57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 1

Chapter 9 Flow over Immersed Bodies

Basic Considerations

Recall separation of drag components into form and skin-

friction

⎧
CD =
1
⎨ ∫ (p − p ∞ )n ⋅ îdA + ∫ τ w t ⋅ îdA ⎫⎬
1 2 ⎩S ⎭
ρV A S
2
CDp Cf

1 ⎧ ⎫
CL = (p − p )n ⋅ ĵ dA
1 2 ⎨⎩S∫ ∞ ⎬
⎭
ρV A
2

t
<< 1 Cf > > CDp streamlined body
c

t
∼1 CDp > > Cf bluff body
c
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 2
Streamlining: One way to reduce the drag
Make a body streamlined:

Æ reduce the flow separationÆreduce the pressure drag

Æ increase the surface area Æ increase the friction drag

Æ Trade-off relationship between pressure drag and friction drag

Trade-off relationship between pressure drag and friction drag

Benefit of streamlining: reducing vibration and noise

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 3

Qualitative Description of the Boundary Layer

Recall our previous description of the flow-field regions for

high Re flow about slender bodies
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 4

τw = shear stress

τw ∝ rate of strain (velocity gradient)

∂u
=µ
∂y y=0

large near the surface where

fluid undergoes large changes to
satisfy the no-slip condition

Boundary layer theory is a simplified form of the complete

NS equations and provides τw as well as a means of
estimating Cform. Formally, boundary-layer theory
represents the asymptotic form of the Navier-Stokes
equations for high Re flow about slender bodies. As
mentioned before, the NS equations are 2nd order nonlinear
PDE and their solutions represent a formidable challenge.
Thus, simplified forms have proven to be very useful.

Near the turn of the century (1904), Prandtl put forth

boundary-layer theory, which resolved D’Alembert’s
paradox. As mentioned previously, boundary-layer theory
represents the asymptotic form of the NS equations for high
Re flow about slender bodies. The latter requirement is
necessary since the theory is restricted to unseparated flow.
In fact, the boundary-layer equations are singular at
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 5
separation, and thus, provide no information at or beyond
separation. However, the requirements of the theory are
met in many practical situations and the theory has many
times over proven to be invaluable to modern engineering.

The assumptions of the theory are as follows:

Variable order of magnitude

u U O(1)
v δ<<L O(ε) ε = δ/L
∂
L O(1)
∂x
∂
1/δ O(ε-1)
∂y
ν δ2 ε2

The theory assumes that viscous effects are confined to a

thin layer close to the surface within which there is a
dominant flow direction (x) such that u ∼ U and v << u.
However, gradients across δ are very large in order to
satisfy the no slip condition.

Next, we apply the above order of magnitude estimates to

the NS equations.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 6

∂u ∂u ∂p ⎛ ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎞
u + v = − + µ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟
∂x ∂y ∂x ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
1 1 ε ε-1 ε2 1 ε-2

∂v ∂v ∂p ⎛ ∂2v ∂2v ⎞
u + v = − + µ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟ elliptic
∂x ∂y ∂y ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠
1 ε ε 1 ε2 1 ε-1

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
1 1

Retaining terms of O(1) only results in the celebrated

boundary-layer equations
∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ 2u
u +v = − +µ 2
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂p parabolic
=0
∂y
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y

Some important aspects of the boundary-layer equations:

1) the y-momentum equation reduces to

∂p
=0
∂y
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 7
i.e., p = pe = constant across the boundary layer

from the Bernoulli equation: edge value, i.e.,

1 inviscid flow value!
p e + ρU e2 = constant
2
∂p e ∂U e
i.e., = −ρU e
∂x ∂x

Thus, the boundary-layer equations are solved subject to

a specified inviscid pressure distribution

2) continuity equation is unaffected

3) Although NS equations are fully elliptic, the

boundary-layer equations are parabolic and can be
solved using marching techniques

4) Boundary conditions

u=v=0 y=0

u = Ue y=δ

+ appropriate initial conditions @ xi

There are quite a few analytic solutions to the boundary-

layer equations. Also numerical techniques are available
for arbitrary geometries, including both two- and three-
dimensional flows. Here, as an example, we consider the
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 8
simple, but extremely important case of the boundary layer
development over a flat plate.

