BAHIR DAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Digital Signal Processing

EEng - 4081

Lecturer: Tadie B.

14 May 2020

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Chapter 1

Introduction to Digital Signal Processing

1.1 Signals Review

Introduction:
A signal is a description of physical phenomenon. It can be represented by a mathematical formula
as a function of independent variables such as time, frequency, and space. We encounter many
types of signals in various applications.
Electrical signals: voltage, current, magnetic, and electric fields, …
Mechanical signals: velocity, force, displacement, pressure…
Thermodynamic signals: temperature, enthalpy, entropy, …
Acoustic signals: sound, vibration, …
Classification of Signals:
i. Continuous time signals:
• If a signal is defined for all instants of time, then it is known as a continuous-time signal.
• A continuous-time signal is written as:
x(t ) , −  t  
• Most signals in nature are continuous-time signals.

ii. Discrete Time Signals:

• If a signal is defined only at specific instants of time, then it is known as a discrete-time
signal.
• A discrete-time signal is written as:

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 x ( n) , n : is an integer
▪ Discrete-time signals are rare in nature and mostly obtained by sampling continuous-time
signals.

1 , n = −3, 0, 2

Eg . x(n) = 2, n = −2, − 1, 4
0 ,
 otherwise

• Discrete time signals are generated from continuous time signals and a continuous time
signals can be reconstructed from discrete time signals.
Questions:
a. How are the discrete time signals generated from the continuous time signals?
b. Why aren’t the continuous time signals convenient to digital systems?

Analog to Digital Converters (ADC):

• The role of a device so called ADC is converting continuous time signals into discrete
time signals because our digital systems (CPU, RAM, STORAGE devices) can process
only digital (discrete) signals.
Stages:
• Sampling: at this stage the ADC discretizes the continuous input at the Nyquiste frequency
(sampling frequency, fs >= fundamental frequency of the signal). The Sampler represents
the continuous time signal by a series of pulses [discrete time, continuous amplitude].
• Quantization: representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of levels
which means converting a continuous amplitude sample into discrete time
amplitude(signal). [discrete amplitude, discrete time]
• Encoding: The quantized sample is next converted into a binary code word by the
encoder circuit [binary digits].

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Figure 1:1 Simple Analogue to digital Converter

Digital to Analog Converters (DAC):

• The role of a device so called DAC is converting the discrete time signals into analogue
signals because our analogue systems (speaker, ears, etc.) process the analogue
(continuous time) signals.

Figure 1:2 Simple digital to analogue converter

• The resistor with the lowest value R corresponds to the highest weighted binary input Bit
3 (MSB) [23 = 8], and 2R, 4R, 8R correspond to the binary weights of Bit 2 (22 = 4), Bit 1
(21 = 2), and Bit 0 (LSB) [20 = 1] respectively. The relationship between the digital inputs
(Bit 0 to Bit 3) and the analog output VOUT is as follow:

where Vref is the Reference Voltage of the circuit. Assuming the value of Vref as 5 V, the
Analog Output Voltages corresponding to the Digital Input Codes is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: The Analog Output Voltages corresponding to the Digital Input Codes with
Vref = 5 V

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 • DAC decodes and interpolates to generate or recover the original continuous signal.
Application: digital control systems, digital voltmeters, digital oscilloscopes, PCs etc.

Figure 1.3: Audio Signal Processing Stages1

iii. Deterministic and Random Signals

• Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are completely specified for any
given time.
• Deterministic signals can be described by some mathematical formula.
• Thus, a deterministic signal can be modeled by a known function of time t.
• Random signals are those signals that take random values at any given time and must be
characterized statistically.
iv. Even and Odd Signals

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 • a discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be an even signal if it satisfies the condition:
x ( − n) = x ( n) , for all n

• A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be an odd signal if it satisfies the condition:

x ( − n) = − x ( n) , for all n

• a general discrete-time signal x(n) can be decomposed into its even and odd components
as follows.
• Let the signal x(n) be expressed as the sum of two components xe(n) and xo(n) as
follows:
x(n) = xe (n) + xo (n)

• Define xe(n) to be even and xo(n) to be odd, i.e.,

xe (−n) = x(n) and xo (−n) = − xo (n)

• Putting n = −n in the expression for x(n), we will get:

x(−n) = xe (−n) + xo (−n)
= xe (n) − xo (n)
• Solving for xe(n) and xo(n), we obtain:
xe (n) =
1
x(n) + x(−n)
2
and

xo (n) =
1
x(n) − x(−n)
2
v. Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
▪ A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be periodic with period N if there is a positive non-
zero value of N for which:
x ( n) = x ( n + N ) , for all n
▪ If x(n) is periodic with period N, then it is also periodic for all integer multiples of N.
That is:
x(n) = x(n + kN ) , k is an integer
▪ The smallest positive value N is known as the fundamental period.
▪ Any discrete-time signal which is not periodic is called a non-periodic or aperiodic
discrete-time signal.
▪ All discrete-time sinusoidal signals are not periodic.

