INTRODUCTION

The word Curriculum was derived from the Latin word “curere” which means “course or track”

to be followed. Travers and Westbury (1989) put curriculum in three perspectives as the

‘intended’, ‘implemented’, and the ‘attained’. The intended aspect is what an institution like the

Ghana Education Service (GES) outlines in their various syllabi to be used by the schools under

her jurisdiction. The implemented aspect is the little lot teachers teach in classes with the attained

being the part of the syllabus the learner is able to retain out of the implemented part of the

curriculum. However, the hidden curriculum as one of the levels, which is unwritten, its influence

on learning can be manifest itself in students’ attitudes and behavior, both during and after

completing their studies Tanner and Tanner (1995). Eclectic viewpoints however, describe

curriculum as that which combines academic and non-academic pursuits. This includes the course

of study and activities like speech days, excursions, fieldtrips, sporting activities and moral

training.

Considering above claims, curriculum is the sum total of all learning experiences and the intended

learning outcomes that are offered to the learners under the auspices of a school. Meaning is the

planned of all experiences the learners pass through under the auspices of the school. Curriculum

is also the vehicle through which educational goals/objectives/aims are being achieved.

In view of the above explanations, school curriculum must be creatively and carefully be

incorporated or integrated (Ugwu, 2003), considering the identified needs of the industry and the

globe at large. Today curriculum is perceived as the experiences in which pupils are expected to

engage in at school and the general order of sequence in which these experiences are to come. In

other words, the mathematics curriculum can be described as all the mathematical experiences of

a learner under the guidance of the school.

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Types of Curriculum.

There are three types of curriculum. These types are:

1. Explicit - This type of curriculum is what appears in documents and teachers' plans. It is

closely aligned with the historical curriculum definitions 1-3 and 5.

2. Implicit (or hidden) - This type of curriculum has to do with how particular assumptions

about schooling and learning manifest in practice. For example, when a teacher has her or

his desk at the front of the classroom and "teaches" from-this area, the message that is

being learned by students is that the teacher is in control, including being the knowledge

authority, and is the center of attention.

3. Null - The null curriculum is what is not taught. Not teaching some particular idea or sets

of ideas may be due to mandates from higher authorities, to a teacher's lack of knowledge,

or to deeply ingrained assumptions and biases. Many teachers are under pressure not to

teach evolution.

The mathematics curriculum framework

The curriculum framework for mathematics education is the overall structure for organizing

teaching and learning for the subject of mathematics. It comprises a set of interlocking components

including subject knowledge and skills, which are expressed in the form of learning targets and

learning objectives under the strands dimensions (generic skills, positive values and skills).

Curriculum development process

Phases of curriculum processes

There are four essential phases of the curriculum development process: these are ( I) Planning,

(II) Content and Methods, (III) Implementation, and (IV) Evaluation and Reporting

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The curriculum process starts with the planning or conceptions of the curriculum. The influence

of progressive education in the twentieth century brought about various conceptions of the

curriculum. The following are some of the conceptions of the basic mathematics curriculum.

Curriculum as Content

Over the years and currently, the dominant conception of the curriculum is that of content or

subject matter taught by teachers and learned by students. For example, Philip Phenix (1962)

defined the curriculum as what is studied, the "content" or "subject matter" of instruction. Using

the mathematics curriculum as an example, the pupil is expected to learn the following topics:

1. Numbers and numerals

2. Number operations

3. Measurement

4. Shape and space

5. Collecting and handling of data

6. Problem solving and application.

The curriculum as the cumulative tradition of organized knowledge

During the early years of the twentieth century most educators held to the traditional concept of

the curriculum as the body of subjects or subject matter set out by teachers for students to cover.

Both the essentialist and the perennialism still share the same view on the position that the

curriculum must be centered on intellective training and that the path to intellective power is to

found in certain academic studies. Also both philosophies are typically considered to be teacher

centered, as opposed to child-centered.

The curriculum as guided learning experience

Caswell and Campbell in 1935 states that the curriculum is “composed of all the experience

children have under the guidance of teachers.” Also a report on the Eight-year, published in 1942,

concluded that “the curriculum is now seen as the total experience with which the school deals in
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educating young curriculum may refer to what is intended, as planned course and other activities

or intended opportunities or experience or to what was actualized for the learner as in actual

educational treatment or all experience of the learner under the direction of the school.

Curriculum as Ends

The conception of curriculum as a plan is extended considerably further by Popham and Baker,

who define curriculum as “all planned learning outcomes for which the school is responsible,”

and who maintain that “curriculum refers to the desired consequence of instruction. They go on

to contend that “the distinction between ends and means is not difficult to make, and can help the

teacher greatly in his instructional planning.” This view is highly mechanistic, for the focal point

is ends and the assessment of end product; only those end products that can be measured

quantitatively as behavioral objectives are considered legitimate. Curriculum is reduced to ends

and instruction is reduced to means.During the curriculum development process, after the

curriculum is well planned or after the conception of the curriculum, there is the need for the

curriculum to be constructed.

Importance of Curriculum

A curriculum is considered the ‘hearth’ of any learning institution which means that schools

cannot exist without a curriculum. With its importance in education, curriculum helps teachers to

deliver an effective and quality education. A curriculum sets standards, goals and learning

outcomes that enable teachers to judge whether or not learners are able to move onto the next

level.

Also an effective curriculum provides teachers, learners, administrators and community

stakeholders with a measureable plan and structure for delivering a quality education. Teacher

play a key role in developing, implementing, assessing and modifying the curriculum.

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Understanding the big picture helps teachers align the learning objectives of their own curriculum

with the school’s curriculum.

In addition, curriculum development play a vital role in improving the economy of the country.

Its also provides answers or solutions to the worlds pressing conditions and problems, such as

environment, politics, socio-economics and other issues of poverty, climate change and

sustainable development (Bilboa P.P et al 2008).

According to Bilboa P.P. et al (2008) there must be a chain of development process to develop a

society. The school curriculum must be developed to preserve the country’s national identity and

to ensure its economy’s growth and stability. Thus, the president of a country must have a clear

vision for his people and the country as well.

Furthermore, curriculum is developed in such a way that it will boost the tourism industry.

Models of curriculum

The objective model. The model contains content that is based on specific objective.

Process model. The model presupposes that content has its own value. Therefore, it should not

be selected on the basis of the achievement of objectives. Content involves procedure, concepts

and criteria that can be used to appraise the curriculum

Tyler’s model. Objectives form the basis for the selection and organization of learning

experiences. Objective form the basis for assessing the curriculum. Objective are derived from the

learner, contemporary life and subject specialist.

Wheeler’s model. Wheeler contends that aims should be discussed as behaviour referring to the

end product of learning which yields the ultimate goals. Aims are formulated from general to the

specific in curriculum planning. Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which

determine that content.

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Karr’s model. He outlines four domains namely objective, knowledge, evaluation and school

learning experiences. The objective are divided into affective, cognitive and psychomotor.

Knowledge should be organized, integrated, sequence and reinforced. Evaluation is the collection

of information for use in making decision. Learning experience are influenced by societal

opportunities, school community, pupil and teacher relationships, individual differences, teaching

methods, content and maturity of the learners. These experiences are evaluated through tests,

interviews assessments and other reasonable methods

CONSTRUCTION OF THE CURRICULUM

A well planned curriculum provides all such opportunities through many fold activities which

satisfies the need of the learner

Need and importance of curriculum development (or construction)

 Curriculum development is a purposeful activity.

 It is undertaken to design or redesign for the realization of certain specific educational

objectives.

 The curriculum is the heart of the student’s college/school experience.

