Vision Infosystems (VIS)

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Chapter 5

TCP/IP Protocol
Topics Covered
Basics of protocols
Difference between TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, NetBEUI, etc
Basics of IP addressing
Working with Subnetting and Supernetting
FLSM V/s VLSM

Copyright ® 2004-2005 VISION INFOSYSTEMS

visioninfosystems@vsnl.net
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Protocol basics
When data is being transmitted between two or more devices something needs to govern the controls that
keep this data intact. A formal description of message formats and the rules two computers must follow to
exchange those messages are called as protocol. There are various protocols available like TCP/IP,
IPX/SPX, etc. Some protocols are proprietary while some are industry standard protocols. Each protocol
has some or other feature which suits our requirement. Below is the small summary of protocols which
are most commonly used in our network.

Internet Packet Exchange / Sequence Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX)

The IPX/SPX was developed by NOVELL as protocol for communication between NOVELL-Netware
servers. It is a very fast and efficient protocol and provide routing capabilities in large network. IPX/SPX
is divided into 2 parts SPX which works at layer 4 of OSI model and IPX which works at layer 3 of OSI
model. IPX/SPX provide layer 3 addressing called as IPX address. The IPX address made up of 80 bits
represented in HEX format.

Eg : 1005:ad30:012a0:13a2:ac1a

The first 32 bits presents network portion and the remaining 48 bits represents host portion of IPX
address.

Features of IPX/SPX
1. Used in large and routed network environment
2. Novell proprietary protocol
3. Provided IPX addressing
4. Supported by Netware, Windows, etc
5. Less configuration and fast

Network BIOS Extended User Interface (NetBEUI)

NetBEUI was developed by Microsoft Inc. for their workgroup networking model. NetBEUI is also a
very fast but non-routed protocol. It was designed for small non-routed network or workgroup or peer to
peer based network. It does not have any layer 3 addressing which makes it non-routable protocol.
NetBEUI is easy to configure and use.

Features of NetBEUI
1. Used for small and non-routed network
2. Does not have any addressing capabilities
3. Supported only by Windows Operating System
4. Microsoft proprietary protocol
5. No configuration is required

Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

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TCP/IP was developed by DoD and layer enhanced by ARPA. It was developed as a industry standard
protocol for inter process communication. TCP/IP allows you to connect to systems on the other side of
the world, which is impossible with NetBEUI. TCP/IP is much more complicated to setup/configure.
TCP/IP provided IP addressing at layer 3 for devices addressing like IPX/SPX. TCP/IP is covered in more
detail later in the chapter.

Features of TCP/IP
1. Industry standard transport protocol
2. Used in large and routed network
3. Provides IP addressing scheme
4. More configuration and more reliable
5. Supported by all O.S. and network devices

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

TCP/IP (The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the protocol suite that drives the
Internet. TCP/IP is a network protocol which is used on LANs, WANs and the Internet. TCP/IP handles
network communications between network nodes (computers, or nodes, connected to the net).

The suite is actually composed of several protocols including IP which handles the movement of data
between host computers, TCP which manages the movement of data between applications, UDP which
also manages the movement of data between applications but is less complex and reliable than TCP, and
ICMP which transmits error messages and network traffic statistics

What is an IP Address?
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP network. In
simple language IP address can be defined as a identification given to a host in a TCP/IP based network.
An IP address is a 32-bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits,
in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal"
notation.

Example: 140.179.220.200

It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form.

140 .179 .220 .200

10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000

Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the node. The
Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network address and which
part belongs to the node address.

Address Classes
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There are 5 different address classes. You can determine which class any IP address is in by examining
the first 4 bits of the IP address.

• Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal.

• Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal.
• Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal.
• Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal.
• Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254 decimal.

Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on
a local machine. [You can test this: you should always be able to ping 127.0.0.1, which points to yourself]
Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for future use. They
should not be used for host addresses.

Now we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the IP address belongs to the
network (N) and which part belongs to the node (n).

• Class A -- NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnn.nnnnnnn
• Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn
• Class C -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn

In the example, 140.179.220.200 is a Class B address so by default the Network part of the address (also
known as the Network Address) is defined by the first two octets (140.179.x.x) and the node part is
defined by the last 2 octets (x.x.220.200).

In order to specify the network address for a given IP address, the node section is set to all "0"s. In our
example, 140.179.0.0 specifies the network address for 140.179.220.200. When the node section is set to
all "1"s, it specifies a broadcast that is sent to all hosts on the network. 140.179.255.255 specifies the
example broadcast address. Note that this is true regardless of the length of the node section.

Private Subnets

There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The addresses are 10.0.0.0/8,
172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a
lab or home LAN behind a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these because routers
on the Internet will never forward packets coming from these addresses. These addresses are defined in
RFC 1918.

Subnet Masking

Subnet Mask is used to identify which part of an IP address belongs to Host and Network. Applying a
subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network and node parts of the address. The
network bits are represented by the 1s in the mask, and the node bits are represented by the 0s. Performing
a bitwise logical AND operation between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network
Address or Number.

For example, using our test IP address and the default Class B subnet mask, we get:
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10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200 Class B IP Address

11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.000.000 Default Class B Subnet Mask
--------------------------------------------------------
10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.000.000 Network Address

Default subnet masks:

• Class A - 255.0.0.0 - 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

• Class B - 255.255.0.0 - 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
• Class C - 255.255.255.0 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

Subnetting a Class C Network

Subnetting means to divide a single Class A,B,C network into multiple sub-network. It borrows Network
ID from host ID.

