Dental Silicate Cements: XII. The Rots.

of Water

ALAN D. WILSON, BRIAN E. KENT, REGINALD F. BATCHELOR, BARBARA G.

SCOTT, and BRIAN G. LEWIS
Laboratory of the Government Chemist, Cornwall House, Stamford Street, London SE],
England

Variation of the phosphoric acid/water ra- undertaken. In particular, the chemical

tio used in the preparation of a dental sili- methods of studying the elution of specific
cate cement has profound effects on the ions from dental silicate cements6-9 were ap-
properties of the cement. Setting time, com- plied. It was hoped that, in addition to the
pressive strength, and resistance to attack practical aspect, some insight would be
by water and acids are among the factors gained into the role of water in the cement-
dependent on this ratio, and there is evi- ing reaction. The object was to establish
dence that cementing hydrates of definite optimum conditions and investigate the de-
composition have been formed in some in- pendence of various cement properties on
stances. this factor.
The influence of the phosphoric acid/water Materials and Methods
ratio in the preparation of silicate cements
on the properties of the final cement has
The concentration of phosphoric acid in
been long known but little investigated. the cement liquid is termed ( throughout
Poetschke,' in 1916, recorded the effect of this paper, ie, c =% w/w H3PO4.
the liquid composition on cement property, The experimental liquids used consisted
finding that there was an optimum phos- of aqueous solutions containing varying con-
phoric acid concentration for maximum centrations of phosphoric acid. The liquids
strength development. He also noted that were of two types: P-liquids, containing
the contraction of a cement on setting de- phosphoric acid only; and PAZ-liquids, con-
creased with increasing acid concentration taining aluminum and zinc in addition. The
and that with a high phosphoric acid con- latter are listed in Table 1. The generic for-
tent expansion could occur; this phenom- mula of the series can be represented as:
enon was later the subject of a careful study 0.0255 q % w/w Al; 0.133 o % w/w Zn;
by Ray.2 Wright3 observed that setting time ( % w/w H3PO4. Some of these liquids
increased with the acid concentration of the have been described by Wilson and Kent.'0
liquid; a similar observation has been made
by Paffenbarger, Schoonover, and Souder.4 TABLE 1
A paper by Worner and Docking5 repre- COMPOSITIONS (W/W%) OF MODIFIED
sents the most complete study in this field. PHOSPHORIC AcID LIQUIDS USED FOR
EXPERIMENTAL CEMENTS*
They confirmed the observations of previous
investigators and made a systematic investi- q (H3PO4) Al Zn H20
gation of the effect of acid concentration on 39.2 1.00 5.20 54.9
setting time, strength, and solubility. Their 44.1 1.125 5.85 49.4
results show that this parameter can have a 45.0 1.14 5.95 48.3
considerable influence on the characteristics 46.0 1.17 6.10 47.0
of the cement and that optimum conditions 47.0 1.20 6.22 46.0
for different properties do not coincide. 48.0 1.22 6.36 44.8
Since the acid content of the liquid is of 49.0 1.25 6.50 43.6
critical importance in optimizing cement 53.9 1.37 7.15 38.0
properties, an extensive investigation was 58.8 1.50 7.80 32.5
* In this series, the weaker members can be pre-
Received for publication December 25, 1968. pared by successive dilution of the strongest member.
307
308 WILSON ET AL J Dent Res March-April 1970
Cements were prepared for the majority hours. They were then quickly wiped with
of experiments using a powder* designated tissue paper and reweighed.
P-2 by Wilson and Batchelor.7 Cements are EVAPORATED WATER.-Standard cement
referred to as P-type or PAZ-type cements, disks were prepared and stored in a sealed
depending on the liquid. In a few experi- and clamped mold for 72 hours at 37 C.
ments a second brand of cement, C- 11t, The polythene seal was then removed, and
