EFFLORESCENCE AND

THE DISCOLORATION
OF CONCRETE
by

Peter Russell BSc FICE FIStructE FIHE FIOB

formerly Chief Engineer in Scotland of the
Advisory Division
of the Cement and Concrete Association

A VIEWPOINT PUBLICATION
 VIEWPOINT PUBLICATIONS
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13.026 First published 1983
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 THE AUTHOR

Peter Russell was Chief Engineer in Scotland for the Cement & Concrete
Association from 1948 to 1978. He is now engaged in the preparation of advisory
documents for the building industry and is writing a book covering those thirty
productive years from hydro-electric schemes to oil platforms, for which he
received the Silver Jubilee Medal. He has contributed to professional journals and
is currently talking at some universities on the theme of construction and the
environment.
Peter Russell has been Chairman of the Institutions of Civil, Structural and
Highway Engineers, and of the Concrete Society, serving also on the Board of
the Edinburgh College of Art. He played a part in the attainment of aesthetic as
well as structural quality over the past generation in a northern climate which lent
itself to a special study of the subject now under review.
His thanks are due to the Cement & Concrete Association of whose excellent
work he has intimate knowledge, and valuable assistance was further given by the
staff of the Building Research Establishment.
 PREFACE

Disfigurement of any concrete surface is at least a source of annoyance, and this

publication attempts to mitigate the problem in its chemical and physical aspects.
It deals with the broad scope of elemental attack by the vagaries of weather and
by salts as they move to the face of a building to result in discoloration and, at times,
disruption. Much research has in particular been devoted to the cause and nature
of efflorescence, an expressive yet ambiguous word which suggests flowering and
fruition but describes an effect that almost vies with vandalism. While elusive,
however, it is not an intractable phenomenon and can be cured in more senses
than one. Its stalactites or bloom can be alleviated by common sense and scientific
forethought, given all the rules of quality control. This largely aesthetic problem
is conditioned by factors such as temperature, absorption and lack of imagination,
with cement and aggregates of lesser importance. The text covers staining of
many kinds, superficial but unsightly, and due to faulty workmanship or detailing.
Concrete is too readily assumed to have strength and durability only, with an
acceptable countenance underestimated or ignored. This work should help
towards an appreciation of its potential in visual as well as structural terms.
Peter Russell
September 1982
 v

Plate 1: A retaining wall of engineering brickwork with disfigurement at the mortar joints
as the result of salts finding their way from the soil behind. These should have been isolated
by a waterproofing barrier over the full height of the wall, and it is possible that the mortar
was too rich, with consequent shrinkage and fine cracking.
 CONTENTS

THE AUTHOR iii

PREFACE iv
CONTENTS vi

1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 CAUSES 3
2.1 Basic factors 3
2.1.1 Mechanism 5
2.1.2 Hydration 6
2.1.3 Formwork 6
2.1.4 Rainwater 7
2.1.5 Weathering 7
2.2 Blockwork 8
2.3 Brickwork 9
2.4 Mortar 9
3 SOLUBLE SALTS 13
3.1 Carbonation 14
3.2 Contamination 15
4 PREVENTION 17
4.1 Concrete quality 18
4.2 Admixtures 18
4.3 Blockwork 19
4.4 Cladding 19
4.5 Mortar 20
 vii

4.6 Joints 21
4.7 Pigments 22
4.8 Detailing 22
4.9 Damp-proofing 23
4.10 Formwork 23
4.11 Rendering 24
4.12 Urban environments 24
4.13 Surface treatment 25
5 REMOVAL 29
5.1 Washing and brushing 29
5.2 Acids 30

6 CONCLUSION 33
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 35
8 APPENDIX: CHECKLIST TABLE 41
viii
 1
INTRODUCTION

Efflorescence is a white coating appearing on the external face of a wall as a result

of the migration of salts in solution to the surface where they crystallize unevenly.
These blemishes may be derived either from the constituents of building materials
based on Portland cement or from alkalis in the ground, and are salt deposits
caused by the evaporation of their saturated solution. In normal atmospheric
conditions they leave a harmless, superficial and often temporary discoloration
which is nevertheless disturbing, and whose irregular configuration may persist for
a number of years. Disruptive spalling of the surface can result if the salts are deep
seated. Discoloration of concrete has many manifestations and the common cause
is excessive ingress of rainwater due to faulty detailing. An effect similar to
efflorescence may be caused by rain cleaning part of the wall, but this pattern is
generally more extensive and is dependent on the extent of glazed areas and
projections on the face.
Chemistry plays an important part in that calcium hydroxide, liberated by the
hydration of cement, is carried in solution to the surface of concrete or mortar
where carbonation takes place. The location and extent of this relatively insoluble
substance is largely dependent on the porosity of the external layers. Materials
with an open texture allow air to penetrate some distance below the surface, and
a saturated solution moving from the interior can be carbonated before it reaches
the outer skin. Concrete of intermediate porosity having a close texture,
permeable to salt solutions but not permitting air to enter, may suffer a visible
deposit on the outer surface.
Efflorescence is the result of a combination of events occurring inside and
outside a wall. The presence of even small amounts of salt, with attendant
moisture, initiates evaporation or hydrostatic pressure causing movement of the
solution to the exterior. The resulting quantity and effect of leaching of the
concentration depends on its composition and solubility. The extent of
efflorescence is also determined by temperature and humidity, and it is more
likely to occur in seasons with a slower rate of drying.
Bloom is another phenomenon, similar in appearance to efflorescence, which is
caused by carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reacting with free lime produced
during the setting of cement and forming insoluble calcium carbonate
deposits. Sometimes this is of appreciable thickness, so that encrustation may be a
2 INTRODUCTION