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 ▪ Consider a discrete-time sinusoidal signal x(n) given by:
x(n) = A sin(0 n +  )

▪ This sinusoidal signal is periodic if and only if:

2
= rational number
0

▪ The term rational number is defined as a fraction of two integers.

▪ Given that the above discrete-time sinusoidal signal is periodic, its fundamental period is
evaluated from the relationship:
2
N= m
0

▪ The fundamental period is calculated from the above equation with m set to the smallest
integer that results in an integer value for N.
▪ All discrete-time complex exponential signals are not also periodic.
▪ Consider a discrete-time complex exponential signal x(n) given by:
x(n) = e j ( 0n + )
2
▪ This complex exponential signal is periodic iff  0 is a rational number and its
fundamental period is given by:
2
N= m
0

Exercise:
Determine whether the following discrete-time signals are periodic or non-periodic. If the
signals are periodic, find their fundamental period.
 7n  
 n   j − 
a. x(n) = sin +  d . x ( n) = e  8 2

 12 4 
 3n 
b. x(n) = cos  e. x(n) = 2 n u (n)
 10 
c. x(n) = cos(0.5n) f . x(t ) = e j (3n )
▪ The sum of two periodic discrete-time signals is always periodic.

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 ▪ Consider a discrete-time signal x(n) given by:
x(n) = x1 (n) + x2 (n)
▪ If x1(n) is periodic with fundamental period N1 and x2(n) is periodic with fundamental
period N2, then x(n) is always periodic with fundamental period:
N1 m
=  N = nN1 = mN 2
N2 n

Exercise:
Determine whether the following signals are periodic or non-periodic. If the signals are
periodic, find their fundamental period.
a. x(t ) = sin(4t ) + cos(3t )
b. x(t ) = sin(4t ) + cos(10t )
c. x(t ) = e j (2t + 4 ) + cos(10t )
 n   n 
d . x(n) = cos  + cos 
 12   18 
vi. Energy and Power Signals
▪ for a discrete-time signal x(n), the normalized energy E is defined as:
 2

E=  x ( n)
n = −

▪ The normalized average power P of x(n) is defined as:

N 2
1
P = lim
N → 2 N + 1
 x ( n)
n=− N

▪ A signal is said to be an energy signal if the normalized total energy E has a non-zero
finite value, i.e., 0 < E < ∞.
▪ On the other hand, a signal is said to be a power signal if it has non-zero finite
normalized average power, i.e., 0 < P < ∞.
▪ A signal cannot be both an energy and a power signal simultaneously.
▪ The energy signals have zero average power whereas the power signals have infinite total
energy.
▪ Some signals, however, can be classified as neither power signals nor as energy signals.

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Exercise
Categorize each of the following signals as an energy or power signal or neither.
t , 0  t 1   n 
 sin  , − 4  n  4
a. x(t ) = 2 − t , 1  t  2 c. x(n) =   2 
0 , otherwise 0 ,
  otherwise
5 cos(t ) , − 1  t  1
b. x(t ) = 
0 , otherwise
vii. Basic Operations on Signals
a. Amplitude Scaling
consider a discrete-time signal denoted by x(n). The signal y(n) obtained by scaling
the amplitude by a factor A is given by:
y (n) = Ax (n)
where :
A is the amplitude - scaling factor

b. Time Scaling
consider a discrete-time signal denoted by x(n). The discrete-time signal y(n)
obtained by scaling the time n by a factor a is defined as:
y (n) = x(an)
where :
a is the time scaling factor

▪ If a 1 , then some values of the time-scaled discrete-time signal y(n) are lost.

