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DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(SW325)
PROOF TECHNIQUES
By : HIRA NOMAN
 WHY PROOFS?
 The methods of proof discussed here are
important not only because they are used to
prove mathematical theorems, but also for their
many applications to computer science.
 These applications include verifying that
computer programs are correct, establishing that
operating systems are secure, making inferences
in artificial intelligence, showing that system
specifications are consistent, and so on.
 Consequently, understanding the techniques used
in proofs are essential both in mathematics and
in computer science.
 THEOREM VERSUS PROOF
THEOREM
 A theorem is a mathematical
statement that is already proved
to be true.
 We demonstrate that a theorem
is true with a proof.
 A theorem may be the universal
quantification of a conditional
statement with one or more
premises and a conclusion.
 For Example :“If x > y, where x
and y are positive real numbers,
then x2 > y2”
PROOF
 A proof is a set of convincing
logical arguments that a statement is
true.
 A proof is a valid argument that
establishes the truth of a theorem.
 In practice, the final step of a proof
is usually just the conclusion of the
theorem.
 The proof of such theorem will
involve: Selecting a general element
of the domain and Subsequent steps
will show that this element has the
property in question. Finally,
universal generalization implies that
the theorem holds for all members
of the domain.
 TYPES OF PROOF
TECHNIQUES

 Direct proofs
 Indirect proofs
❖ Proof by contradiction
❖ Proof by contraposition
 Proof using cases
 Exhaustive proofs
 Proof by mathematical induction
 Other methods of proof
 DIRECT PROOF
 Direct proofs start out with our shared knowledge base and, with a
series of logical derivations, arrive at the conclusion that needs to be
proved. Such proofs are often particularly ingenious and surprising.
 A direct proof of a conditional statement p → q is constructed when
the first step is the assumption that p is true; subsequent steps are
constructed using rules of inference, with the final step showing that q
must also be true.
 A direct proof shows that a conditional statement p → q is true by
showing that if p is true, then q must also be true, so that the
combination p true and q false never occurs
DIRECT VERSUS INDIRECT PROOF
Indirect proof
 In geometry is also called PROOF BY CONTRADICTION The
"indirect" part comes from taking what seems to be the opposite stance
from the proof's declaration, then trying to prove that. If you "fail" to
prove the falsity of the initial proposition, then the statement must be
true. You did not prove it directly; you proved it indirectly, by
contradiction.
Direct vs. Indirect proof
 An indirect proof can be thought of as "the long way around" a problem.
Rather than attack the problem head-on, as with a direct proof, you go
through some other steps to try to prove the exact opposite of the
statement. You are subtly intending to fail, so that you can then step back
and say, "I did my best to show it was false. I could not prove it was
false, so it must be true."
 EXAMPLE A
Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd integer, then n² is
odd.”
SOLUTION:
Let p be the statement that n is an odd integer and q be the statement that n² is
an odd integer.
We have to prove p → q
By the definition of an odd integer, it follows that n = 2k + 1, for some integer
k.
We will now use this to show that n² is also an odd integer.
If n = 2k+1 then n2 = (2k+1)2
= 4k2+4k+1
= 2 . (2k2+2k)+1,
(2k2+2k) is an integer lets say c than
n2 = 2c+1 By the definition of an odd integer, we can
conclude that n2 is an odd integer (it is one more
than twice an integer).
Hence we proved that : if n is odd then n2 is also odd.
 EXAMPLE B
Give a direct proof that if m and n are both perfect squares, then n x m
is also a perfect square.
(An integer a is a perfect square if there is an integer b such that a = b2)
SOLUTION:
To produce a direct proof of this theorem, we assume that the hypothesis
of this conditional statement is true, namely, we assume that m and n are
both perfect squares.
By the definition of a perfect square, it follows that there are integers s
and t such that m = s2 and n = t2. The goal of the proof is to show that
m x n must also be a perfect square when m and n are;
looking ahead we see how we can show this by substituting s2 for m and t2
for n into m x n.
This gives m x n = s2t2
= (s x s)(t x t)
= (s x t)(s x t) = (s x t)2 s*t is an integer lets say c then
mxn = (c)2
By the definition of perfect square, it follows that m*n is also a
perfect square, because it is the square of s x t, which is an integer.
Hence proved that : if m and n are both perfect squares, then m x n
is also a perfect square.
 EXERCISE A

1. Use a direct proof to show that the sum of two odd

integers is even.
2. Use a direct proof to show that the sum of two even
integers is even.
3. Show that the square of an even number is an even
number using a direct proof.
4. Use a direct proof to show that the product of two odd
numbers is odd.
5. Prove that if m + n and n + p are even integers, where
m, n, and p are integers, then m + p is even.
6. Use a direct proof to show that every odd integer is the
difference of two squares. [Hint: Find the difference of the
squares of k + 1 and k where k is a positive integer.]
 SOLUTION A
1. Use a direct proof to show that the sum of two odd integers
is even.
SOLUTION:
Let m and n be the two odd integers. By the definition of an odd
integer, it follows that m = 2k + 1 and n = 2i + 1 for some integers k
and i.
We will now use this to show that m+n is an even integer.
If m = 2k+1 and n = 2i + 1 then
m+n = 2k+1+2i+1
= 2k+2i+2
= 2(k+i+1) (k+i+1) is an integer lets say c then
= 2c By the definition of an even integer, we can
conclude that m+n is an even integer (it is twice
of an integer).

