore ,lr.,r-d cl DNA A UC CCCC~CAUCC CC CAC
plOCl>n n c.n.ilr,od tr, RNA pcl:,rncr= <'!lr1rnc
2
mkNA c.arrie, the- infornwitian to the ribowune:s
the conv!i,t.,d ml!N~ nr.tnd
nuc:k,u, INVt-.\ th.o ,.._.:::loJ\ ;:r,nct mo~'ts. w ~
nl:.:.ncmc- 1n t he cyto pt,um

cyt""'"""
.,..,.no .-cicf3
.-c'(.i1,1•tli0h -
LRNA o,nin..,...no
.,.j,/, loNbo><>~

(
errergv ncrtkd
~
difiorent tllN,. to en~ct; ernino ..,.._ ArP
I 7C';-
n ctrcul!!~ I

GGG l lJ A C
ood I~ tRN.~ --,
C ti C

l I
U I- C

U!NA

Pto

ri1xnome - mc.T\~ .:ilcnt ccd:,r of mR.'-A .:!tn t1'.I

mRNA. ·~ ·. :d,ng· "1e a,:lom m.:1tth1r.E; t1':N&. .1nuoodon

s 4
Compk,tNI p ofy~•d<° mo6ft<°d 11\ANSlATION
to p,odtJt ir (~tio"411 pt Olrif'I, ml:NA infcrm,tion t ,_.3l.tl!'d
e.p_, etl!'fl"TIC' of ~ ~ r.c th:i ~ in'to • J.P'f'(if tt J"I~ ~ of dmmo «"'ds

Ptot eln >t "l~).r) I} lk .,l<d'f ,n '4¼.lt.h tht- ir1lt,,rmdt~n hd " in the.- ~ucnc.c o f bdlan 1n d Q.~ i, t;dn i l, t it:tJ hYl.o d :,.r-q-,~ lt~ ol dntino dl hh 1n d
n,, .,,..,n,wl,, , 1t..,,,
DNA
 • ONA polymerase
• ONA pnmers with
fluorescent markers
• nucleotides
~ added to reaction tube

.ll. reaction tube into PCR

T thermal cyder
CYCU 1
The DNA separates
into two strands.
1111 I iii11111111n

111'0P$ ~1 IPPIPePI

satellite ~ated
sequence

111;J d Jblit:1111111 55•(

191100:1 PIP re I 1,e I
i!iiilbiiiiiiii
Prirllffl, small pieces of DNA with
,,,,,,,, 1,,,, ,,,, , , ,., fluorescent iNrkers, atuch,at the start
of the STR repeated sequ~.

.,.
mpllcaW
''''"''~······
•·1'ii::::r:a11111 "T" I.. -
ii I eJ Ii ii Sih& ii 11li ii

II 111111 ·

primer (ONA with compl-ta,y seci-)

DNA polymeme
 95•(
CYCU 2
The DNA str.inds separate.
if I I it h i i h h I I 11 11 iJ

1111,:r::r:tt-
a::11:11111 111,, n

............ '"""" ss·c

Primers attoch 3t lhe start of
.... ,,,,,,,,,ltd each STR sequence.

•==-----
10°c i i i Ii I hi! bi lb Ji I i i I Ii

ej ;; :::::::;;: ·.!!!!l--
Wil I liiiliiii
fragments with
just the STR
repeated sequence -
iliillii t.:.111 11111

1 11., tu ea 11 :
..._____
m pnmer

- -
IIIC 11 IP! I ti I 7 I II I I I If
M tl I .Jiiiiiil
DNA polymerases attach and
1111 "'J.:.~•11111
replication occurs from each primer. "r: ,: II I p;p: !It I e It
In each cyde that follows the
pn,cess is repeated pruducing
n$;r r::1111

copies thatll9 just the

STR~frapient.
_ , i ..... g:.:••t111
Millon$" tl!ese S1R flagaents
- ~ GIii lie separated
I" :;law I p P: II II 111
DNA polymerase
oetJlpd~i,phlllesis.
cilrill luction is used to multiply DNA samples to pn,duce sufficient DNA fur separation by gel electrophoresis. The
qdls fl taMperabn change. and A and I show what happens in the first two cycles. The exact temperatures used
_ . the DNA c:omes from. The whole cycle is iepeated 25-30 times, taking about three hours and producing about 30
DNA. ff c,d,ts 119 used for standanl DNA profiling, 32 cycles are used when the DNA is not visible to the naked eye.
A IOii ii CCU
=xno
rlouble-strandPd Fragmen~ of
DNA + restriction double-stranded
enzymes ONA are loaded intD
the wells of an
agarose gel n a tank.
3 01 I©
✓ DNA is cut into microp1pette
r:'..-'---~1
fragments.
._... ~ negatwely cha~
OKA mO\'es towards the
positive elearode. The
fragments separate into
invisible bands.