 The curriculum should be reviewed and revised on a regular basis so that it is able to

serve the changing needs of both students and society.

 Following points iterates the needs and importance of curriculum development.

1. Clear purpose and goals:- Curriculum construction provide written curricular goals

which are nothing but intended student development outcomes. These goals and

objectives are specified in considerable detail and in behavioral language.

2. Continuous assessment and improvement of quality:- Valid and reliable assessment of

curriculum is necessary. The curriculum followed by an institution should be reviewed

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 regularly in order to maintain its effectiveness in regards to changing needs of the society

as a whole.

3. A rational sequence:- In a curriculum educational activities are carefully ordered in

developmental sequence. This developmental sequence helps to form a well-planned (or

coherent) curriculum based on intended goals and outcomes of the curriculum and its

constituent courses.

4. Making strategy in teaching and learning: Curriculum development helps in suggesting

suitable teaching-learning strategies, teaching methods, instructional materials etc. It

helps in providing for the proper implementation of the curriculum on the part of

teachers and learners.

5. Helps in the selection of learning experiences: Curriculum development is needed for

appropriate selection and organization of learning experiences. It helps in the selection of

study matter and other activities so that learners are able to acquire goals and objectives

of teaching.

6. The process of curriculum development is needed for conceptualizing a curriculum in

terms of the determination of educational objectives for teaching-learning at a particular

grade of school education.

7. Helps in continuous and comprehensive education

PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION

Curriculum organisation is a scientific process which involves basic principles on which its
credibility exists. It is not just collection of topics, because it reflects ethos (philosophy / culture)
of the society: themes of the subject and learning variability.

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1. Principle of Child-Centeredness

Curriculum is mainly for the students. So, the age, interest, capability, capacity, aspiration, needs
and psychology of the learner should be taken in to an account.

2. Principle of Community-Centeredness

The social needs and the local needs of the learner should be taken in to account while we construct
the curriculum. It should be reflect the values of democracy, ethos and main concerns of the
country.

3. Principle of Balance / Integration (Child = Community)

It is also called principle of Integration. The curriculum should integrate:

1. Cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives and abilities

2. Knowledge and experience

3. Objectives and content

4. Child’s activity and needs with the society needs and activity.

It should be related to the social environment of the students. Here the equal/ balance importance

should be given to the need of the Child and need of the Community.

4. Principle of Need

Curriculum helps in fulfilling the various needs of the learner. Each learner has his needs which

are generally related to physical, emotional and social development. A well planned curriculum

provides all such opportunities through many fold activities which satisfies the need of the learner.

It should not be merely the academic but it should include all other equally important activities

too.

5. Principle of Utility

One of the purposes of education is to prepare the child for living and learning. This is the most
important consideration, so that the child can live a fruitful and self-fulfilling life. Curriculum
should provide rich experiences, both academic and social to the students. The content, activities

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and experience of the curriculum at a particular stage / grade are useful to the learner for the
further/higher studies.

6. Principle of Creativity

It should place the pupil in the place of the discoverer and provision should be made the creative
type of activities.

7. Principle of Preservation/Conservation

It should help in the preservation /conservation and transmitting the knowledge, traditions,
standards of conduct on which the culture and civilization depend.

8. Principle of Variety

In a classroom there are different types of the students on the basis of intelligence, ability, aptitude
and attitude. The curriculum should satisfy the variety of knowledge, varying interest, needs of
the students.

9. Principle of Elasticity / Flexibility

Flexibility is an important parting curriculum development. It should give enough time and
sufficient chance to the students, to search their own examples and experience from the
surroundings.

10. Principle of Contemporary Knowledge

Curriculum should give the modern or current knowledge and theories to the students. That will
give the knowledge of utilization of local resources (salt, plants, soil) to the students.

While organizing the curriculum the following principles also should be followed

11. Principle of Sequencing

12. Principle of Continuity

13. Principle of Accuracy

14. Principle of Adequacy

15. Principle of Interest

16. Principle of Readiness

17. Principle of Meaningfulness

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18. Principle of Continuous Evaluation

Approaches to curriculum construction

Curriculum approach refers to the various ways of designing the curriculum (Randhawa, 2016).

Some of these include;

The integrated approach

The spiral and concentric approach

The topical approach

Integrated /Interdisciplinary Approach

The concept of integrating curriculum is nothing new. It’s been around since the 1800s and was

advocated by such well-known educational theorists (John Dewey and Meredith Smith).

Generally it could be defined as a curriculum approach that purposefully draws together

knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values from within or across subject areas to develop a more

powerful understanding of key ideas. Curriculum integration occurs when components of the

curriculum are connected and related in meaningful ways by both the students and teachers.

Importance

• Allowing for flexibility: Through curriculum integration, teachers can plan for the development

of key skills and understandings that transcend individual strands and subjects.

• Building on prior knowledge and experiences: Choosing meaningful connections among subject

areas helps students build on their diverse prior knowledge and experiences, supports their holistic

view of the world and ensures more meaningful learning.

• Reflecting the real world: When curriculum is organized in a holistic way, it better reflects the

real world and the way children learn at home and in the community.

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Concentric and Spiral Approaches

This approach is based on the principle that a subject cannot be given an exhaustive treatment at

the first stage (Brunner, 1960). A simple presentation of the subject-matter is given, gaps are filled

in the following year and more gaps a year or two later, in accordance with the amount of

knowledge which pupils are capable of assimilating. Spiral and concentric approach demands the

division of the topic or the subject into number of smaller independent units to be dealt with in

order of difficulty suiting the mental capacities of the pupils.

Spiral and concentric approach is more natural and less tiring to the pupil. The child loses nothing

in accuracy and gains considerably in the power of intelligent application of rules to problems.

Importance

The spiral and concentric approach provides an opportunity for revision of work already done.

Since the same topic is learnt over many years, its impressions are more lasting

Also, it does not allow teaching to become dull because a new interest is given to the topic every

year.

Topical approach

Topical approach as suggested by its name advocates covering a topic as a whole in a particular

grade. Here a few topics of the subject may be marked for being included in the curriculum of one

grade or the other. It is then expected to cover all the content or learning experiences related to

that very topic only in that very class and not to repeat it in any way in the junior or senior grades.

Thus a topic marked for a particular grade should have its beginning and end it that every grade

without having its need to be taught in the earlier and later grades

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The chief defect in the topical plan is that it introduces in the curriculum a large mass of irrelevant

material for which the pupil finds no time and no immediate need or the use of which cannot be

appreciated by the pupil at that stage.

CURRICULUM DECISIONS

Normally, curriculum design or decisions are concerned with the following:

Constructing a new curriculum where there is none, as in a situation where a new course area is

mounted in the University. In such a case, an appropriate curriculum will be built for this new

course. In another situation where a completely new University is set up, curricular have to be

built for every single course area that will be offered.

Also where there are curricula in use in an institution and a policy decision is made to change the

curriculum of that institution, a completely new curriculum will have to be planned and the old

one set aside. Particular reference is the case of the Junior Secondary School (JSS) and Senior

Secondary Schools (SSS) in Ghana. When the J.S.S. system was introduced, the previous

curricular of the middle school and the secondary schools were set aside and new or alternate ones

created.

There are a number of factors that one needs to consider in making curriculum decisions.