was used. the disks rapidly weighed. Evaporable water
Cement pastes were prepared by spatula- was removed by heating the disk, which was
tion at 20 C, using the usual specification mounted so that maximum surface area was
technics."1 12 The powder/liquid ratio used exposed, in an oven at 105 C for 24 hours.
was 4 gm/ml, except for certain C-I1 ce- After reweighing, the disks were heated to
ments. 150 C for 24 hours and weighed again.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.-Consistency, set- SURFACE.-Standard cement disks were
ting time, and compressive-strength deter- prepared at 20 C and transferred to an in-
minations were based on specification pro- cubator (at 37 C) three minutes after the
cedures,11 the details of which have been start of mixing. Four minutes later they
discussed previously.6'7 Some setting-time were removed, and the cement surface im-
measurements were made at 20 C as well as mediately exposed and examined for dulling
at 37 C. or crazing within one minute of exposure.
The procedure for determining compres-
sive strengths was modified so that figures Results
could be obtained for slow-setting cements. SETTING TIME AND CONSISTENCY.-The
After the cement cylinders (12 mm long X setting time of P-type cements (Fig 1) was
6 mm in diameter) were removed from the
sealed molds, they were stored in a humidi-
fier at 37 C and 95 to 100% relative hu-
midity for 23 hours before measurement.
STANDARD CEMENT DISKS.-These disks
were used in a number of experiments on
resistivity, water absorption, and water loss. 40 _
K~~~~~~~~~~
The standard disks were 20 mm in diameter
and 1.5 mm thick and were prepared as de- A Standard ADA technic
B At constant 20 C
scribed earlier.6 The disks were hardened in
an oven at 37 C for various periods of time.
depending on the experiment, before being
used.
CHEMICAL RESISTIVITY.-Resistance of E0
cement disks to aqueous and acid attack 2 A
was measured by use of the method de-
scribed by Wilson, Kent, and Batchelor.9 A
.01 M potassium hydrogen phthalate buffer
(pH = 4.0) was used for the acid condi- cl / ~~~~~~~A
tions. At the end of the experiment, all solu-
tions were analyzed for phosphate, silicate,
and sodium, using methods described pre-
viously.6-9
WATER ABSORPTION.-Standard cement
disks were prepared and stored in clamped
molds at 37 C for one hour. The disks were
weighed and suspended in a humidifier
(100% relative humidity, 37 C) for 72 Concentration of liquid, 0/0 w/w H3P04
* Super Syntrex, Amalgamated Dental Co. Ltd.,
London, Eng. FIG 1-Setting time of cements prepared
t Terralux Ultra, Tahn-Porzellan, K. G. Hamburg. from unmodified phosphoric acid solutions,
Ger. P/L = 4.0 gm/ml.
Vol 49 No. 2 WATER IN SILICATE CEMENTS 309
found to increase slowly with p in the range
of 29 to 55, remain stationary in the range
55 to 65, and then increase sharply with p
above 65. Lower testing temperatures (20
C as against 37 C) resulted in prolongation
of the setting time, an effect more decided
at the higher p values. There was no varia-
tion of the consistency of cements with p.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH.-Compressive
strength/ p curves are shown in Figure 2.
P-type cements exhibited a maximum com-
pressive strength at p = 53 for both P/L
ratios; 2,250 kg/cm2 for a P/L 4 gm/ml
and 1,680 kg/cm2 for a P/L = 3 gm/ml. Concentration of liquid nfnw/w H3Po.
Compressive strength was found to vary
little when p ranged from 58 to 63. The FIG 3.-Ions leached into water during seven
days (ie, 1 + 6 days) from cements prepared
PAZ-type cement differed considerably; from unmodified liquids, P/L = 4.0 gm/ml.
maximum strength (2,810 kg/cm2) was at-
tained at a lower concentration (q = 49).
Decrease of the strength from the maximum
at lower p values was much sharper, so that
below p = 45, PAZ-type cements were
weaker than P-type cements. MuE
v

