RESPON SYSTEM ORDE 2

INTRODUCTION
D'Alembert's Law
Newton's second law states that an object accelerates in the direction of an applied force, and
that this acceleration is inversely proportional to the force, or

 
we will bring the right-hand side to the left and express this as

 
If we consider the m·a term to be a force, we are left with D'Alembert's law

We will call the m·a term D'Alembert's force.  It is an inertial force that arises when you try
to accelerate a mass.  To visualize this consider pushing against a mass (in the absence of
friction) with your hand in the positive direction.  Your hand experiences a force in the
direction opposite to that of the direction of the force (this is the -m·a term).   The inertial
force is always in a direction opposite to the defined positive direction (see the first example
below).
This formulation (the sum of forces at a point is equal to zero) also makes analogy to
electrical systems easier (the sum of all currents into a node is zero); you needn't concern
yourself with this now.
Key Concept: D'Alembert's Law
Equations of motion for translating mechanical system depend on the application of
D'Alembert's law.  Using this principle we say that the sum of force on an object is equal to
zero,

but we must also take the inertial force (m·a) as one of these forces.  This inertial force is in
the opposite direction from the defined positive direction.
Free Body Diagrams
Introduction
We can apply D'Alembert's law to develop equations of motion for translating mechanical
systems through the use of free body diagrams.  To do this we draw a free body diagram for
each unknown position in a system.
Example: Simple Mass-Spring-Dashpot system
Consider a simple system with a mass that is separated from a wall by a spring and a
dashpot.  The mass could represent a car, with the spring and dashpot representing the car's
bumper.  An external force is also shown.   Only horizontal motion and forces are considered.

There is only one position in this system defined by the variable "x" that is positive to the
right.  We assume that x=0 when the spring is in its relaxed state. 
To develop a free body diagram we sum all the forces to zero.  There are four forces:
1. An external force (Fe)
2. A force from the spring.  To determine the direction consider that the position "x" is
defined positive to the right.  If the mass moves in the positive "x" direction, the
spring is compressed and exerts a force on the mass.  So there will be a force from the
spring, k·x, to the left.
3. A force from the dashpot.  By an argument similar to that for the spring there will be a
force from the dashpot, b·v, to the left.   (The velocity, v, is the derivative of x with
respect to time.)
4. Finally, there is the inertal force which is defined to be opposed to the defined
direction of motion.  This is represented by m·a to the left.   (The acceleration, a, is
the second derivative of x with respect to time.)  Don't forget this force, it is easy to
do so.
The completed free body diagram is shown below
  
We sum all of these forces to zero and get

 
or

This equation is in our standard form that has system outputs (the unknown variables) on the
left hand side and system inputs (the known variables) on the right hand side.  this is
sometimes called input-output notation.
We will often use "dot" notation, using one dot above a variable to denote differentiation:

In addition, we will also make it implicit that certain variables are functions of time and omit
the "(t)" in equations.  If we do so, the equations above become:

This is read as "m x double dot plus b x dot plus k x equals F sub e." 

Recall that the definition of the positive direction is arbitrary.  We could just as easilty have
defined the positive direction to the left.  
Note: Differences between the text in this example and the one above are given as bold
italics.
 
Now the free body diagram still has four forces,  but the reaction forces from the spring,
friction and inertia have switched directions.
1. An external force (Fe)
2. A force from the spring.  To determine the direction consider that the position "y" is
defined positive to the left.  If the mass moves in the positive "y" direction, the spring
is stretched and exerts a force on the mass.  So there will be a force from the spring,
k·y, to the right.
3. A force from the dashpot.  By an argument similar to that for the spring there will be a
force from the dashpot, b·vy, to the right.  (The velocity, vy, is the derivative of y with
respect to time.)
4. Finally, there is the inertal force which is defined to be opposed to the defined
direction of motion.  This is represented by m·ay to the right.  (The acceleration, ay, is
the second derivative of y with respect to time.)

Our equations become (with implicit functions of time):

Note the changes of sign in the second equation and all those that follow.
 