According to Ralph Tyler (1949) the process of curriculum decision or development goes through

four stages. The first stage is to decide on the objectives that the Mathematic curriculum is

intended to achieve. In the stage two the grounds that will be covered in order to achieve the

Aims/Objectives set in the mathematic curricular. The stage three comprises the kinds of activity

and methods that are mostly likely to help achieve the goals or objectives that have been set. The

fourth and final stage is to formulate the devices that would be used to evaluate what has been

produced. These four stages or steps of curriculum decision or design could be diagrammatically

represented as follows:

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 Aim/Objectives
1

Evaluation of learning Selection of learning

experience experience
4 2

Organisation of learning
experience
3

Source: Hama J and Duodu F (2003)

The diagram could be expressed in four questions which will lead to curriculum decision in basic

mathematic.

1. What educational purpose should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are attained?

From the questions, there are clear indications that curriculum decision of basic mathematics are

also based on the factors indicated below.

Firstly, one of the key elements in curriculum decision in mathematics is the aim or objectives.

These are the idea behind the subject mathematics. Aims are broad and general statement of

purpose from which objectives or specific objectives are derived. Based on this decision on

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mathematics, curriculum has to be made in such a way that academically inclined and those who

are not, those with special needs and those without, those who are economically deprived and

those who are well endowed need to be provided for in the mathematic curriculum so that the

education system does not benefit only some category of students.

It is by this reasons that the mathematic curriculum has being design to provide knowledge and

mathematical skills to pupils from various backgrounds and level of ability.

It is therefore logical that formulating the curriculum, identifying objectives, should be based on

society, it values and attitudes, philosophy, psychology, subject matter and the student constitute

the sources from which educational objectives are obtained. These factors has to be considered,

so as to develop in children the skills, concepts, understandings and attitudes which will enable

them to cope confidently with the mathematics of everyday life and foster a sense of personal

achievement to encourage continuing and create interest in mathematics. It should also help pupils

to think mathematical in the world which is technologically and information oriented and this will

form as a basis for these for these children who may wish to further their studies in mathematic or

other subjects where mathematical concepts are essential. These have to be considered in making

decision in basic mathematics curriculum.

Secondly, the next decision that needs to be considered is the selection of learning experiences.

These are the physical and mental activities that the pupils are involved in which brings about

learning. These could be reading, discussions, and practical hands on activities. Also, the expected

behaviour on completion of the programme or course has to be considered as well. Pupils are

expected to work co-operatively with other pupils and develop interest in mathematics where they

can read and write numbers, pupils will be able to use appropriate strategies to perform number

operations. The use of technology to do enhance understanding of numerical computation and

solve real-life problems. All these comes in play in making decision in curriculum.

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Further, another decision that can be made in curriculum design is the organisation and integration

of content and learning experience. This involves the learning strategies and learning/teaching

materials that are used to provide learning experiences for the content selected. Also deciding

what knowledge, concepts, generalization, theories, principles techniques, and procedures in a

particular subject to be used. Criteria for selection are invariably important. The content of the

curriculum would comprise facts, principle and concept that has to be acquired for the specified

objectives or learning experience to be achieved. Every subject area or disciplined is made up of

these facts, principles and concepts and they constitute the pool of content from which selection

is made. A balance mathematical programmed incorporate concept learning and the development,

maintenance and application of skills.

Teachers should also ensure they use language that will facilitate the development and acquisition

of mathematical concepts. Children failure to understand mathematical vocabulary manifest itself

when they fail to answer questions during lessons, when they fail to answer questions during and

when they do poorly in texts and examinations. Possible reasons for this failure could be that:

- They do not understand the spoken or written instructions.

- They are not familiar with the mathematical vocabulary eg. Difference, sum, product, one-

third etc

- They may be confused about mathematical terms which have different meaning in English

eg. Table, volume, odd etc.

- They may be confused about other words eg slides, and size; width and with, collect and

correct etc.

It is for these reasons that curriculum decision has to be considered such that pupils would acquire

vocabulary so that they can fully participate in set task and tests. Also, the use of TLMs provides

a foundation of practical experience on which children can build abstract ideas. It encourages them

to be inventive, helps to develop their confidence and encourage independence.

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Lastly, in curriculum design or decisions, evaluations play an integral part. Evaluation involves

ascertaining the success or otherwise of the curriculum in relation to the set objectives.Nancino-

Brown et al (1982) also describe evaluation in the context of education as a process used to obtain

information from testing, direct observation of behaviour and from devices to access a student

overall progress toward some determined goals or objectives. It includes both qualitative and

quantitative description and involves a value judgement of overall student behaviour.

It can be concluded from the definition that evaluation is about assessment (measurement_ and

also about making value judgement or deciding on the worth of something.

In conclusion, curriculum decisions in basic mathematics come as a result of new technological

development, which called for a complete restructuring and reorganizing mathematics curriculum

to meet the growing need of the country.

CURRICULUM CHANGES AND INNOVATIONS IN BASIC MATHEMATICS

Curriculum Innovation

Harris et al" (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 60) describes innovation as ‘an intentional and

deliberate process to bring out desired effects and change'. Curriculum innovation refers to ideas

or practices that are new and different from those that exist in the formal prescribed curriculum"

Westerly (1969) and Richard (1965) (cited in University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 61),state

thatcurriculum innovation,is any improvement that is deliberate, measurable, durable and

unlikely to occur frequently" it is the creation, selection, organization and utilization of human

and material resources in ways that result in higher achievement of curriculum goals and

objectives". The difference between innovation and change lies in the fact that innovation is

always planned while change may occur in response to external events". For any

curriculuminnovation to be meaningful and effective, it must be planned and organized". It

is possible thatother types of changes may occur when they are not planned".

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According to Adaorah (2012) curriculum innovation connotes a modification of what was existing

before the development of ideals, practices, belief that are fundamentally new".

The Innovation Process:Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps:

a. Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires attention.

b. Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need

c. Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified as the most appropriate.

d.Conduct a trial.

e. Evaluate the proposed solution.

f. Review the evaluation.

g.If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it on a wide scale.

h. Adopt and institutionalize the innovation or search for another solution.

Innovation Planning: Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following

elements are considered in the process (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 83):

a. the personnel to be employed

b. the specification of the actual task

c. the strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task

d. the equipment needed

e. time involved

f. sequencing of activities

g. rationale for undertaking the innovation

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Conditions for Successful Implementation of Innovations:

The following conditions are necessary for users to implement the curriculum change or

innovation successfully. (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 104).

i.The innovation must be relevant to them.

ii.It must be feasible in their particular organizational context.

iii.It must be compatible with the practices, values and characteristics of their system.

iv.It must be seen as posing little or no threat to the user group’s identity, integrity and

territory. The innovation must be shown to be tolerable and non-threatening.

v.The innovation must yield material or non-material benefits. Gains in social status or

recognition could be some of the non-material benefits.

Factors that Impede Curriculum Change: the following are some of the factors that militate

against curriculum change. Tamakloe (1992).

Failure to Involve Teachers/Stakeholders in the Planning Stage: teachers and other

stakeholders in education are the implementers of the curriculum and they in the long run going

to implement whatever changes that are in the curriculum and the instructional process. It is

therefore, imperative to call upon them to make input in the curriculum development based on

their insight into practical problems in the classroom.

Inadequate Preparation: the desire to change so much within a short time may result in

inadequate preparation. This poor preparation always result in unsuccessful attempts to implement

innovation.

Lack of Political Will: for a successful curriculum implementation, the government in power

should have great interest in the change and support it. This support will go a long way to

fascilitate the success of the programme. When the government in power thinks available funds
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should rather be channeled to other sectors of the economy other than education, then curriculum

innovation will suffer.

Inadequate Resources: curriculum change is greatly hindered when both human and material

resources such as teachers, textbooks and other relevant intructional materials reflecting the

change are lacking. In those situations, the planned changes cannot take place as expected. The

reason is that teachers will resort to the old ways of doing things in the absence of such resources.