WATER-LEACHABLE MATERIAL.-Curves
relating the amounts of phosphate, sodium,
and silica leached from cements into water, "4
at 37 C, to p were established (Fig 3, 4).
For P-type cements, phosphate-leach max- C

imums were found at p = 38 and p = 58,

with minimums at p = 49 and p = 63 (Fig
3). The sodium-leach curve was similar, ex-
cept that there was no maximum corre- 30 40 50 60
Concentration of liquid, %/O wlw H3 PC4
70
sponding to p = 58. The curve for silica
leach was found to be different, with only FIG 4.-Ions leached into water during seven
a broad minimum with <p from 49 to 60. days (ie, 1 + 6 days) from cements prepared
The corresponding phosphate-leach curve from modified liquids, P/L = 4.0 gm/ml.
for PAZ-type cements (Fig 4) is similar to
that found for P-type cements but with a minimum displaced toward lower p values.
(For PAZ-type cements p values were more
3000
restricted.) The curves for sodium and sil-
ica leach were also similar to those for the
P-type cements, again with the position of
E
-Modified 4Gm/ml maximums and minimums displaced toward
-r lower p values.
2000-
4Gm/mI
RESISTANCE TO ACID ATTACK.-Curves
relating to the amount of phosphate and
silica extracted from the P-type cements into
-3 Cmml "
C-
acid solution (Fig 5) show that extractable
E
phosphate increased gradually with p in the
uI000- range of 29 to 49, then sharply to a max-
/

imum at p = 53, followed by a decrease

30 40 SO60 when p ranged from 53 to 75. Silica ex-
Concentration of liquid, %0 w/ow H3PO4 tracted decreased with c in the range of
FIG 2.-Compressive strengths of cements 29 to 53, the slope of the curve increasing
prepared from unmodified and modified phos- at p = 40. The curve was level in the range
phoric acid solutions. of 53 to 58. As p increased beyond this
310 WILSON ET AL J Dent Res March-April 1970
pressed as percentage by weight of the ce-
ment disk) is shown by a maximum of
c:8 1.1 1% w/w H20 at (p = 49 and a minimum
E of 0.85% w/w H20 at (p = 59. There is a
E rapid increase in water absorbed as (p in-
creases above 59.
r"- ,I EVAPORABLE WATER.-The evaporable
water in cements is considerably affected by
E ( at 105 C (Fig 7). Results are expressed
I -P25-
2[ as percentage fraction by weight of the ce-
ment disk (curve A) and as a percentage
fraction by weight of the total water (curve
30 40 50
Concentration of liquid,
60 70
%w/wH3PO4
B). The latter data were calculated from
the following equations:
FIG 5.-Ions extracted into buffer solution
(pH 4.0) during six days from cements pre- Wf = (a + 1 ) We,
pared from unmodified liquids, P/L = 4.0 gm/ (100-c)
ml; buffer composition, .OlM potassium hydro-
gen phthalate. where Wf is the evaporable water, expressed
as percentage by weight of the total water;
point, the amount of silica extracted de- WV is the evaporable water, expressed as
creased to a minimum at ( = 68, and then percentage by weight of the cement disk; c
increased rapidly. is the concentration of phosphoric acid, per-
WATER ABSORPTION.-The influence of ( centage by weight; and a is the powder/
on the imbibition of water by P-type ce- liquid ratio of the cement expressed as gm
ments from an atmosphere saturated with of powder per gm of liquid.
water vapor (Fig 6, water absorption is ex- Also

p
where 0 is the powder/liquid ratio expressed
conventionally as gm of powder/ml of liq-
uid and p is the density of phosphoric acid
at any particular concentration c.
3 Inspection of curve A shows that W, in-
creases slowly with (, to a maximum of
4)
3r
-C
4)
9.7% at p = 53. Thereafter, it declines rap-
tE
idly above ( = 55. The Wf/ ( curve is more
2
-B
D
A

-o i
_6
-V I0 s
IV I I
Iv
I

g
--d60!