5 4
6

If the DHA probe is radioactive. Membrane plated in bag

X- ray film is used to detect the
fragments. If the DNA probe is
fluorescent it is viewed using
UV light iS sbown above.
with DNA probe.
Single-stranded ONA probe
binds to frag ments with
a complementary sequence.
ONA i~ transfe11ed to a nylon
or nitrocellulose membrane
by solution drawn up th1ough
the gel. DNA double strands
split and stick to the membrane.
 cc1psomere - repectting protein unit
which makes up t he protein coat

nucleic c1cid - genetic material

which may be double or single
stranded, DNA or RNA
envelope-
lipid derived receptors t he tail - --
from host cell 1
membranes - not vira l prote ins often involved
always present in attachment to host cell
 ,
T2 bacteriophage
attacts bacterium.

2
Phage DNA is injected
Lysis - the bacterial cell bursts
into host cell It brings
about the synthesis -------------, due to the action of lysozyme,
releasing up to 1000 phages
of viral enzymes.
I or 'I
I to infect other bacteria.

Viral DNA is
3a t I
I
I
I
3b
Phage DNA
inactivates New phage partides are
I assembled as new protein coats
incorporated I the host DNA
into host cell DNA. I and takes over are made aroound phage DNA.
I the cell The enzyme lysozyme is
I I
synthesised or released.

'
biochemistry.
Viral DNA is replicated
each time the bacterium
divides, without causing
any damage.
J -------------►
changes to join
lytic pathway
' ..- I 4'

Phage DNA
is replicated.

retrovirus (HIV)
TIie retrovirus
attacks an animal ceU
animal cell

2
t
Viral RNA enters the
host crlt This RNA cannot
be used as mRNA. j
3
t - - '"-,reverse lrarucripta.s~

Viral RN.t. ls translated viral DNA

into viral DNA by revene
transoipUue in the cytopl<um. j

Viral DNA Is incorporated into

.. t host ONA
tM hon DNA in the nucleus.
It directs the production of new ., viral ONA
viral ~ RNA. mRNA
and Cl),lt proteins.

5
New viral particles are New virus particles
O•
usembled and leave the host eJcape by e,cocytosls.
cell by oxocytosls. Viral DNA
remains in lhe nucleus
,o the process Is repeated.
Thi, cell continues to
,lQ as a virus factory.
 + 1-he s \r--{_{...,e_ ot t3°' '- i c< 0

• f\\\ kac-\-er-;cJ ce\\s ~o-ve. o cell '--0\\. It preve"'-+s fhe. c.e\l

swe\l~f\<\ o;,\(L burs-\;'j .
• Bo..c:fi•~G- ~ve.. (v\r1...\ocho(\d1~0- -the ce\\ a ~u
"""e.. of
t7-\e.
bo..c-\-er~""\ ce\\.s
Som~
(\Q

--l ke...
of +he. ..fO

re:sr,1rG..1"Dr 'f
e,,.J,ro_l'le s ho -s-'
Mefl\b(Ol) e_
et1 t'-jvY\ e J -
11'\f ~J ~~y
iJ
'"- Sol"Y\e_
~/\Ov../'I a...J
IY'\ e~o .J(Yr\ e..i •
• Some. bo.der~ 0. ho.ve. 0- ccxf J -- ,_~ ~ C,:(C)-- 1\d_ ihe~r eel l v,10.\Ls. I+ c1oierG
-+~e. ba.der'(...,IY' {,or('.. rh
Joc_~o.s, -s L1 \Ak1 -4e: bloocl_ cells. (+- ctlJ 0
(Ov1t r..5 R e.. cell f(\.cr~ r .s C).J -+h~ te'll M-el\,,.brc."<.. .....kc.k ide"+f_J
-t\,e. c.e\\ . 5o a ca-f~vle_ @A ma~e. ,t eo..sier for a bach:•r~vm +o
fa+~o 9~1iic 6 ecG\.vSe: ,+ 'is no+ ide,.., t(,e d. :)' th e_ hos-+ <s [mrnv;1 e
~.I .\~~-
• r()IV\~ bo.c.•h r~ h~~e_ t'nreo.J -liLe_
C. rro➔ e;I'\ projed:of\.c fro~ --lhe, r
~ rfu.c e. co-.\\e.~ f \i .
v 1 .
• Jo/Y\e. bru:+e,~ o CO.A v'N)ve_ vs~'J •f lc.-j.( I\°'. .
~l'V'Jt.l 11e...s
• i~ e.. ~e"'e+tc f'(\o..+e.r; o._\ COI\Sist.s af o. S•/\.~;\e_ le.J'th o f c,rc..lo.~
ON I\ I j I "j fee i I"\ ~ he. c~i or lQJ"" -
• ~of'Y\.e.60-.de.r.o..\ cell.s o...lso Jc.0"10.; 0 Qf\e_ or ((\ore_ tr-.vc " s~a.ll er
drcte.J af OVA ~""" o....s f lcw,"r\i cl.S.
o~ e'el\ces ,(\ +'he s+, . . c.t ... , e.. o 8c-.cl(,;°' OI\d virvsQ.J