Quantitative Relations for the Laminar Boundary

Layer

Laminar boundary-layer over a flat plate: Blasius solution

(1908) student of Prandtl

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂p
Note: =0 ∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
∂x u +v =ν 2
for a flat plate ∂x ∂y ∂y

u=v=0 @y=0 u = U∞ @y=δ

We now introduce a dimensionless transverse coordinate

and a stream function, i.e.,

U∞ y
η= y ∝
νx δ

ψ = νxU ∞ f (η)
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η
u= = = U ∞ f ′(η) f ′ = u / U∞
∂y ∂η ∂y
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 9

∂ψ 1 νU ∞
v=− = (ηf ′ − f )
∂x 2 x

substitution into the boundary-layer equations yields

ff ′′ + 2f ′′′ = 0 Blasius Equation

f = f′ = 0 @ η = 0 f′ =1 @ η = 1

The Blasius equation is a 3rd order ODE which can be

solved by standard methods (Runge-Kutta). Also, series
solutions are possible. Interestingly, although simple in
appearance no analytic solution has yet been found.
Finally, it should be recognized that the Blasius solution is
a similarity solution, i.e., the non-dimensional velocity
profile f′ vs. η is independent of x. That is, by suitably
scaling all the velocity profiles have neatly collapsed onto a
single curve.

Now, lets consider the characteristics of the Blasius

solution:
u
vs. y
U∞
v U∞
vs. y
U∞ V
5x
δ= value of y where u/U∞ = .99
Re

U∞ x
Re x =
ν
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 10

µU f ′′(0)
τw = ∞
2ν x / U
∞

2τ w 0.664 θ
i.e., cf = 2
= = see below
ρU ∞ Re x x

1L
C f = ∫ c f dx = 2c f ( L)
L0
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 11
1.328
=
Re L

U∞L
ν
Other:
δ⎛ u ⎞ x
*
δ = ∫ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟dy = 1.7208 displacement thickness
0⎝ U∞ ⎠ Re x

measure of displacement of inviscid flow to due

boundary layer

δ⎛ u ⎞ u x
θ = ∫ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ dy = 0.664 momentum thickness
0⎝ U∞ ⎠ U∞ Re x

measure of loss of momentum due to boundary layer

δ*
H = shape parameter = =2.5916
θ

Quantitative Relations for the Turbulent

Boundary Layer

2-D Boundary-layer Form of RANS equations

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 12

∂u ∂u ∂ ⎛ pe ⎞ ∂ 2u ∂
u + v = − ⎜ ⎟ + ν 2 − (u ′v′)
∂x ∂y ∂x ⎝ ρ ⎠ ∂y ∂y
requires modeling

Momentum Integral Analysis

Background: History and Modern Approach: FD

To obtain general momentum integral relation which is

valid for both laminar and turbulent flow

∞ For flat plate or δ for general case

∫ (momentum equation + (u − v) continuity )dy
y =0

τw 1 dθ θ dU dp dU
= c f = + (2 + H ) − = ρU
ρU 2 2 dx U dx dx dx
dU
flat plate equation =0
dx

δ u⎛ u⎞
θ=∫ ⎜1 − ⎟dy momentum thickness
0 U ⎝ U⎠

δ*
H= shape parameter
θ

δ
* ⎛ u⎞
δ = ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟dy displacement thickness
0⎝ U⎠
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 13
Can also be derived by CV analysis as shown next for flat
plate boundary layer.

Momentum Equation Applied to the Boundary Layer

y = h + δ*= streamline
starts in uniform flow
merges with δ at 3

Steady
ρ = constant
neglect g
v << u = uo ⇒ p = constant
i.e., -∇p = 0

CV = 1, 2, 3, 4

x
− D = drag = b ∫ τ w dx pressure force = 0 for v << Uo
0
force on CV wall shear stress u ∼ Uo

∑ Fx = − D = ρ ∫ u (V ⋅ dA ) + ρ ∫ u (V ⋅ dA )
1 3

( )
= ρ − U o2 bh + ρb ∫ u 2 dy
3

δ
D( x ) = ρU o2 bh − ρb ∫ u 2 dy
0
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 14
next eliminate h using continuity