Exercise:
The discrete-time signal x(n) is given by:
1 , n = −2 , − 1 , 0

x ( n ) = − 1 , n = 1, 2
0 ,
 otherwise

Sketch and label the time-scaled signals given by:

1 
a. y ( n) = x(2n) b. y ( n) = x n 
2 

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 c. Time Reversal
▪ The time-reflected version of the discrete-time signal x(n) is given by:
y ( n) = x ( − n)
Exercise
The discrete-time signal x(n) is given by:
1 , n = −2 , − 1

x ( n ) = 2 , n = 0 , 1, 2
0 ,
 otherwise

Sketch and label the time-reflected version the above signal carefully.

d. Time-shifting
▪ A discrete-time signal x(n), the time-shifted version is written as:
y (n) = x(n − n0 )
where :
n0 is the time shift

▪ If n0  0 , then x(n) is shifted to the right.

▪ If n0  0 , then x(n) is shifted to the left.

Exercise
The discrete-time signal x(n) is given by:
1 , n = 1, 2

x ( n ) = − 1 , n = −1 , − 2
0 ,
 otherwise

Sketch and label the time-shifted signals given by:

a. y (n) = x(n + 3)
b. y (n) = x(n − 1)
e. Addition
▪ For discrete-time signals we have:
y(n) = x1 (n) + x2 (n)

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 ▪ A physical example of a device that adds signals is an audio mixer which combines music
and voice signals.

f. Multiplication
▪ For discrete-time signals we have:
y(n) = x1 (n) x2 (n)
▪ A physical example of a device that multiplies signals is a radio amplitude modulator
(AM).
g. Combined Signal Operation
▪ given a discrete-time signal x(n), we can define another discrete-time signal y(n) by
applying two or more signal operations as:
y (n) = Ax (an − n0 )
where :
A : the amplitude - scaling factor
a : the time - scaling factor
n0 : the time shift
Exercise
Consider the discrete-time signal x(n) defined by:
1 , −2 n  2
y ( n) = 
0 , otherwise
Find and sketch the time-shifted signals given by:

a. y (n) = x(3n − 2)
b. y (n) = 2 x(1 − n)
1
c. y (n) = x(−n − 4)
3
viii. Elementary Signals
▪ Elementary signals that are important in the study of different complex signals and
systems. These include:
➢ Unit impulse function
➢ Unit step function

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 ➢ Unit ramp function
➢ Sinusoidal signals
➢ Real exponential signals
➢ Complex exponential signals
a. Unit Impulse Function

• The discrete-time unit impulse function, denoted by  (n) , is defined as:

1 , n=0
 ( n) = 
0 , n0

• The time-shifted discrete-time unit impulse function is defined as:

1 , n = n0
 (n − n0 ) = 
0 , n  n0

• The discrete-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse functions are shown in the figure
below.

Fig. Discrete-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse functions

b. Unit Step Function

▪ The discrete-time unit step function, denoted by u(n), is defined as:
1 , n0
u ( n) = 
0 , n0

▪ The time-shifted discrete-time unit step function is defined as:

1 , n  n0
u (n − n0 ) = 
0 , n  n0

▪ The discrete-time unit step and shifted unit step functions are shown in the figure below.

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 Fig. Discrete-time unit step and shifted unit step functions

c. Unit ramp function

The discrete-time unit ramp function, denoted by r(n), is defined as:
 n, n0
r ( n) = 
0 , n0

• Similarly, the shifted discrete-time unit ramp function is defined as:

n , n  n0
r (n − n0 ) = 
0 , n  n0

• The discrete-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions are shown in the figure
below.

Fig. Discrete-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions

d. Sinusoidal Signals
• the discrete-time sinusoidal signal is written as:
x(n) = A cos(n +  ) or
x(n) = A sin(n +  )
e. Real Exponential Signals
• the discrete-time sinusoidal signal is given by:

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 x ( n) = K ( r ) n
If 0  r  1  Decaying exponential signal
If r  1  Growing exponential signal
f. Complex Exponential Signals
the discrete-time complex exponential signal is written as:
x(n) = e j0 n

• Euler’s formula for discrete-time complex exponential signals:

e j0 n = cos(0 n) + j sin(0 n) .......... (i )
And ,
e − j0 n = cos( 0 n) − j sin( 0 n) .......... (ii)
• We can write discrete-time sinusoidal signals in terms of discrete-time complex
exponential signals as :
  and
cos(0n) = Re e j0n sin(0n) = Im e j0n  
• Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get:
e j0n + e − j0 n = 2 cos(0 n)
e j0n + e − j0n
 cos(0 n) =
2
• Similarly, subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we obtain:
e j0 n − e − j0 n = 2 j sin( 0 n)
e j  0 n − e − j 0 n
 sin( 0 n) =
2j
Exercise
▪ Consider a discrete-time signal x(n) shown in the figure below.

