‫وزارة التعليم العالي‬

‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة ‪ 15‬مايو‬

‫مقالة بحثية ‪ /‬مشروع بحثي ‪ /‬بحث مرجعي‬

‫مقدم لـ‬
‫القسم‬
‫الشعبة‬
‫السنة الدراسية‬
‫اسم المقرر‬
‫كود المقرر‬
‫عنوان البحث‪-:‬‬
‫………………………………………‪..‬‬
‫بواسطة‪-:‬‬
‫االسم‬ ‫البريد االلكتروني‬ ‫رقم الجلوس‬ ‫الرقم السري*‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫*الرقم السري يكتب بواسطة الكنترول المختص‬

‫التقييم بواسطة‪:‬‬
‫لجنة الممتحنين‬ ‫التوقيع‬
‫ مايو‬15 ‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة‬

‫الرقم السري يكتب بواسطة الكنترول المختص‬

Research purpose
This research present the main differences between tension and compression
members in performane and failure criteria and how tension members carry
tensile forces and some example for that members and also the compression
members and how it carry the force and the Column failure involves the
.phenomenon of buckling

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The summary
TENSION MEMBERS are the elements of a structure that carry tension loads are
termed tension members. and COMPRESSION MEMBERS in a structure are
commonly identified as columns. A structural member carrying a compression load is
termed a column if the length is sufficiently great and if the compression that it
transmits is the primary factor determining its structural behavior. For lesser lengths
. the member may be called a compression block
Examples on members used in tusses:
1- Unsymmetric sections (single angles)
2- Symmetric sections
a- Star shaped
b- Two angles back to back

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‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة ‪ 15‬مايو‬

‫الفهرس‬
‫يتم تقسيم البحث الي أجزاء وتذكر اول صفحة في كل جزء في الجدول التالي‪:‬‬
‫الجزء‪ /‬الموضوع‬ ‫الصفحة‬
‫‪Research purpose‬‬
‫‪The summary‬‬
‫‪Introduction‬‬
‫‪Tension and compression members‬‬
‫‪The main differences‬‬
‫‪references‬‬

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‫ مايو‬15 ‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة‬

INTODUCTION
TENSION MEMBERS are the elements of a structure that carry tension loads are
termed tension members. The bottom chords of roof and bridge trusses are classic
examples of tension members. Some of the truss web members may carry tension or
may be a tension for certain loading conditions and compression for other loading
conditions. Transmission and microwave towers and bracing systems in multistory
buildings and steel cables as used in suspension bridges and in cable-supported roofs
are examples of steel tension members. Some examples of these members are shown
in Fig. (1-1).

Fig (1-1)
In all these uses the tensile strength of the steel is used. In this stress configuration
plate buckling or warping is not a consideration in some instances; however,
specifications will require a minimum amount of member stiffness for aesthetic and
safety reasons. Generally, tension members may be categorized as rods and bars,
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‫ مايو‬15 ‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة‬
rolled structural shapes, built-up members, and wires or cables. Currently, the
Egyptian Code of Practice does not allow the use of rods and cables in bracing
systems or as main tension members.

Samples of cross-sections of tension members

COMPRESSION MEMBERS in a structure are commonly identified as
columns. A structural member carrying a compression load is termed a column if the
length is sufficiently great and if the compression that it transmits is the primary factor
determining its structural behavior. For lesser lengths the member may be called a
compression block. The length which divides these two classifications is such that it
affects the maximum compressive stress which can be developed under the load. If
bending is also a major factor, the term beam column may be used.
Column failure involves the phenomenon of buckling. When an axially, loaded
column is first loaded, it shortens in the direction of the load and deformation occurs
in a direction normal to the column axis.
Column design is considerably less exact than beam design for several reasons,
which include the following:

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‫ مايو‬15 ‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة‬
1. The difficulty of determining the exact point of demarcation between compression
blocks and columns.
2. Columns, although appearing straight and homogeneous, may have small
imperfections and always have residual stresses from mill operations, such as rolling,
cooling, . Any small imperfections will result in a net eccentricity about one or both of
the axes and produce lateral deflections due to bending moment that is produced as the
product of load times eccentricity.
3. It is often difficult to apply a load through the center of area.
4. The character of the end restraints markedly affects column behavior. For example
the top chords of trusses are usually compression members. Trusses are usually
analyzed as having pinned joints.
From these several considerations it is evident that if an ideal, isotropic, axially
loaded column is produced, it is accidental. Nevertheless, it is convenient to analyze a
large class of structural members as axially loaded columns, struts, posts, or whatever
the local terminology used to identify the compression member.