Disagreement Between and Among Policy Makers: when policy makers themselves do not

agree on key issues in the innovation, the change suffers. This problem arises when there are

conflicting ideas in the pronouncements of key policies. This confuses the implementers of the

change, and therefore, may become divided in their loyalty to the programme. Such confusion

breeds apathy and results in lack of commitment to the implementation process.

Sources of Curriculum Change and Innovation:

At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate policydecisions".

In most Southern African countries, nothing happens within the education system until the central

authority decides to adopt a new idea". This change is usually initiated through a circular or

statutory instrument".

Another impetus for change and innovation is the desire of authorities at

variouslevels to deliberately change established practices in order to address existingproblems or

identify new problems and ways of dealing with these problems.

The introduction of new technology can also lead to curriculum change and innovation.For

example, computers are being used in almost every endeavor of our society. The education system

and its curriculum must adapt to this new reality".

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Strategies and Models for Curriculum Change and Innovation

In order for change and innovation to succeed, the strategies for implementing the curriculum

must be considered carefully". A strategy of innovation refers to the planned procedures and

techniques employed in the quest for change" Harris et al" (1968), as cited

in‘Curriculum Implementation’,developed some models to explain how this takes place"

Strategies:-

Participative Problem-Solving:This strategy focuses on the users, their needs and how they

satisfy these needs". The systemidentifies and diagnoses its own needs, finds its own solution,

tries out and evaluates the solution and implements the solution if it is satisfactory". The emphasis

is on local initiative".

Planned Linkage:In this model, the intermediate agencies, such as schools, bring together the

users of the innovation.

Coercive Strategies:These strategies operate on the basis of power and coercion by those in

authority, using laws, directories, circulars and so forth. Ministries of Education usually use these

strategies

Open Input Strategies:These are open, flexible, pragmatic approaches that make use of external

ideas and resources.

Strands in the Changes in School Mathematics Curriculum

The innovations initiated by the various curriculum committees or projects varied with differences

in the ideologies and interests of the members and the nature of support (funding) obtained.

Howson, Keitel and Kilpatrick (1981) identified five major ‘movements or strands’, these were:

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The Maths Movement: they are largely content-oriented and show little interest pedagogical

matters and dominated by Mathemacians and researchers from universities. Their major concern

is to bring the content of school Mathematics more in line with higher (or university) Mathematics.

The Behaviourists Movement: the major concern of the behaviourist movement was to re-

organise the curriculum in manner that allows knowledge to be broken down into its constituent

elements to assist in the creation of a step-by-step approach to teaching and to increase efficiency

in learning.

The Structuralists: they are of the believe that spiral curriculum and discovery learningare the

best for children to gain full mastery of the structures and behave like mathematicians. They

proposed the ‘guided and stuctured’ activities as the best approaches required for children. The

structured nature of the activities presupposes the activities can lead to the attainment of particular

‘objectives’.

The Developmentalist:Unlike the structuralists, the delopmentalists promotes autonomous

activities that would contribute to a more general educational aims that include the development

of personality ,and of cognitive and affective structures. That is, matheamtical structures are viewd

not as ends themselves, but as a means of attaining more general educational aim.

The Integrated-environmentalists: The philosophy of this movement is that the curriculum

should provide all forms of learning experiences that will contribute to the personal, social and

intellectual development of all students. For instance, the school curriculum may include

experiences such as linguistic, ethical and moral, physical, social and political, scientific,

mathematical, and aesthetic and creative to cater for the total development of the students.

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 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENIATION AND EVALUATION

Another key process in the development of a curriculum is the implementation of the curriculum.

Curriculum implementation involves the dissemination of the structured set of learning

experiences, the provision of resources to effectively execute the plan, and the actual execution of

the plan in the classroom setting where teacher-learner interactions take place (Ivowi, 2009). In

curriculum implementation, the learner for whom the programme is being planned interacts with

the contents and materials in order to acquire the necessary skills, attitudes and abilities (mkpa

and Izuagba, 2009). They went on to define curriculum implementation as the actual engagement

of the learner with planned learning opportunities. This means that curriculum implementation is

that stage of curriculum process where the learner through the guide of a teacher interacts with the

learning activities so as to maximize learning as will be noticed in learners new behaviour/new

approach to issues.

Curriculum implementation, according to Okello and Kagoire (1996:124) “is a network of varying

activities involved in translating curriculum designs into classroom activities and changing

people’s attitudes to accept and participate in these activities”.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN IMPLEMENTING CURRICULUM

Before a curriculum is implemented, there are some factors that should be considered. These are:

The teacher

As whitaker (1979) asserts in the university of Zimbabwe module, the teacher view their role in

curriculum implementation as an autonomous one. They select and decide what to teach from the

prescribed syllabus or curriculum. The role and influence of the teacher in the implementation

process of curriculum is undisputable due to the interaction of the learner and the planned learning

opportunities. Teachers are pivotal in the curriculum implementation process, because they are

able to translate curriculum intention into reality.

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The learner

One of the critical element in curriculum implementation is the learner. While teachers are

mediators of the classroom practice, the learner holds the key to what is actually transmitted and

adopted from the official curriculum. The learner factor influences teachers in their selection of

learning experiences, hence the need to consider the diverse characteristics of learners in

curriculum implementation. For example, home background and learner ability can determine

what is actually achieved in the classroom.

Resources Material and Facilities

Teaching and learning take place with adequate resource materials. This implies to curriculum

implementation. Implement curriculum as plan, the government (Ministry of Education) or the

Ghana Education Service should supply schools with adequate resource materials such as

textbooks, teaching aids and stationery in order to enable teachers and learners to pay their role

satisfactorily in curriculum implementation process. Again the central government must also

provide physical facilities such as classrooms, chairs, laboratories, sport facilities in order to create

an environment in which implementation can take place. The availability and quality of resource

materials and the availability of appropriate facilities have great influence on curriculum

implementation

The school environment

One other factor that influences curriculum implementation concerns the particular circumstances

of each school. Schools situated in rich socio-economic environments and those that have

adequate human and material resources can implement the curriculum to an extent that would be

difficult or impossible for schools in poor economic environments.

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Interest group

The interest group that influence curriculum implementation are as follows: Parents Teachers

Association, District Education Oversight Committee (DECOCs), Unit committees, zonal

coordinators, religious organizations, local authorities, companies and private school proprietors.

The group can influence implementation in following ways:

1. Provide school with financial resources to purchase required materials

2. Demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum

3. Influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the interests of the group.

Culture and ideology

Cultural and ideological differences within the society or country can also influence curriculum

implementation. Some communities may resist a domineering culture or government ideology and

hence affect the implementation of the centrally planned curriculum

Instructional supervision

Curriculum implementation cannot be achieved unless it has been made possible through the

supervisory function of the school head. The head does this through:

 Deploying staff

 Allocating time to subjects taught at the school

 Provision of teaching and learning materials

 Creating conducive environment for effective teaching and learning

 Vetting teachers lesson note

As stated in curriculum implementation. The head monitors and guides curriculum

implementation through ensuring that schemes of work, lesson plans and records of marks are

prepared regularly. The head teacher maintains a school tone and culture that create the climate

24
of social responsibility. Effective curriculum implementation does not take place in a school where

the head is incapable of executing supervision

Assessment

Assessment is a form of examination that influences curriculum implementation tremendously.

Due to great value given to public examination certificates by communities and schools, teachers

have to tend to concentrate on subjects that promote academic excellence. The action of the

teacher obviously can affect the achievement of the broad goals and objectives of the curriculum.