Sketch and label each of the following

signals derived from x(n) carefully.

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 a. y (n) = x(n − 2) d . y (n) = x(− n + 2)
b. y (n) = x(2n) e. y (t ) = x(n)u (n − 3)
c. y (n) = x(−n) f . y (t ) = x(n − 2)u (4 − n)
▪ Express the following signals in terms of unit step functions.

▪ Sketch and label each of the following signals carefully.

a. x(t ) = u (t ) − u (t − 2)
b. x(t ) = u (t + 1) − 2u (t ) + u (t − 1)
c. x(t ) = −u (t + 3) + 2u (t + 1) − 2u (t − 1) + u (t − 3)
d . x(n) = u (n + 2) + u (n − 1) − 2u (n − 4)
e. x(n) = u (n + 3) − u (n − 3)
f . x(n) =  (n + 1) + 2 (n) +  (n − 1)

1.2 Representation of Systems

• A system is a mathematical model of a physical process that relates the input signal to
the output signal.
• In other words, a system is a mathematical operator or mapping that transforms an input
signal into an output signal by means of a fixed set of rules or operations.
• The notation T[ .] is used to represent a general system in which an input signal is
transformed into an output signal.
Mathematically, the input and output signals can be related as:

• The relationship between the input and output may be expressed in terms of a concise
mathematical rule or function.

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 • It is also possible to describe a system in terms of an algorithm that provides a sequence
of instructions or operations that is to be applied to the input signal.

Fig. Representation of continuous-time and discrete-time systems

▪ In the analysis or design of a system, it is desirable to classify the system according to

some generic properties that the system satisfies.
• For a system to possess a given property, the property must hold true for all possible
input signals that can be applied to the system.
• If a property holds for some input signals but not for others, the system does not satisfy
that property.

1.3 Classification of Systems

We can classify systems into the following six basic categories.

i. Linear Vs non-linear systems

▪ A system is linear if it satisfies the principle of superposition. a discrete-time system with

input x(n) and output y(n) is said to be linear iff:

T [a1 x1 (n) + a2 x2 (n)] = a1T [ x1 (n)] + a2T [ x2 (n)]

Exercise
Determine whether the systems with the following input-output relationships are linear or non-
linear.

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ii. Time-invariant Vs time-varying systems

A system is said to be time-invariant if a time delay or time advance in the input signal leads to
an identical time-shift in the output signal.
A discrete-time system with an input x(n) and output y(n) is said to be time-invariant iff:

y (n − n0 ) = T [ x(n − n0 )]

Exercise
Determine whether the systems with the following input-output relationships are time-invariant
or time-varying.

iii. Memoryless Vs memory systems

A discrete-time system is said to be memoryless if its output y(n) at time instant n = n0 depends
only on the value of its input x(n) at the same time instant n = n0. Otherwise, the discrete-time
system is said to have memory.

Exercise
Determine whether the systems with the following input-output relationships are memoryless or
memory.

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iv. Causal Vs non-causal systems

A discrete-time system is causal if the output at time instant n = n0 depends only on the input
n  n0
x(n) for .

That is, the output of a causal system at the present time depends on only the present and/or past
values of the input but not on its future values. A system that violates the causality condition is
called a non-causal or anti-causal system.
Exercise
Determine whether the systems with the following input-output relationships are causal or non-
causal.

v. Stable Vs unstable systems

A system is referred to as bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable if an arbitrary

bounded-input signal always produces a bounded-output signal.

▪ a discrete-time system with input x(n) and output y(n) is said to be BIBO stable iff:

x(n)  Bx    y(n)  By  

Exercise

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output relationships are BIBO
stable or unstable.

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vi. Invertible Vs non-invertible systems

A discrete-time system is said to be invertible if the input signal x(n) can be uniquely determined
from the output y(n) for all time n ∈ (−∞, ∞).
To be invertible, two different inputs cannot produce the same output since, in such cases, the
input signal cannot be uniquely determined from the output signal.

Exercise

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output relationships are invertible or
non-invertible.

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