Hence we proved that : the sum of two odd integers is even.

 SOLUTION A
2. Use a direct proof to show that the sum of two even
integers is even.
SOLUTION:
Let m and n be the two even integers. By the definition of an even
integer, it follows that m = 2k and n = 2i for some integers k and i.
We will now use this to show that m+n is an even integer.
If m = 2k and n = 2i then
m+n = 2k+2i
= 2k+2i
= 2(k+i) (k+i) is an integer lets say c then
= 2c By the definition of an even integer, we can
conclude that m+n is an even integer (it is twice
of an integer).

Hence we proved that : the sum of two even integers is even.

 SOLUTION A
3. Show that the square of an even number is an even
number using a direct proof.

SOLUTION:
Let m be the even integer. By the definition of an even integer, it
follows that n = 2k for some integer k .
We will now use this to show that n2 is an even integer.
If n = 2k then
n2 = 4k2
= 2 . (2k2) (2k2) is an integer lets say c then
= 2c By the definition of an even integer, we can
conclude that n2 is an even integer (it is twice
of an integer).

Hence we proved that : the square of an even integer is even.

 SOLUTION A
4. Use a direct proof to show that the product of two odd
numbers is odd.
SOLUTION:
Let m and n be the two odd integers. By the definition of an odd
integer, it follows that m = 2k + 1 and n = 2i + 1 for some integers k
and i.
We will now use this to show that m*n is an odd integer.
If m = 2k+1 and n = 2i + 1 then
m*n = (2k+1)*(2i+1)
= 2k+4ki+2i+1
= 2(k+2ki+i)+1 (k+2ki+i) is an integer lets say c then
= 2c+1 By the definition of an odd integer, we can
conclude that m*n is an odd integer (it is one
more than twice the integer).

Hence we proved that : the product of two odd integers is odd.

 SOLUTION A
6. Use a direct proof to show that every odd integer is the
difference of two squares. [Hint: Find the difference of the
squares of k + 1 and k where k is a positive integer.]
SOLUTION:
Using the hint, we find the difference of squares of k+1 and k
(k+1)2 - k2
k2+2k+1-k2
2k+1
Hence we proved that : every odd integer is the difference of two
squares.
K=0 , k+1 = 1 then (k+1)2 - k2 = 1-0 = 1
K=1 , k+1 = 2 then (k+1)2 - k2 = 4-1 = 3 and so on
Prove that if n is an integer and n2 is odd, then n is odd.
Solution:
Let’s attempt a direct proof. Suppose that n is an integer and n2 is odd.
From the definition of an odd integer, there exists an integer k such
that n2 = 2k + 1.
Can we use this information to show that n is odd?
There seems to be no obvious approach to show that n is odd because
solving for n produces the equation n = ±√2k + 1, which is not terribly
useful.

CONCLUSION: DIRECT PROOF CAN’T BE USED IN THIS

SITUATION.
Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.
Solution:
Lets attempt a direct proof. To construct a direct proof, we first assume
that 3n + 2 is an odd integer.
Now from the definition of an odd integer, we know that
3n + 2 = 2k + 1 for some integer k.

Can we use this fact to show that n is odd?

We see that 3n + 1 = 2k
3n = 2k-1 , but there does not seem to be any direct way to
conclude that n is odd.

CONCLUSION: DIRECT PROOF CAN’T BE USED IN THIS

SITUATION.
WHICH TECHNIQUE WORKS WELL?

 When you are confronted with a statement to prove, you should

first replace terms by their definitions and then carefully analyze
what the hypotheses and the conclusion mean.
 If the statement is a conditional statement, try a direct proof first
as long as the hypotheses provide a good starting point; if this
fails, try a proof by contraposition. If neither of these approaches
works, you might try a proof by contradiction.
 The structure of the proof reflects the structure of the claim
claim: an object with some property exists
proof: an example
 EXAMPLE C
Can this chess board (8x8) be tiled in such a way that
there are no empty spaces and no overlaps, by using the
domino (1x2) ?

8 x 8 Standard Chess Board 1X2 Domino

Note:
1. Domino can be tiled Vertically as well as Horizontally.
2. We say that a board is tiled by dominoes when all its
squares are covered with no overlapping dominoes and no
dominoes overhanging the board.
 Horizontal Domino

Vertical
Domino

Can you do this ?

TILING THE BOARD WITH DOMINOS
ANOTHER OF THE SEVERAL POSSIBLE
ARRANGEMENTS
 IS IT POSSIBLE TO TILE THIS
BOARD?

NOTE : You have to tile only the highlighted part of the board i.e.
excluding the one tile in the bottom left corner.
No ! It’s not possible to tile such
a board

Do u know why ?
Can you prove it ?
 IMPOSSIBILITY PROOF

 The chess board has 8 x 8 cells , i.e. 64 cells.

 One cell deleted means 63 cells.
 63 is an odd number.
 31 tiles will cover 62 cells , but one cell will always be left.

PROVED
 EXERCISE B

Tile this board using 1 x 2 dominos

 EXAMPLE D
Cutting Figures:
 Congruent pieces: of the same shape and size.
 Prove that this figure can be cut into 2 congruent pieces
What about 4 pieces?