I~~~~~~~~ 20 40 60
phosphoric ..id uoncrmtio
.,1
80o 5

20 40 60
phosphoric acid concentration FIG 7.-Water evaporable during 72 hours
at 105 C from cements prepared from unmodi-
FIG 6.-Water absorbed during 72-hour stor- fied liquids. Curve A, percentage weight loss
age over water by cements prepared from un- of cement; and curve B, percentage of total
modified liquids. initial water content lost.
Vol 49 No. 2
complex, with a maximum at p =58 and
a minimum at 4 = 63.
SURFACE.-The phenomenon of dulling
and crazing of the cement surface when ex-
posed seven minutes after the start of mix-
ing becomes evident above p = 45, when
using unmodified liquids (Table 2). Where
modified liquids have been used, the border
line appears to be about p = 46 to 47.
CEMENT SYSTEM C- 1 .-This material
was tested at a P/L ratio of 2.75 gm/ml by
use of liquid L-1 1 (c = 65) and also PAZ-
O (q = 49). The latter liquid could not be
used at 20 C, since the cement set on the
slab. It was successfully mixed with PAZ-O
at 3 C with a P/L ratio of 3.63 gm/ml.
Results (Table 3) show considerable depen-
dence on p and the mixing temperature.
Discussion
SETTING TIME.-The gradual increase of
setting time as 0 rises from 29 to 55 (Fig
1) is to be expected, since the increasing
acidity will delay the precipitation of insol-
uble phosphates and fluorides in the cement.
Previous experiments13 have shown that
acidity of cements increases with p. The
level region between p = 55 and p =63,
shown by both curves, is difficult to explain
but suggests that there is more than one re-
action mechanism. The rapid increase in
setting time when p increases above 65 is
WATER IN SILICATE CEMENTS 311
a result of a lack of water in the system.
Vapor-pressure measurements1415 show that
the activity of water rapidly declines above
50% w/w H3PO4, and specific conductance
measurements'6 show that there is a decreas-
ing ionic mobility above 50% w/w H3PO4
(where there is a maximum conductance).
The viscosity of phosphoric acid solutions
are also known to increase sharply with con-
centration above 65% w/w H3PO4, and
this would contribute to a decrease in ionic
mobility. These results are explained by
changes in the structure of the acid at about
67% w/w H3PO4.17 In the p range of 45
to 50% w/w H3PO4, the phosphate groups
are linked by water molecules to each other
by hydrogen bonding. In the stronger acid,
however, the phosphate tetrahedrons are di-
rectly hydrogen bonded to each other. This
has the effects of reducing the mobility of
the phosphate groups and causing the latter
to compete for the water in the system, so
reducing the amount of water available for
the reaction. Water is required to act as a
solvent base for the setting reaction, to hy-
drate protons and to be available for the
formation of cementing hydrates. Hence, a
deficiency of water results in an arrestment
of the reaction, and the acidity of the ce-
ment remains high. Conclusive evidence of
this deficiency of water is given with the
discussion on water absorption.

TABLE 2
EFFECT OF qP ON CRAZING, BY USE OF POWDER* P-2 AT A
P/L RATIO OF 4 gm/ml
0 (H3PO4) Unmodified Liquids Modified Liquids
44 Glossy, no crazing Glossy, no crazing
45 Slightly dulled, no crazing Glossy, no crazing
46 Dulled and crazed Dulled, no crazing
47 Dulled and crazed Dulled, slight crazing
48 Dulled and crazed Dulled and crazed
49 Dulled and crazed Dulled and crazed
50 Dulled and crazed Dulled and crazed
* A color-blended sample of P-2 was used, since crazing showed up more clearly
than when using a white cement.