Agents of Curriculum Implementation

Putting the curriculum in operation requires certain agents for implementation. These are:

Teacher’s role

Another name for the teacher is curriculum implementer. The teacher is one who translates the

curriculum document into operating curriculum through a joint effort of hers/his, the learners and

other interest groups as viewed by mpka (1987). This implies that the task of implementing the

curriculum lies on the teacher. The teacher does not just implement the content as it is, rather he

breaks the content into teachable units. Precisely what comes to the teacher is not the curriculum

rather the syllabus which he breaks

Parent-Teacher Association

These are voluntary association that comprise parents and or guardians and teachers of particular

school with the main aim of ensuring the welfare of the pupils as regard to facilities implementers

(teachers) need for quality teaching and learning. They also contribute financially towards school

developmental projects. P.T.A furnishes the schools with their wards. In school settings learners

are regarded as the main source pupils for curriculum implementation. Curriculum cannot be

implemented without learner.

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District Education Oversight Committees (DEOCs)

This body was established under the Ghana education service act, (act 506 of 1995). It the highest

decision making body on educational matters in the district. It is responsible for ensuring that all

resources needed for the smooth administration of pre-tertiary education in the district are

provided and are available. Curriculum cannot be implemented without the provision of school

facilities. Hence, DEOC ensures supply of textbooks and teaching and learningmaterials,

provision of teachers and the regular and punctual attendance of teachers and pupils at school,

supervises implementation of curriculum and oversee the proper performance of duties by the

staff.

District Teacher Support Team and Curriculum Leader (DTSTS)

These bodies make sure that any new educational reform is implemented though in service

training. They play leadership role in the training of head teachers and teachers, providing support

for school-based INSET (SBI) and cluster-based INSET (SBI). It is put in place to provide support

for improving the quality of teaching and learning at the district level. Curriculum leaders sensitize

their colleague teachers and organize effective SBI and CBI during implementation of curriculum

and how challenging topics are taught

Unit Committee or Religious Education Units

The unit school contribute to the implementation of curriculum through provision of facilities like

school buildings, books and other equipment. Religious schools or school built by churches

influence curriculum implementation by providing school facilities and materials for their teachers

for quality implementation of curriculum.

Donor support

When it comes to implementation curriculum donors such as japan international development

cooperation agency (JICA), United States agency for international development (USAID). The
26
United Nations children’s emergency fund are not left out. The greater part of these donor

assistance have been directed to basic education to support the development of new

curriculum,syllabi,text books, in service training for teachers, restructuring and strengthening of

management and the provision of infrastructural facilities such as classroom, furniture and head

teachers and teachers houses for smooth implementation of curriculum

Problems that militate against effective curriculum implementation

1. Financial constraints

It is very difficult to implement a curriculum successfully if the education system has limited

funding capacities. Effective curriculum development and implementation needs a lot of money..

Under funding raise a lot of other implications on the part of curriculum. In developing countries,

the numbers of pupils and teachers have kept on rising but government money available for

education is less. Since manpower in the education sector has increased, the bulk of money

allocated to education is absorbed by salaries leaving very little for teaching materials, books, in-

service training, monitoring and other things needed for the smooth implementation the of

curriculum. In the absence of teaching and learning materials, the teaching and learning processes

will be hampered and if standard officers do not go out to evaluate, it will be difficult to know

whether the curriculum is being effectively implemented or not.

2. Lack of infrastructure

The curriculum after design cannot be fully and effectively implemented without relevant

equipment and instructional materials. Unavailability of school facilities and equipment like

classrooms, libraries, resource centers, offices, desks, schools halls and others. The fact that the

education sector is under-funded by the government means that the availability and quality or

facilities in learning institutions is affected negatively. It has been observed that in most

government schools in Ghana with an exception of the newly built, infrastructure is in a deplorable

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condition, Kelly (1999:196) describes the buildings as “dilapidated, unsafe and sometimes

unusable.” In certain instances, some schools have inadequate classroom accommodation, which

gives rise to double or triple shift in order to give all eligible children an opportunity to learn.

Meanwhile, some schools, especially in remote areas, have no buildings at all. Furniture is also

inadequate in most schools and in some cases the seats and desks are battered or totally absent

(Kelly 1996). These materials must be procured and distributed to schools. Failure to provide

those equipment make curriculum implementation difficult.

3. Lack of equipment and materials

Teaching and learning resources are also a challenge. There is limited procurement and supply of

these resources in schools. Instructional materials and equipment are all in short supply or may

not be available at all – no books or writing material, no chalk, no science apparatus, inadequate

or out of-date library (Kelly 1999). Worse still, with population explosion, classrooms are

overcrowded and learners are made to share whatever little stocks of material and furniture

available. In such situations, teacher effectiveness in hampered and it becomes almost impossible

for the teacher to render individual pupil attention because of large numbers of pupils in classes –

over enrolment. This kind of situation in institutions of learning will make it very difficult for

curriculum implementers to carry out their roles effectively.

4. Quality and quantity of teachers

Quality and quantity of teaching staff to meet the expectations of pupils and the society is another

impediment. Teachers are the most important human resource in curriculum implementation since

they are the ones who adopt and implement the ideas and aspirations of the designers. This imply

that success of the curriculum depends on the teachers (Okello and Kagoire 1996). A sufficient

supply of trained teachers is therefore, needed if the implementation of the curriculum is to be

effective. In Zambia, however, learning institutions have been for a long time experiencing a
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shortage of the teaching staff and the rural areas are the most affected since teachers shun those

areas. Teacher pupil ratio is too high and in some cases, untrained teachers are involved. When a

school does not have enough teachers, the few that are there are overstretched/overloaded, hence

they are overworked which in turn affects their capacity to teach effectively. In the case of high

schools, for example, where there is specialization in terms of teaching subjects, some subjects

are not offered in certain schools even though they appear in the curriculum because of trained

teachers in those subjects are not available. Such hindrances are also found in higher institutions

of learning. Okello and Kagoire (1996:125) says, “The quality of education of a country largely

depends on the quality of teachers.” In other words, the quality of education is as good as the

quality of teacher. If the quality of teachers is poor, the quality of education will be poor. What

this means, therefore is that the quality of teachers will determine the effectiveness of curriculum

implementation. For instance, the intended curriculum includes content for learners with special

needs but trained personnel to handle such learners is inadequate. Hence, in some cases, they end

up being taught by untrained teachers. This problem is also experienced in high schools are not

fully qualified since they are diploma holders who are trained to handle junior classes and as such

quality is compromised. In other Instances, some teachers fail to perform effectively despite their

being fully qualified because they are either not well-educated or they are well-educated and

trained but demoralized. While the ill-trained teachers lack subject matter, the well trained

teachers fail to implement the curriculum out of frustration because he has not been given the

material resources needed for the professional discharge of his duties (Kelly 1999). For example,

a teacher of English who has no material for comprehension lessons, will abandon the component

all together and concentrate on teaching components such as structure where material is available.

Similarly, in the absence of apparatus and chemicals needed for experiments, a science teacher

will teach experiments theoretically, denying the learners the practical aspect of the content.

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 5. Working conditions

Government does not take care of the teachers as should be. Teachers are being neglected by the

government. Teachers’ salaries are being delayed together with their allowances, hence part of the

money is being used to purchase TLMs for the lesson. Due to this kind of working conditions,

teacher have no job satisfaction and so their working condition poses a big challenge to them as

well as curriculum implementation. If various education policies and programmes are to be

effectively implemented, teachers ought to be adequately trained and motivated. After pre-service

training which provides foundation for professional service, teachers need to keep abreast with

new developments in the system through in-service training.