Samples of cross-sections of compression members

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‫ مايو‬15 ‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة‬
Examples on members used in tusses

3- Unsymmetric sections (single angles)

Which is used in vertical and diagonal
members of trusses, minimum radius of
gyration is rv=0.2a.

4- Symmetric sections
c- Star shaped
Which is used in vertical members of trusses at
intersections with longitudinal bracing and in
long tension members, minimum radius of
gyration is ra= 0.385a.

d- Two angles back to back

Which is used in chord members of trusses
and web members of high values of forces.
Minimum radius of gyration is rx=0.3a and
maximum radius of gyration is ry=0.45a

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Tension members resistance

The maximum resistance of a tension member "T," is calculated from Equation (1-
1):
T= Anet. F --------------------(1-1)
Where
Anet is the effective net area of the cross section,
Ft is the allowable stress of the steel in tension which is defined according to
the Egyptian Code of Practice, ECP 2001, as:
F, = 0.58Fy -------------------(2-2)

There are two code requirements for tension members; the stress requirements and the
stiffness requirements

Allowable Stress in Tension

The actual stress in a tension member is based on the effective net area and
should not exceed the allowable stress. The allowable tensile stress (F) for steel is
calculated using Equation (2-2) or Table (2-1) which shows the allowable tensile stress
for different steel grades used in structural design. The yield stress of the different
steel grades can be taken from Table (1-2)

Effective Net Area "Anet"

The net area is the gross (total) area except where the net area is the least effective
cross-sectional area for all other cases as where bolt or rivet holes are used for
mechanical fasteners at the ends or where holes and/or area reductions occur along the
member. The effective area in resisting the tensile stress of the cross-section is called
the effective net area "Anet".
For bolted (or riveted) connections:
Net area = Gross area - Area of holes

Anet = Agross - Aholes ------------------ (2-3)

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‫ مايو‬15 ‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة‬
Hole diameter = bolt diameter + 1mm for M12 up to M14 bolts Hole diameter =
bolt diameter + 2mm for M16 up to M24 bolts Hole diameter = bolt diameter +
3mm for M27 and larger

For welded connections:

Net area = Gross area -----------------( 2-4)

The tension member resistance must be calculated based on the effective net area
of the cross section Aget which can be calculated as follows:

1- For lined up holes

Whenever there is only one hole or multiple holes lined up transverse to the
loading direction, there
is only one potential
failure line, which
passes through the bolt
hole/or holes (line AB
in figure).

Anet = Agross- Aholes

Anet = Agross-n(d+2mm)t ----------------------(2-5)

Where:
N = number of bolts in the cross section perpendicular to
The direction of loading,
T =thickness of plate element at which the hole lies,
D = bolt diameter.
2- For staggered holes
Whenever there is more than one hole and the holes are not lined up transverse to
the loading direction, more than one potential line may exist. The controlling failure
line is that which gives the minimum area. There are two lines of staggered holes. The
failure line may be through one hole (section A-B), or it might be along a diagonal
path (section A- C). The effective net area shall be the least that can be determined
from any plane or planes cutting each component plate or section perpendicular to its
axis, diagonally or following a zigzag line through adjacent rivet or bolt hole. All
holes of rivets or bolts met with, shall be deducted from the gross sectional area.
Where any portion of sectional- area is measured along a diagonal plane, a quantity =
(S2.t/4g) is added for each gauge.
The net area Anet is the minimum of two values:
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‫ مايو‬15 ‫المعهد العالي للهندسة بمدينة‬

Anet(path A-B) = Agross-(d+2mm)t -----------(2-6)

Anet(path A-C)= Agross-2 (d+2mm).t+(s2/4g).t -----------(2-7)

Where :

S is the staggered pitch, (the distance measured parallel to

the direction of stress in the member, center to center of
holes in consecutive lines,
g is the gauge distance measured at right angles to direction
of stress in the member, center to center of holes
in consecutive lines,
t is the thickness of the material.

CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR TRUSS MEMBERS

WITH BOLTED CONNECTIONS

1- Symmetrical Sections
For sections consisting of two angles back-to-back and two angles. star shaped (where
the center of gravity of the member coincides with the center of gravity of the gusset
plate;

Anet = Agross- Aholes

Where the diameter of the bolt hole

diameter of the bolt + 2 mm for drilled
bolts

2-Unsymmetrical Sections
1- Single angles, channels and T-sections
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Where there is eccentricity between the centroid of the member and the
centroid of the gusset plate at the location of the connection. For single angle sections
connected through one leg only, single channel sections connected only through the
web, and T-sections connected only through the flange, the effective area should be
taken as the net area of the connected leg, plus the area of the unconnected leg
multiplied by:
3 A1
3 A 1+ A 2

3 A1
Anet = A1 + A2( 3 A 1+ A 2 ) -----------------(2-8)
Where:
A1 = net area of connected leg,
A2 = area of unconnected leg.

2- Double angles
The two angles are considered unsymmetrical when they lie on one side of the
gusset plate. The effective area should be taken as the net area of the connected legs
plus the area of the outstanding legs multiplied by:
5A1
5 A 1+ A 2

5A1
Anet = A1 + A2( 5 A 1+ A 2 ) -------(2-
9)
Where:
A1 = net area of connected leg,
A2 = area of unconnected leg.

CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR TRUSS MEMBERS

WITH WELDED CONNECTIONS
1-Symmetrical Sections
Such as two angles back-to-back
Anet = Agross

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2-Unsymmetrical Sections
1- Single angles, channels and T-sections
3 A1
Anet = A1+ A2 ( 3 A 1+ A 2 )
Where:
A1 = gross area of connected leg,
A2 = area of unconnected leg.

There are no bolt holes to be deducted from areas A1 or

A2

2-Double angles
5A1
Anet = A1 + A2 ( 5 A 1+ A 2 )
Where:
A1 = gross area of connected leg,
A2 = area of unconnected leg.

There are no bolt holes to be deducted from

areas A1 or A2.

STIFFNESS REQUIREMENTS FOR TENSION MEMBERS

1-Slenderness Ratio
λ= Leff/r should not exceed 300.

2-The Length/Depth Ratio

The length/depth ratio should not
exceed the limits given in the following
table.

ALLOWABLE COMPRESSIVE STRESS

The column stress obtained with the Euler equation of Fcr π2E/(KL/r)2 is the
equation of a parabola, and thus it would seem appropriate to use a parabolic equation
form to develop the allowable column stress. The KL/r is one of the significant
parameters. Since the Euler stress is a buckling stress, the allowable stress in
compression for different types of steel is defined by:

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For λ≤ 100 (inelastic buckling)
Fc=0.58 F- (0.58 Fy-0.75)λ2/10000 ---------(3-3)

Where λ is the slenderness ratio of the compression member

λ = KL/r. The allowable compressive stresses of the compression members for λ≤ 100
is shown in Table (3-1) based on the yield stress defined in Table (1- 2).

Table (3-1) Allowable Compressive Stresses For Different Steel Grades

Fc=7500/λ2 ------------------------(3-4)

Notes
1- For compact and non-compact sections the full area of the section shall be used
while for slender sections, the effective area shall be used. 2- In case of sections
eccentrically connected to gusset plates (e.g, one angle) unless a more accurate
analysis is used, the allowable compressive stresses shall be reduced by 40 % of F. in
case the additional bending stresses due to ecentricity calculated.

The conclusion

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The two main differences between tension and compression
members:
1. Tension members are hold straight by means of tensile loads while in the case of
compression members the compression loads tend to bend the member out of the plane
of loading..
2. For riveted and bolted connections, the net area will govern the strength of a
tension member, while for compression members the rivets and holes are assumed to
fill the holes.

Types of failure:
a) Failure of compression member
There are three basic types of column failures
One , a compressive materials failure ( very short and fat).
Two , a buckling failure,( very long and skinny)
Three, a combination of both compressive and buckling failures.(length and width of
a column is in between a short and fat and long and skinny column)

b.

b) Failure of tension members

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The member undergoes elongation and can extend until it reaches its ultimate strength
. as the tensile load reaches the ultimate load the member reaches a failure state .a
member in tension can reach a failure state due to excessive elongation or by rupture
its section

References
1. Egyptian code for design and construction of steel structures .
2. Egyptian loading code 201 2008.

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3. Steel structures design prof. Dr. abdelrahim Khalil dessouki 2009.
4. Behavior, analysis and design of structural steel elements Dr. elsayed bahaa
machaly.

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