TABLE 3
PROPERTIES OF CEMENTS PREPARED FROM POWDER P- 1i
P/ Rai _eprtr
P/L Ratio Temperature
Liquid (gm/ml) of Mixing Compressive Strength
L-1 1 (, = 64.9) 2.75 20C 700 kg/cm2
L-11 (o = 64.9) 2.75 3C 635 kg/cm2
PAZ-0 (o = 49) 3.63 20 C Set before completion
of mixing
PAZ-O (-o = 49) 3.63 3C 1,860 kg/cm2
~ .~=9
~ 3.
312 WILSON ET AL
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH.-Compressive
strength of cements may be taken as a mea-
sure of the degree of cementation. Since it
has been established by electron probe'8 and
other studies'9,20 that these are phosphate-
bonded cements, then clearly at some point
compressive strength must decrease with 4,
simply because of a lack of sufficient phos-
phate. However, this explanation is insuffi-
cient to account for the sharp fall in strength
from the maximum as ( decreases (Fig 2),
which must be connected with the known
deleterious effect of excess water on silicate
cements. It may be that below certain p
values a noncement-forming hydrate is pro-
duced. For example, in portland-cement
chemistry it is known that only certain hy-
drates have cementation properties. What-
ever the explanation, it is certain that a
sharp change in cement structure occurs.
The decrease in strength as p increases
above 63, which parallels the prolongation
of setting time in this region, can be attrib-
uted to the same fundamental cause, ie,
lack of water in the system leading to inhi-
bition of the setting reaction. This effect is
further discussed with evaporable water.
Although, as is to be expected, the max-
imum strength for P-type cements varies
with the P/ L ratio of the mix, the corre-
sponding q values are identical (at 63) and
thus independent of the P/ L ratio. The
H20: H3PO4 ratio alone determines the po-
sition of the maximum. Addition of modi-
fiers to a cement liquid results in a reduc-
tion in the H20 :H3PO4 ratio at equivalent
phosphoric acid concentrations, thus ex-
plaining the lower c value associated with
the PAZ-cement of maximum strength. The
greater maximum strength of the PAZ-
cement results from an increased packing
of the gel matrix with metal ions derived
from the liquid.
WATER-LEACHABLE MATERIAL-.The ion
leach/! curves for both P-type and PAZ-
type cements (Fig 3, 4) are complex but
broadly similar, both exhibiting maximums
and minimums. The narrower range of p
values used in establishing the curve for the
PAZ-type cements accounts for the absence
of a second minimum present in the curves
for P-type cements in respect to sodium and
phosphate.
The leached sodium/!( curves are similar
to those for phosphate, which is to be ex-
pected, since sodium dihydrogen phosphate
J Dent Res March-April 1970
is one of the soluble species produced dur-
ing the course of the cement-forming re-
action.6
Confining the immediate discussion to P-
type cements, the rapid increase in leached
ions with (p values above the minimum at
63, which correspond to similar increases in
electrical conductivity,'0 can be attributed
to two causes. First, the amount of cement
powder reacting must increase with the
phosphoric acid content of the liquid so that
a greater amount of soluble sodium dihy-
drogen phosphate is produced. Second, this
increase in leached ions corresponds to sim-
ilar increases in setting time and water ab-
sorption, suggesting that lack of water in
these systems is inhibiting the cement-form-
ing reaction. Both these causes result in ce-
ments of higher ionic character.
The increase in leachable ions below the
other minimum, at ( = 49, results from the
adverse effect of excess water in these sys-
tems on cementation. The complex situation
in the optimum cementation region between
( 49 and (p= 63 is difficult to explain in
the light of current knowledge, but is con-
nected with the water-affinity phenomena
discussed later in this paper.
The leached sodium/! and phosphate/!
curves for PAZ-type cements require no de-
tailed discussion, since they follow those of
the P-type cements. There is, however, dis-
placement of maximums and minimums to