6. Time management

Poor time management by school administrators and teachers is another factor. Curriculum

implementation is also hindered by what goes on in learning institutions. Pupils’ learning time is

mismanaged by administrators and the class teacher. In most schools, a lot of time is taken up by

activities such as assemblies, meetings held by visiting government officials, health talks, variety

shows held during lesson time, teacher-service programmes which last the whole day and learners

are either sent away or asked to stay away from school, unplanned holidays such as when a teacher

dies, teachers’ day, women’s day, mother’s day and many other unforeseen eventualities that take

place at the expense of learners. When it comes to classroom time management, the class teacher

is the main player. A teacher who is not time conscious is not disciplined and a drawback in as far

as curriculum implementation is concerned. For instance, a teacher of English who goes to class

five minutes for each lesson in a particular class every day, will have lost 25minutes at the of the

week. That is a lot of learners time wasted and will derail the implementation of the curriculum

since curriculum developers take time into consideration when developing the curriculum.

Teacher absenteeism from work for various reasons also costs the pupils learning time. Learner

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absenteeism from school also deprives the learner of learning time. In addition, the need to devote

inordinate amount of time to the management of problems of large classes effectively reduce

students’ time on the learning task which results in the failure to complete the intended content

for the lesson and will necessitate the allocation of more time to the same task(Kelly:1999). Apart

from that mock and final examinations also take up learning time for non-examination classes.

7. Demands Of External Examination Bodies/Entrance Requirement

Demands of external examination bodies such as West African Examination council and the

entrance examination to higher institutions makes implementation and evaluation of the curricular

for the school very difficult. External examination bodies and some higher institutions may come

out with some demands and entrance requirements, which could result in either revision of the

school curriculum or introduction of new courses altogether. Sometimes these new requirements

and demands may take place not quite long after the introduction of the current curriculum

CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Wolf, Hill, and Ever (2006), define curriculum evaluation as a process of gathering and analyzing

information from multiple sources in order to improve student learning in sustainable ways.

Models of curriculum evaluation

McPherson (1979), in his introduction to evaluation in education, listed 3 major types of

evaluation models.

1. The quantitative/objectives model-advocated by Tyler (1949).

This aims to measure learner’s and instructors’ progress towards pre-specified objectives. This is

the most instinctive evaluation model as most evaluation starts with deciding what we want to

evaluate (i.e. the objectives or purposes). There is high dependence on measurement of

quantifiable data. The problem here is that the objectives would tend to be set in a way that can

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be easily measured and achieved. Educationally worthwhile but less tangible objectives could be

ignored in lieu or more tangible and measureable objectives.

2. Goal free evaluation model-advocated by scriven (1978)

This model aims to assess the effects of the objectives of the program irrespective of whether they

are intended or unintended. This model of evaluation does not seem to be complete in itself and

needs to be used together with either objectives model or process model. However, it is useful

when we want to evaluate the planning and management performance rather than the success of

the implementation.

\3. The qualitative/humanistic/process model- advocated by stake (1978)

This model is reflected by the humanities curriculum project. It aims to report the different ways

in which a program is seen and judged. As far as the pupils or parents are concerned, the

curriculum is usually a snapshot and thus will differ from that of the pupils and the parents. The

process model seeks to report these differing views of the program thus providing a more

comprehensive evaluation.

Curriculum Evaluation Approaches

Gatawa (1990) has identified five curriculum evaluation approaches namely:

1. Bureaucratic evaluation

2. Autocratic evaluation

3. Democratic evaluation

4. Norm-referenced evaluation

5. Criterion-referenced evaluation

1. Bureaucratic evaluation

It is established by ministry of education or Ghana education service (GES). The GES could

evaluate a subjects or a course of study or subjects taught in schools to find out whether they need

improvement or modifications.

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 2. Autocratic evaluation

This is done to know educational needs of the curriculum eg. The needs could be TLMs, textbooks,

science equipment etc. the ministry urge consultant to conduct this evaluation. The government

or ministry is not obliged to accept the results of evaluation

3. Democratic evaluation

It focuses on the experiences and reaction the curriculum initiators have gone through. The

evaluation does not lead to firm recommendation to be considered by the programme implementer

4. Norm-referenced evaluation

It evaluates performance of current students’ or previous students’ and can be compared

Criterion- referenced evaluation

It measures students’ actual performance and compares it with the objectives of the instruction

identified in the curriculum

Types of Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation may either be formative or summative. These terms were coined by Scriven

(1967).

Formative evaluation

This is evaluation that is carried out while a course, curriculum, educational package, etc. is

actually being developed, its main purpose being to find out whether it needs to be, and if so,

whether it realistically can be improved. The key feature of all such evaluation is that it is designed

to bring about improvement of the course, curriculum or educational package while it is still

possible to do so, i.e. while the material has not yet been put into its operational form. In the case

of a major course that is to be run throughout a country or internationally, such evaluation must

clearly be carried out before the course design is finalized, the necessary resource materials mass

produced, and the course implemented. In the case of an educational package, it must be carried

out before the final package is published.

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Summative evaluation.

This is an evaluation that is carried out once the development phase of a course, curriculum,

educational package, etc. has been completed, and the course curriculum or package is ready to

use in its final form. Is done in at the end of an instructional segment to determine if learning is

sufficiently completed to warrant moving the learner to the next segment. Summative evaluations

are primarily concerned with whether or not a program has achieved its intended outcomes. It

considers cost effectiveness in terms of money time, and personnel. It assess the training that

teachers might need in order to implement a programme successfully. It determine whether a new

curriculum programme ,syllabus or subject is better than the one it is intended to replace or other

alternatives. It usually conducted at the end of the programme cycle. Summative evaluation may

also be carried out in order to compare one course, curriculum, educational package, etc with

another (or several others), eg to compare the relative effectiveness of two different courses in the

same general area, or to determine which of a number of different textbooks is most suitable for

use in a particular course. In such evaluation, the objective is not to improve the courses or

textbooks being evaluated; rather, it is to choose between them

Importance of Evaluation

Urebu (1985) has also identified some functions of curriculum evaluation. These are:

1. Decision making

With respect to first function, Parlett and Hamilton, in Urevbu (1985) argue that the principal

purpose of evaluation is to contribute to decision making. In our circumstances, curriculum

evaluations are conducted in order to correct deficiencies, make improvements and establish new

priorities. For meaningful decisions to be made, they must be supported by evidence from

evaluation exercises.

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 2. Self-evaluation

Teacher is at the center of the evaluation exercise. He or she is a curriculum developer indulging

in research-based teaching the advantage of self-evaluation is that, it allows you to change the

curriculum or instructional strategies if evaluation show that they could be effective

3. Evaluation provides feedback for the curriculum planners to know what changes to make

in the curriculum.

4. Through evaluation, we are able to determine whether a curriculum objective is realistic,

practical and attainable.

5. Its serves as a guide for both learners and teachers.

6. Its serves as an instrument of motivation for learning e.g. students learn always when they

are above to write exams

Purpose of Curriculum Evaluation

An evaluation of an educational programme is carried out for several reasons. These are to

diagnose, to curricula, to compare, to anticipate educational needs and to determine if objectives

have achieved.

Diagnoses focus on the instructional programme, the process of implementation and students

learning. The thrust of diagnostic evaluation is to unearth the strengths and weakness of these

three areas. There are informal diagnostic devices are used ty teachers (insiders),some observation,

teacher made tests, assignments and even asking oral questions during teacher-learner interaction.

These by designated bodies such as GES, institute of education (ucc), and national council for

curriculum assessment (NaCA), WAEC.

Curriculum evaluation also leads to the revision of the curriculum. This becomes necessary when

there are signs that certain areas of instructional programme are not making it possible for it to

yield the desired outcomes. .