Bo..der-:-o- ha.ve. °' f ' ..)~ C~ Q~; ( ce\Llcr Sirvcivre_ w;+~ c)Jo,,-JleJ
b,_,.+ v~r use..J de r\.o ~ .

Cell ~u,·dce membrJne, No eel! wall. cell su,face membrane. c,toplasm or

•:too!as'.'n, ceil 'Nall. nbo~rnes. 01, nel.e.. Nucleic au<.l enclosed 1n pr0ie1n coat
o asn, c1s and sometime~
·nesosor es. ·lagellum and p1'1
.. 11c.ulc:• strand of DNA ,s :he Dl'JJ\ or Rl'JA ccn be th<' genet,c matena!
! ene11c matenal.
Can he independently Must rave a hving organ,sm as host. ~
/\Vl'tJye d1.-,meter O 5 Sµm J0-400nm. wide range of sizes and shapes
-
Often have mucus-based cuter May haveouter membrane of nest cell suriace
caosu e mPmhrane. but containing glycopro!e·ns 1rom tl•e virus
 l ,_

~ 1 antigen binds to antibody

on B cell surface membrane

-C ,,rot~
3 macrophages engulf antigens by endocytosis,
and then express this antigen on their MHC
proteins on the cell surface membrane
= antigen presentation
ei,IJ "'9< ft!K protein unique to
•f"'-~j(,ln
2 antigen taken up
by exocytosis and is
then expressed on
>'
the cell surface membrane '
at the
"°')JIH~protein
·, ....
~ l)
/
:I.IT i.e per cell now
-t

"'
@ '-,_\~~
Tccll

t t, D ::.o\ ""'th !.ame

e.rll:SSed - immediately
,
activation ',,,
uULJ activatP.<L r activat~ l'~ ~ )
sGQivatedBcell - - - - - . , r @ • --~ ------ ~

'\, , ,
', ___
',,_
' , ,,
Q·: .- '«1
4 T cell binds (bri~fly) to m~crop_hage that
presents an antigen and is actJVated -
it is now called an
activated T helper cell
ted B cell
ili•i~ rapidly,
~ming a clone
of-plasma cells ~ - - - - - i
@
@ @ -,. ,____ (
...,...
',
:
'

~
~
~
~
,:_:,•.,. ',,: so: e activated 8 cells and T cells
survive in the body as memory cells,
and are able to initiate a more speedy
response in the event of re-infections

each plasma cell packed with

rER, now mass-produces antibody
molecules and secretes them by
exocytosis

antibodies overcome antigen

e.g. by neutralising it, by causing
clumping together of cells to aid
engulfing by other macrophages,
or by precipitation of soluble antigens

,ure 5.9 The steps involved in antibody release

The specific Immune response

 0'1y use ant,b, tics wnen needed reduces selec or pres~ure en organisms and destroys all
arid e"lsure coJrse of treatment Is bo, IN a ;:aus,ng 1n' ect,on
ccmo!e:ed
-
,so1c1:ing pat en:s with res,s:ant :irever11s 1ransm ss,on of resistant oacter a between
diseases pauents
I
good hyg1er,e encouraged, - -,r-p-re-ve-n-ts-th-e-sp
- ,-ea_d_o_f,-nf-ec-t1o_n_a_n_d-cu-ts"""'d-own_o_n_t_he-
l •nclud1rg h nd w ashing and bans numoer of places tha: may !)arbour pathogens
on wear•ng of iewellery. ties and
long sleeved shrts
screen ng of patients coming into o perso"l rra1 be nfected w :hovt show,ng syrt,ptor,s,
hoso1:al tfi1s can be aetected aria the'/ can oe isolated .m d treated