lower ( values. For any particular ( value,
a PAZ-liquid will contain less water than
the corresponding P-liquid (because of the
added modifiers). Hence, if water content
is a controlling factor, the relative deficiency
of water in PAZ-liquids can only be reduced
by a decrease in (.
The pattern of the leached silica/ ( curves
is different from the corresponding curves
for phosphate, the inference being that silica
and phosphate are not in combination. This
deduction is consistent with known facts.2'
The solution of silica into aqueous solution
as orthosilicates or perhaps disilicates is
a depolymerization process; the amount
leached will, therefore, be dependent on the
degree of polymerization of the silica gel as
well as the amount of silica gel produced
in the cement-forming reaction. Hence,
there is an optimum acidity for gel forma-
tion, which would account for the minimum
in the silica leach/! curve. The amount of
silica eluted increases sharply below a (
Vol 49 No. 2
value of 49 and is probably caused by ex-
cess water in the cement. This point coin-
cides with a minimum in the phosphate
leach/ p curve and, therefore, represents a
region of maximum cementation where
water is strongly bound as a cementing hy-
drate.
RESISTANCE TO ACID ATTACK.-These re-
sults (Fig 5), obtained for P-type cements
only, are difficult to explain. There is a
change in slope of the P205 curve at c =
49, corresponding to the minimum in the
aqueous leaching curves; otherwise, there is
little connection between the two phenom-
ena. Unfortunately, the maximum at 0 =
53 coincides with maximum compressive
strength (Fig 2). The best cementing spe-
cies is thus least resistant to acid attack.
At p = 49, as found in several commer-
cial liquids, the amount of phosphate ex-
tracted into a pH buffer from a P-type ce-
ment is only 60% of that from a PAZ-type.9
WATER ABSORPTION.-The close similarity
between the water absorption/! curve (Fig
6), the setting time/! curve, and the phos-
phate leach/! curve indicates that these are
related phenomena. The sharp increase in
affinity for water shown by P-type cements
as p increases above 60, which follows a
similar increase in setting time, is clear evi-
dence that there is a deficiency of water in
these systems. The logical inference is that
it is this deficiency of water that retards the
reaction and is responsible for the prolonga-
tion of setting time. Thus retardation of the
setting reaction results in cements of greater
ionic character, since the precipitation is not
complete. Hence, these cements have a high
soluble-phosphate content and also a high
electric conductivity.'0
The complex relationship between water
absorption and p in the maximal cementa-
tion region (40 to 60) is difficult to explain.
There are correspondences with the phos-
phate leach/! curve and the flat region in
the setting time/+ curve. All that may be
inferred is that water affinity is closely re-
lated to cementation.
All these results emphasize the critical
role of water in the reaction.
EVAPORABLE WATER.-The main interest
of this curve (Fig 7, curve B) is the increase
of Wf with p (above 60) until at p = 75 it
represents nearly the whole of the cement
water. Since the nonevaporable water may
be equated with bonding water, it is clear
WATER IN SILICATE CEMENTS 313
that a cement prepared from 75% w/ w
H3PO4 would be expected to be weak; and
this has been observed (Fig 2). Previously,
it has been shown by leaching studies and
infrared analysis'9 that hydrated sodium di-
hydrogen phosphate, NaH2PO4.H20, is a
water-soluble constituent of dental cements
and that it is a deleterious species. The wa-
ter associated with it is nonbonding and
can be easily removed. Its presence in quan-
tity would account for a high evaporable-
water content. Since the amount of this spe-
cies formed increases with q, the amount of
evaporable water will also increase.
OPTIMIZATION OF CEMENT PROPERTY.-
The data assembled show that there is no
one p value for either P-type or PAZ-type
cements at which all cement properties may