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Evaluation methods and tools

The following methods and tools can be used to conduct evaluations

1. Observation

2. Interview

3. Tests

4. Questionnaire

The observation, interview and questionnaire techniques can be used when evaluating the entire

curriculum as well as specific curriculum programme or projects.

Students are subjected to structured tests to evaluate the outcomes of curriculum programmes.

Students’ academic performance is usually evaluated by using this technique. Also the content of

a subject matter can be evaluated by testing students in its various content areas. Results from this

type of evaluation are given to curriculum designers to enable them to review the subject areas

affected and necessary changes and improvement.

Performance monitoring test (PMT) and school performance appraisal meeting (SPAM) are

conducted and stakeholders of education are informed for curriculum confirmation or revision.

Characteristics/ features of a good evaluation tool

Ramadan (2011) outlined the following as the characteristics of a good evaluation tool:

1. Valid: it means that it measure what is expected to measure or extend to which it can be

used successfully for the purpose for which it is intended. It tests what it ought to test.

2. Reliable: a curriculum tool is said to be reliable if it is taken again by (same students,same

conditions),the score will be almost the same regarding that time between the test and the

retest of reasonable length. If is given twice to same students under the same

36
 circumstances, it will produce almost the same results. In this case it is said that the test

provides consistency in measuring the items being evaluated.

3. Practical : a good curriculum evaluation tool should be easy to conduct, easy to score

without wasting much time or effort

4. Comprehensive: it covers all the items that have been taught or studied. It includes items

from different areas of the material assigned for the test so as to check accurately the

amount of students’ knowledge

5. Relevant : it measures reasonably well the achievement of the desired objectives

6. Balanced: it tests linguistic as well as communicative competence and it reflects the real

command of the language. Its tests also appropriateness and accuracy

7. Appropriate in difficulty: it should neither too hard nor too easy. Questions should be

progressive in difficulty to reduce stress and tension

8. Clear: questions and instructions should be clear. Pupils should know what to do exactly

Stages of Curriculum Evaluation

As part of the checking process, any good evaluation according to Tyler (1949) should address

four different stages in curriculum development.

The first stage according to the author should start when one or more ideas are proposed for

developing a programme, a set of materials, or an instructional device, evaluation should be

undertaken to find out whether there is any evidence from experiments or experiences that

indicates the probable effectiveness of that idea. In effect, evaluation should take place even prior

to the development of the curriculum evaluation goals and objectives. Evaluation as per this

argument cannot be viewed as a means of determining the success of an end product but to

determine the validity of the product itself

Evaluation is also essential during the implementation stage of curriculum programme. That is

when a curriculum is already in operation, it is important to appraise the program to find out if it
37
working, or whether it will need some adjustments. On this basis, one will be able to evaluate an

instructional programme through assessment of participants currently involved in the program.

This important because, it could be possible that, learners may have made some initial progress

on the stated objectives or may lack requites skills necessary for the successful implementation of

the curriculum programme. These unique circumstances may not be detected during the first stage

of evaluation.

The third stage of evaluation is closely tied to the second. This stage contributes to the

effectiveness of the curriculum during the actual operation by guiding its development during

early trials and also monitoring its continuing use. At operations stage, placement, tests, mastery

tests, and diagnostic tests can keep teachers and learners in touch with the actual learning process

conducted once or twice within a specified period to give the administrator or head of the

institution an idea of what is really going on. The difference between the second and third stage

of evaluation is, in the second stage, evaluation process takes place when the program is just about

to take off. The essence is to provide the curriculum developer “last minute” information. The

information provided can be used for immediate modification of the curriculum before it becomes

operational. However, at the third stage, evaluation is mostly done when the program is already

in operation. In formation gained during this period specifically serves as a feedback on the overall

success of the curriculum program. These kinds of information serve as data to alert the head or

administrator of a specific institution

The final stage or terminal stage of evaluation centers on a check on any behavioral changes of

learner as a result of the curriculum programme. Of course, as stated many times during our

discussion, the essence of education is to help shape the behaviour of the learner. It will interest

you to note that, this form of evaluation does not concentrate on the administering of tests and

assessments on the learner. Instead, it involves a comparative analysis of what differentiates a

person involved in the curriculum programme from one who did not.

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Who evaluates the curriculum?

The curriculum can be evaluated by a hired professional evaluator, a consultant or qualified

personnel from Ministry of Education. The valuator should be an educator, competent in statistics,

methods of observation, constructing questionnaire and conducting interviews. The evaluator

must be confident, precise and able to communicate effectively and able to create a conducive

working atmosphere with assistant (Gatawa, 1990). If the curriculum evaluation is to be successful

at the school level, it must receive the support of the community management, staff and students

of the school.

CURRICULUM RESOURCES

The mathematics curriculum forms basis for writing textbooks, preparing teachers’ guide, syllabus

for lesson plans and also manipulative and computer software. These are referred to as curriculum

resources. According to Pepin and Gueudet (2014), mathematics curriculum resources are all

resources which are developed and used by teachers and pupils in their interaction with

mathematics in/for teaching and learning inside or outside the classroom.

FEATURES OF A QUALITY CURRICULUM RESOURCE

1. Adaptable to the needs of individual teachers, classes and pupils. This includes the need

to be age appropriate but with the ability to differentiate tasks to fit the needs of a cohort.

2. Cost- effective: budgetary constraints were often a consideration, and some teachers notes

that they use tools that didn’t feel were best but that provide the most support relative to

the cost

3. Complementary to national curriculum objectives

4. Visually engaging: using imagery, diagrams and colour.

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Types of curriculum resources

There are three types of curriculum resources, these are:

Material resources: These include all materials found in the school including the physical

structures and tools used in lessons and for setting homework/ independent study projects.

Textbooks, workbooks, syllabus, teachers guide, online resources, apps, physical resources

(manipulative)

HUMAN RESOURCES: Human resource constitutes a vital vein of any institution. The human

resource in the school system includes teachers, support staff in the school, students, parents,

community members and a host of other interest and social groups. Human resources is

responsible for planning, organizing, coordinating, controlling, manipulating and maintaining

other forms of resources, its administrative and forecasting ability placed it ahead of other forms

of resources. The availability of human resources is not only required in school administration,

but their quality and quantity must be considered if effective and efficient administration is to be

guaranteed.

FINANCIAL RESOURCES: Financial resources are the funds required for the smooth

operations of a school and are regarded as the life-wire of any system. It is indeed a more critical

facet with which other factors of administrations are created, maintained and sustained. In school

administration, funds are necessary for the procurement of facilities, equipment, electronics and

communication gadget needed for effective performance. Apart from this, funds are needed to pay

the salaries of administrative, academic and non-academic staff. A robust financial allocation for

school administration would not only enhance goals attainment but its sustainability. Plan and

policy implementation are responsive to funds availability. Funds are needed for the acquisition

of fixed and current assets and to settle current liabilities and expenditures incurred in the course

of administration.

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 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF CURRICULUM RESOURCES

Shortage of Funds: This could account for the poor performance of administrators of academic

institutions. At all levels of institution in Nigeria funds have always been inadequate and

consequently there has been gap between the expected level and the actual attainment. Funds are

necessary for the acquisition, securing and maintenance of other resources; once the supply is

insufficient, production suffers. In this logic, government and private individuals should prioritize

education sector and its administration, more especially in the area of finance so as to be able to

meet their recurrent and capital expenses.

Political Issues: Politicians have hijacked resources allocated to education and thus their priorities

were not directed towards the system. This had culminated in inefficiency in the system. The

quality and quantity of resources allocation to educational system is determined by the concern

that incumbent political leaders have towards the system.