0 = ρ ∫ V ⋅ dA + ρ ∫ V ⋅ dA
1 3
δ
ρU o bh = ρb ∫ udy
0 depends on u(y)
δ
U o h = ∫ udy
0

δ δ
D(x ) = ρbU o ∫ udy − ρb ∫ u 2 dy
0 0
δ
= ρb ∫ u (U o − u )dy
0

D 2δ u ⎛ u ⎞
CD = = ∫ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟dy
1 2 L 0 Uo ⎝ Uo ⎠
ρU o bL
2
θ = momentum thickness

2θ
CD =
L
x
b ∫ τ w dx
D 2θ
CD = = 0
=
1 2 1 2 L
ρU o A ρU o bL
2 2
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x τw
∫1 (x )dx = 2θ(x )
0
ρU o2
2
⎛ ⎞
⎜
1 τ w ⎟ dθ
⎜ ⎟=
2 ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ dx
⎜ ρU o ⎟
⎝2 ⎠

c f dθ
= cf = local skin friction coefficient
2 dx

momentum integral relation for

flat plate boundary layer

δ u ⎛ u ⎞
θ=∫ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟dy
0 uo ⎝ uo ⎠

Approximate solution for a laminar boundary-layer

Assume cubic polynomial for u(y)

u
= A + By + Cy 2 + Dy 3
U∞

∂ 2u 3
u= 2 =0 y=0 A=0 B= δ
∂y 2
∂u 1
u = U∞ ; =0 y=δ C=0 D = − δ3
∂y 2
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 16
3
u 3 y 1⎛ y⎞
i.e., = + ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ 3 3 y2 ⎞ U3
U 2 δ 2⎝ δ⎠ u y = U⎜⎜ + ⎟ =
⎟
⎝ 2 δ 2 δ ⎠ y = 0 2δ

τw 1 dθ dp
2
= c f = momentum integral equation for =0
ρU 2 dx dx

1 ⎡ 3⎤ dδ δ u⎛ u⎞
µU
⎢⎣ 2δ ⎥⎦ = . 139 θ=∫ ⎜1 − ⎟dy
ρU 2 dx 0 U ⎝ U⎠

du
τw = µ
dy
Compare with
Exact Blassius
4.65x 5x
i.e., δ= 7% ↓
Re x Re x

.323ρV 2 .332ρU 2
τw = 3%↓
Re x Re x

.646 .664
cf =
Re x Re x

1.29 1.33
Cf =
Re L Re L
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 17
1 L
Cf = τ (x )dx
1 2 0∫ w
ρU bL
2
span length

total skin-friction drag coefficient

Approximate solution Turbulent Boundary-Layer

Ret ∼ 3 X 106 for a flat plate boundary layer

Recrit ∼ 500,000
c f dθ
=
2 dx

as was done for the approximate laminar flat plate

boundary-layer analysis, solve by expressing cf = cf (δ) and
θ = θ(δ) and integrate, i.e.

assume log-law valid across entire turbulent boundary-layer

u 1 yu* neglect laminar sub layer

= ln +B
u *
κ ν and velocity defect region

at y = δ, u = U

U 1 δu *
= ln +B
u* κ ν
1/ 2
⎛c ⎞
Re δ ⎜ f ⎟
⎝2⎠
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 18
1/ 2
⎛2 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ cf ⎞ ⎤
1/ 2
or ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2.44 ln ⎢Re δ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + 5
⎝ cf ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
cf (δ)

c f ≅ .02 Re δ −1/ 6 power-law fit

Next, evaluate
dθ d δ u ⎛ u ⎞
= ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟dy
dx dx 0 U ⎝ U ⎠

can use log-law or more simply a power law fit

1/ 7
u ⎛ y⎞
=⎜ ⎟ Note: can not be
U ⎝δ⎠ used to obtain cf (δ)
since τw → ∞
7
θ = δ = θ(δ )
72
1 2 dθ 7 dδ
⇒ τw = cf ρU = ρU 2 = ρU 2
2 dx 72 dx
dδ
Re δ −1/ 6 = 9.72
dx
δ i.e., much faster
or = .16 Re −x1 / 7
x growth rate than
laminar
6/7
δ∝x almost linear boundary layer

.027
cf =
Re1x/ 7
.031 7
C f = 1/ 7 = C f (L )
Re L 6
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 19
Alternate forms given in text depending on experimental
information and power-law fit used, etc. (i.e., dependent on
Re range.)