In simple language, in subnetting we borrow bits from host to create more subnets or networks.

No. of host in
Total Hosts
Bits in Bits in No. of each
Subnet Mask CIDR per
network host Network network
network
(Usable)
255.255.255.0 /24 0 8 1 254 256
255.255.255.128 /25 1 7 2 126 128
255.255.255.192 /26 2 6 4 62 64
255.255.255.224 /27 3 5 8 30 32
255.255.255.240 /28 4 4 16 14 16
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255.255.255.248 /29 5 3 32 6 8
255.255.255.252 /30 6 2 64 2 4
255.255.255.254 /31 7 1 128 0 2
255.255.255.255 /32 8 0 256 0 0

Sample questions on Class C subnetting

1) Create a network of 20 pc from a Class C network of 192.168.10.0

Solution:

5
Nos of Host Per network = 2 = 32 (Usable host 32-3 = 30)

Nos of Subnets = 8 subnets (Usable subnet 8-2 = 6)

Subnet Mask = 256- 32 = 224 (i.e 255.255.255.224)

Range of Network = x.x.x.0 to x.x.x.31 (not Usable)

x.x.x.32 to x.x.x.63 (Usable)

x.x.x.64 to x.x.x.95 (Usable)
x.x.x.96 to x.x.x.127 (Usable)
x.x.x.128 to x.x.x.159 (Usable)
x.x.x.160 to x.x.x.191 (Usable)
x.x.x.192 to x.x.x.223 (Usable)
x.x.x.224 to x.x.x.255 (not Usable)

In the above range the first network and the last network i.e. x.x.x.0 to x.x.x.31 and x.x.x.224 to x.x.x.255
are not usable network.

In each network range the first and the last IP are also not usable. The first IP represent the network ID
and he last IP represents the broadcast ID. I.e. from range x.x.x.32 to x.x.x.63 the first IP x.x.x.32 is
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network ID and the last IP x.x.x.63 is broadcast ID. So the valid range of host is from x.x.x.33 to x.x.x.62
(30 PC per network).

Subnetting a Class B Network

A subnetting in Class B allows you to divide you 65536 (216) Host into multiple subnet. We can create a
maximum up to 32768 (215) networks.

No. of host in
Bits in Bits for No. of
Subnet Mask CIDR Each network Total Hosts
Network host Network
(Usable)
255.255.0.0 /16 0 16 1 65534 65536
255.255.128.0 /17 1 15 2 32766 32768
255.255.192.0 /18 2 14 4 16382 16384
255.255.224.0 /19 3 13 8 8190 8192
255.255.240.0 /20 4 12 16 4094 4096
255.255.248.0 /21 5 11 32 2046 2048
255.255.252.0 /22 6 10 64 1022 1024
255.255.254.0 /23 7 9 128 510 512
255.255.255.0 /24 8 8 256 254 256
255.255.255.128 /25 9 7 512 126 128
255.255.255.192 /26 10 6 1024 62 64
255.255.255.224 /27 11 5 2048 30 32
255.255.255.240 /28 12 4 4096 14 16
255.255.255.248 /29 13 3 8192 6 8
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255.255.255.252 /30 14 2 16384 2 4

255.255.255.254 /31 15 1 32768 0 2
255.255.255.255 /32 16 0 65536 1 1

Subnetting a Class A Network

A subnetting in Class A allows you to divide you 16777216 (224) Host into multiple subnet. We can create
a maximum up to 8388608 (223) networks.

No. of host in
Bits in Bits for No. of
Subnet Mask CIDR Each network Total Hosts
Network host Network
(Usable)
255.0.0.0. /8 0 24 1 16777214 16777216
255.128.0.0 /9 1 23 2 8388606 8388608
255.192.0.0 /10 2 22 4 4194302 4194304
255.224.0.0 /11 3 21 8 2097150 2097152
255.240.0.0 /12 4 20 16 1048574 1048576
255.248.0.0 /13 5 19 32 524286 524288
255.252.0.0 /14 6 19 64 262142 262144
255.254.0.0 /15 7 17 128 131070 131072
255.255.0.0 /16 8 16 256 65532 65536
255.255.128.0 /17 9 15 512 32764 32768
255.255.192.0 /18 10 14 1024 16382 16384
255.255.224.0 /19 11 13 2048 8190 8192
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255.255.240.0 /20 12 12 4096 4094 4096

255.255.248.0 /21 13 11 8192 2046 2048
255.255.252.0 /22 14 10 16384 1022 1024
255.255.254.0 /23 15 9 32768 510 512
255.255.255.0 /24 16 8 65536 254 256
255.255.255.128 /25 17 7 131072 126 128
255.255.255.192 /26 18 6 262144 62 64
255.255.255.224 /27 19 5 524288 30 32
255.255.255.240 /28 20 4 1048576 14 16
255.255.255.248 /29 21 3 2097152 6 8
255.255.255.252 /30 22 2 4194304 2 4
255.255.255.254 /31 23 1 8388608 0 2
255.255.255.255 /32 24 0 16777216 1 1