Misuse of the School Facilities: School personnel could misuse the physical and material

facilities in the school either intentionally, ignorantly or due to lack of technical knowhow. There

could also be neglect and overuse of school facilities due to improper planning.

Poor Management: Some Administrators of institutions are not left out from mismanagement

acts and corrupt attitude as regards funds allocated to their institutions. The tendency and urge to

become wealthy often lead to such practices. Pilfering of school facilities, lack of maintenance

and proper inventory are all managerial problems associated with the availability and utilization

of resources.

Ineffective school leadership: Some school administrators lack the capacity to command

absolute leadership responsiveness from their subordinates due to inexperience. Such leader

permits subordinates to do what they choose thereby by encouraging unprofessional conducts in

41
the school. The leadership style does not emphasize checks and discipline as such no one is held

liable for damage of school properties.

Supply of substandard educational resources: Corruption in the system has on some instances

encouraged the supply of substandard resources (which hardly withstands the taste of time) to

schools. These resources are usually not effective to facilitate the teaching process because they

are easily damaged.

Inadequate facilities: School facilities are the material resources that facilitate effective teaching

and learning in schools. The state of infrastructural decay in many secondary schools in Nigeria

is a manifestation of poor funding of the system. Ahmed (2003) revealed that in most of the

nation’s schools, teaching and learning takes place under a most unconducive environment,

lacking the basic materials and thus hindered the fulfillment of educational objectives.

Low staff morale: Teachers are the centre-piece of any educational system. No education system

can rise above the quality of its teachers. Teachers whose morale is low are not likely to perform

as expected in the school system. According to Ajayi and Oguntoye (2003), the numerous

problems permeating the entire educational system in Nigeria such as cultism, examination

malpractices, drug abuse, indiscipline, persistent poor academic performance of students in public

examinations and many more seem to suggest that teachers have not been performing their job as

expected. When teachers are not motivated, their level of job commitment may be low and the

objectives of the school may not be accomplished.

PRACTICAL SOLUTION TO THE IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS

a. School administrators should be encouraged to develop method of prudent resource

management to increase the efficiency in the use of available resources.

b. In-service training and refreshing courses should be organized on regular basis for school’s

administrators and personnel in all the institutions.

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c. The government has to increase the quality and quantity of resources (human, financial and

material) allocated to schools. Also, the government should attempt to bridge the wide variation

in resources availability to educational institution by putting in Place a resource allocation

parameter that will provide adequately for schools.

d. Individual personnel in the school should develop a positive attitude in the use of the physical

facilities provided for the Schools.

e. Government at various levels, educational administrators and planners should mount special

campaigns presumably through special appeal or the use of the press to create awareness of the

importance and the need for proper utilization and maintenance of school resources.

f. Regular supervision will enhance early detection of problem of any sort concerning the available

resources and thus prevent breakdown of facilities. It will also enable proper utilization and

maintenance of the facilities.

g. Modern facilities should replace the old ones and personnel should be given enough training in

their utilization. This will make them more effective and efficient in the discharge of their duties

IN-SERVICE TRAINNING

Today, there are various trends that shape and change the world of education today. Those

trends include changing age structures, knowledge intensive service economies, changing world

of work and jobs, concepts of learning society, rapid developments in ICT, and social

connections and values. Hallingaar and Kantamara (2000) as stated in Altun (2011) that it is for

this reason that policy makers have increasingly focused on the need to develop system

capacities for educational reform and change.

43
The concept of in-service training

Morrant (1981, p97) as cited in Tietaah (2011) that, “In-service training is taken to include all

those activities and courses in which a serving teacher may participate for the purpose of extending

his professional knowledge, interest or skill preparation for a degree, diploma or other

qualification subsequent to initial training is included within this definition”. A closer look at the

INSET programme by Manu (1993) as cited by Tietaah (2011) suggested that in Ghana, INSET

mostly focused on programme implementation and helping participants to pass their promotion

examinations. Such programmes are mostly organized by the Ghana National Association of

Teachers (GNAT), Teacher Education Division, the Institute of Education, the Institute of

Educational Planning and Administration and the District and Regional Education Office. Other

researchers, like Day (1993), assert that INSET/CPD consists of all natural learning experiences

and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to

the individual, group or school which contributes to the quality of education in the classroom.

INSET is a continuing and practical activity for teachers to develop professional knowledge and

skills throughout the education process. According to (Spence, 1996; as cited in Altun et al., 2007)

INSET can take different forms in attempting to achieve different objectives in order to bring

change in education. Professional development activities through INSET are grouped under the

following titles:

(1) Professional education, which is meant a widening and deepening of a teacher’s theoretical

perspectives by means of advanced study;

(2) Professional training, the development of knowledge and skills which are of direct

applicability to daily work;

(3) Professional support, activities aimed at developing on-the-job experience and

performance.

44
The ultimate aim of the INSET activities in schools, today, is related to help teachers to learn and

improve personal and professional skills for better learning opportunities of all pupils. Hargreaves

and Fullan (1992, p. 2) asserted that a teaching force that is more skilled and flexible in its teaching

strategies and more knowledgeable about its subject matter is a teaching force more able to

improve the achievement of its pupils.

Rationale for In-Service Education of Teachers

The rationale for in-service education of teachers cannot be overemphasized. For instance, there

is no doubt that the National Policy on Education (2014) prescribed NCE as the minimum teaching

qualification in Nigeria. Consequently, teachers now engage in one form of in-service training or

the other to cater for their inadequacies and extend their professional competencies. No wonder,

Kolo (2013) asserted that education is the key to human capital development and the system must

be subject to reforms and repositioning as static education system does not transform societies.

Kpangbam (1992) as cited in Junaid and Maka (2015) pointed out that rationale for INSET for

teachers are as follows:

1. it is recognized that however good existing pre-service teacher education programmes are, they

by their very nature cannot equip intending teachers with all they need for a life-time of work in

the classroom.

2. There is increasing awareness of the impact of social, political and technological changes and

of the need for teachers to be conscious of and responsive to such changes.

3. There is growing expectation that teacher should reform their own practice, as it is only then

that meaningful curriculum development could take place in the daily routine of classrooms.

4. There is a growing number of specialized administrative roles that teachers have to take up with

passing years in teaching, for example, head of department, head of blocks and counselor and

effective performance of the tasks requires specialized training because they involve the exercise

of leadership skills and judgment of a high order.

45
Bodies/Agencies of INSET in Ghana

In 2000 as stated in Tietaah (2011), the Ministry of Education (MOE) policies and strategic plan

for education sector, indicated that, groups within the MOE which have been carrying out INSET

functions have been the curricular and courses branch at Accra, the inspectorate, District

Education Officers and serving head teachers and lately the various subject organizers based at

the regional and district offices, subject associations, and the Ghana National Association of

Teachers (GNAT). Other non-governmental organizations such as Care International, World

Vision International Plan Ghana among others are now involved in INSET.

In reviewing the agencies providing INSET serves in Ghana, Adentwi (2000), citing Manu (1993)

mentions G.E.S as the body that conducts INSET on implementation and interpretation of new

curriculum, promotion and courses to enable some categories of teachers to be qualified for

promotion, orientation and induction courses for newly trained teachers or newly promoted

teachers and officers of the G.E.S. Refresher courses for all categories of serving and

administrative personnel to update their knowledge in identifiable areas are also organized by G.

E. S. The Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT) also conducts INSET and courses to

prepare teaches to pass promotion interviews and promotions, book development, workshop to

train teachers in techniques for writing examination, and classes to enable teachers upgrade their

academic credentials.

46
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