Some additional relations given in texts for larger Re are as

follows:
Total .455 1700
shear-stress Cf = − Re > 107
( log10 Re L )
2.58
Re L
coefficient

δ
= c f (.98 log Re L − .732 )
L
Local
shear-stress c f = (2 log Re x − .65)−2.3
coefficient

Finally, a composite formula that takes into account both

the initial laminar boundary-layer (with translation at
ReCR = 500,000) and subsequent turbulent boundary layer
.074 1700
is C f = 1/ 5 − 105 < Re < 107
Re L Re L
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Drag of 2-D Bodies

First consider a flat plate both parallel and normal to the

flow

1
C Dp = ∫ (p − p ∞ )n ⋅ î = 0
1 2 S
ρV A
2

1
Cf = τ w t ⋅ î dA
1 2 S∫
ρV A
2

1.33
= laminar flow
Re1L/ 2

.074
= turbulent flow
Re1L/ 5

flow pattern

vortex wake
typical of bluff body flow
where Cp based on experimental data
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 21

1
C Dp = ∫ (p − p ∞ )n ⋅ î dA
1 2 S
ρV A
2
1
= ∫ C p dA
AS
= 2 using numerical integration of experimental data
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 22
Cf = 0

For bluff body flow experimental data used for cD.

In general, Drag = f(V, L, ρ, µ, c, t, ε, T, etc.)

from dimensional analysis
c/L

Drag ⎛ t ε ⎞
CD = = f ⎜ Re, Ar, , , T, etc.⎟
1 2 ⎝ L L ⎠
ρV A
2

scale factor
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 23

⎛ a2 ⎞
Potential Flow Solution: ψ = − U ∞ ⎜⎜ r − ⎟⎟ sin θ
⎝ r ⎠
1 1 1 ∂ψ
p + ρV 2 = p ∞ + ρU ∞2 ur =
2 2 r ∂θ

p − p∞ u 2r + u θ2
Cp = = 1− ∂ψ
1 2 U 2 uθ = −
ρU ∞ ∞ ∂r
2
C p (r = a ) = 1 − 4 sin 2 θ surface pressure

Flow Separation

Flow separation:
ÆThe fluid stream detaches itself from the surface of the body at
sufficiently high velocities. Only appeared in viscous flow!!

Flow separation forms the region called ‘separated region’

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 24
Inside the separation region:
Ælow-pressure, existence of recirculating/backflows
Æviscous and rotational effects are the most significant!

Important physics related to flow separation:

Æ’Stall’ for airplane (Recall the movie you saw at CFD-PreLab2!)
ÆVortex shedding
(Recall your work at CFD-Lab2, AOA=16°! What did you see in
your velocity-vector plot at the trailing edge of the air foil?)
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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
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Magnus effect: Lift generation by spinning

Breaking the symmetry causes the lift!

Effect of the rate of rotation on the lift and drag coefficients of a

smooth sphere:
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 35
Lift acting on the airfoil

Lift force: the component of the net force (viscous+pressure) that

is perpendicular to the flow direction

Variation of the lift-to-drag ratio with angle of attack:

The minimum flight velocity:

ÆTotal weight W of the aircraft be equal to the lift

1 2W
W = FL = C L ,max ρVmin
2
A → Vmin =
2 ρC L ,max A
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Effect of Compressibility on Drag: CD = CD(Re,

Ma)

U∞
Ma =
a
speed of sound = rate at which infinitesimal
disturbances are propagated from their
source into undisturbed medium

Ma < 1 subsonic < 0.3 flow is incompressible,

Ma ∼ 1 transonic (=1 sonic flow) i.e., ρ ∼ constant
Ma > 1 supersonic
Ma >> 1 hypersonic

CD increases for Ma ∼ 1 due to shock waves and wave drag

Macritical(sphere) ∼ .6

Macritical(slender bodies) ∼ 1

For U > a: upstream flow is not warned of approaching

disturbance which results in the formation of
shock waves across which flow properties
and streamlines change discontinuously
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