be optimized. Selection of a particular liq-
uid must be dependent on the property con-
sidered most essential, or on some overall
balance between different properties.
For P-type cements there is a clear choice
between strength and durability. Inspection
of the aqueous and acid-resistance data
(Fig 3, 5) would indicate that maximum
cement durability is to be achieved with a
cement liquid containing 49% w/w H3PO4.
This is not the point of maximum strength,
which is achieved with a liquid containing
53% w/w H3PO4.
The situation for PAZ-type cements is
more critical. The rapid decline of strength
below p = 49 means that this is the effec-
tive minimum for PAZ-type cements. Above
this point, water-leachable phosphate in-
creases more sharply than the silica de-
creases. Below this point, the decrease in
phosphate and the increase in silica are
equally matched (Fig 4). On balance, over-
all optimization of property is to be achieved
with a PAZ-liquid containing 49% w/w
H3PO4.
SURFACE.-Table 2 shows that the occur-
rence of crazing is related to p, but its pre-
cise cause is obscure. Setting time and evap-
orable water may well be factors influencing
this parameter.
CEMENT C- 11.-This cement system has
previously been reported.22 It fails the
standard specification tests with respect
to strength and "solubility and disintegra-
tion."6'9'22 Analysis showed that the liquid
contained 64.9% w/w H3P04, which, ac-
cording to data for P-2 presented earlier, is
too high and would result in low strength
314 WILSON ET AL
and low resistance to aqueous attack. At-
tempts to use a liquid, PAZ-O, of lower
phosphoric acid content (49.0% w/w
H3PO4) failed, since the cement set on the
glass block. This observation suggested that
the high phosphoric acid content of the
liquid was chosen in order to slow down
the setting reaction, probably because the
powder was too reactive. (P-11 contains
14.5% Na2O compared with 7.7% Na2O in
P-2, which accounts for its greater reac-
tivity.) For this reason, a liquid, PAZ-O,
was chosen that was thought to be closer
to the optimum; the setting reaction was
retarded by mixing at a very low temper-
ature (3 C). Results (Table 3) show that
this did indeed result in a much better
cement, suggesting that for all cement pow-
ders the optimum concentration of phos-
phoric acid in the liquid is about 50% w/w
H3PO4.
Conclusions
The effect of the H20 :H3PO4 ratio in the
liquid on cement properties is both consid-
erable and complex. Optimization for differ-
ent properties does not occur at one partic-
ular H20: H3PO4 ratio, so that maximum
strength and maximum resistance toward
aqueous and acid attack are not found in
one cement. For example, by accepting a
weaker cement, acid resistance can be con-
siderably improved. A high phosphoric acid
content results in excessive attack on the
powder, yielding a cement of low aqueous
resistance and low strength. The deficiency
of water inhibits the reaction, so prolonging
setting time. With liquids of low phosphoric
acid content there is insufficient phosphate
for optimum bonding.
This investigation is contributed by permission of the
Government Chemist, D. T. Lewis CB. Crown Copy-
right. Published by permission of Her Britannic Maj-
esty's Stationery Office.
References
1. POETSCHKE, P.: Physical Properties of Den-
tal Cements, J Ind Eng Chem 8:302-309,
1916.
2. RAY, K.W.: The behaviour of Silicate Ce-
ments, JADA 21:237-251, 1934.
3. WRIGHT, J.W.: A Study of Some Dental
Cements, J Dent Res 1:35-60, 1919.
4. PAFFENBARGER, G.C.; SCHOONOVER, I.C.;
and SOUDER, W.: Dental Silicate Cements
-Physical and Chemical Properties and a
Specification, JADA 25:32-87, 1938.
J Dent Res March-April 1970
5. WORNER, H.K., and DOCKING, A.R.: Den-
tal Materials in the Tropics, Aust Dent J
3:215-219, 1958.
6. WILSON, A.D., and BATCHELOR, R.F.:
Dental Silicate Cements: I. The Chemistry
of Erosion, J Dent Res 46:1075-1085, 1967.
7. WILSON, A.D., and BATCHELOR, R.F.:
Dental Silicate Cements: II. Preparation
and Durability, J Dent Res 46:1425-1432,
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