Either set of equations (in terms of x or in terms of y) exactly, and identically, describes the
behavior system.  In the first case a positive force (to the right) will cause the system to start
moving in the positive x direction (to the right).  In the second case a positive force (to the
right) will cause the system to start moving in the negative y direction (to the right).   The
definition of positive directions is arbitrary with respect to the behavior of the system.

RESPON SECOND ORDE SYSTEM

Damped and undamped vibration refer to two different types of vibrations. The main

difference between damped and undamped vibration is that undamped vibration refer

to vibrations where energy of the vibrating object does not get dissipated to

surroundings over time, whereas damped vibration refers to vibrations where the

vibrating object loses its energy to the surroundings.

What is Undamped Vibration
In undamped vibrations, no resistive force acts on the vibrating object. As the object
oscillates, the energy in the object is continuously transformed from kinetic energy to
potential energy and back again, and the sum of kinetic and potential energy remains a
constant value. In practice, it’s extremely difficult to find undamped vibrations. For instance,
even an object vibrating in air would lose energy over time due to air resistance.
Let us consider an object undergoing simple harmonic motion. Here, the objet experiences a
restoring force towards the equillibrium point, and the size of this force is proportional to
displacement. If the displacement of the object is given by  , then for an object with mass   
in simple harmonic motion, we can write:

This is a differential equation. A solution to this equation can be written in the form:

Here, 
If vibration is undamped, the object continues to oscillate sinusoidally.
What is Damped Vibration
In damped vibrations, external resistive forces act on the vibrating object. The object loses
energy due to resistance and as a result, the amplitude of vibrations decreases exponentially.
We can model the damping force to be directly proportional to the speed of the object at the
time. If the constant of proportionality for the damping force is  , then we can write:

The solution to this differential equation can be given in the form:

Here, the  .
We can write this as:

.
Writing the equation in this form is useful because the quantity   can be used to
determine the nature of a particular oscillation. Often, this quantity is called the damping

coefficient,  , i.e.  .
If  , then we have critical damping. Under this condition, the oscillating object returns
to its equilibrium position as soon as possible without completing any more oscillations.

When  , we have underdamping. In this case, the object continues to oscillate, but with

an ever-reducing amplitude. For   the resistive forces are very strong. The object would
not oscillate again, but the object is slowed down so much, that it goes towards the
equilibrium much more slowly compared to an object that is critically

damped. Overdamping is the name given to this type of scenario. When  , there is no

resistive force and the object is undamped. Theoretically, the object continues to carry out
simple harmonic motion without any reduction in amplitude.
We can make use of damping in situations where we do not want something to vibrate. Cars
consist of dampers that prevent the car from bobbing up and down repeatedly every time it
falls into a pothole. Dampers are also found on bridges to prevent them from swaying due to
wind. Tall buildings also sometimes have dampers to ensure that the building does not sway
too much and topple during earthquakes. On power lines, “Stockbridge dampers” are used to
ensure that the cables do not undergo large vibrations.
 Stockbridge dampers on a power line
Difference Between Damped and Undamped Vibration
Presence of Resistive Forces
In undamped vibrations, the object oscillates freely without any resistive force acting against
its motion.
In damped vibrations, the object experiences resistive forces.
Energy Loss
In undamped vibrations, the sum of kinetic and potential energies always gives the total
energy of the oscillating object, and the value of its total energy does not change.
In damped vibrations, the total energy of the oscillating object decreases over time. This
energy is dissipated as the object does work against the resistive forces.
Value of the Damping Coefficient
For undamped vibrations,  .
For damped vibrations,  .

EQUATION MOTION OF MASS

d2 x dx
m 2
+c +kx=0
dt dt
Remember equation ABC
−c ± √ c 2−4 mk
2m

k c2
¿−
c
2m
±
√ ( )
−
m 4 mk m
k

2 k c2
When ω n= and ζ 2=
m 4 mk
We can write the above equation as
s=−ζ ωn ± ωn √ ζ 2−1
ꞷn= natural freq
ζ = damping factor
1. Over damped if ζ>1
2. Critical damp if ζ=1
3. Under damped if ζ<1