better description. It is naturally more noticeable on a dark surface than light, and
exemplified by streaking down the face of engineering bricks from the mortar
joint or a paint-like deposit on concrete.
While the causes of efflorescence are relatively easy to explain without the
complexity of chemical equations, some knowledge is required of the nature of
soluble salts and their aesthetic and physical results. Almost any salt can appear,
but each may react differently with atmospheric gases which are themselves
variable. Another source is from the earth behind retaining walls or under solid
floors, so that this should be carefully isolated. Above all, imaginative detailing of
a structure is essential to shed water from the face or to dissipate its flow. At best,
efflorescence is an irritation and at worst an agent of disruption, but while the
layer is annoying and generally unacceptable, it is barely noticeable on concrete
made with white cement and in some cases can be advantageous in reducing
porosity, and sealing fine cracks or crazing on the surface. Efflorescence is more
apparent in the spring, although remedial conditions are less severe during this
season and showery weather is likely to aid the washing process.
Because concrete as a structural medium is relatively new, it suffers by man’s
inability to forestall elemental attack; he does not make the same allowance for
discoloration as he would with other materials long subject to the most blatant of
blemishes. Sporadic cracking and faulty jointing are of importance, and in
anticipating the effects of weather every opening must be considered suspect,
whether glazed or not.
All building materials have to meet a number of requirements when exposed to
a variety of polluting and destructive elements which stem from the atmosphere,
the soil or the materials themselves. There must, therefore, be a clear
understanding not only of the properties of the constituent parts of the structure
but also of the factors which influence their performance both integrally and
superficially. Uninterrupted areas are especially vulnerable.
Concrete has indeed prospered in an infinite range of function and form, but in
its wake has come the problem of lack of attention to the facade and ignorance of
the effects of salts and their deposits. It is an indispensable medium, but suffers
variability at the hands of planner and builder, and by climatic conditions in the
long term. More attention must be given to arresting or redirecting moisture by
effective barriers, and to forestalling cracking by due provision for expansion and
contraction.
 2
CAUSES

2.1
BASIC FACTORS
Portland cement combines with water in concrete mixes to produce highly
alkaline products and this chemical reaction is known as hydration. The make and
content of cement has little effect on efflorescence, except that a very rich mix
lends itself to crazing and, if too weak, is less than durable. Larger quantities of
lime than usual need not cause a serious problem, but it is always desirable to use
minimum free water consistent with full compaction. Dry air can increase the risk
of blemish whereas humid air reduces it. A low temperature retards the build-up
of a protective carbonate layer. Organic impurities in loam and clay may lower
the strength, and estuarine aggregates should be well washed. The essential
requirements of good concrete are impermeability, continuity of placing and
uniformity of quality, with any protective coatings firmly bonded. All faces
exposed to sea-spray are vulnerable and many industrial processes disgorge salts
which are transferred to porous materials by the polluted atmosphere. The nature
of stored materials such as fertilizers must be taken into account, as should the
likelihood of leakage from sinks and services in general.
Although concrete is versatile with a wide range of functions, the action of
weather can be complimentary or otherwise, depending on presentation to the
environment and the experience of the designer. Documentation abounds in
printed and photographic form on the general theme of discoloration, but
efflorescence as the end-product of climate and chemistry is rarely discussed. The
location of a building relative to its neighbours is a crucial factor in the planning
analysis and in predicting the intensity of wind and rain. Today’s pollution, albeit
linked with technical progress, enhances discoloration by its contribution to
amorphous staining, made more prominent by its contrast with the normal colour
of concrete.
When all the accepted rules of mixing and placing are strictly obeyed,
discoloration is still possible, but it is axiomatic that the denser the concrete the
less chance there will be for extraneous water to be absorbed into it and, on
evaporation, to bring out the defiling chemicals. Uniformity of concrete quality is
4 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

crucial and the constituents should if possible be taken from constant sources.
Admix tures do not adversely affect staining, and the use of integral pigments may
give better colour control, minimize surface variations and aid workability.
Consideration of appearance and of overall durability impose even stricter limits
on workmanship, whilst curing, as later amplified, is of paramount importance.
Apart from isolated areas of formwork leakage or irregular absorption by the
lining, other causes of discoloration include concreting in cold weather, casting in
excessively thick layers and, above all, release of water to the surface during
placing and compaction. Another factor is mixing time, and longer periods may
reduce the extent to which water and cement separate, as may extended vibration.
The atmosphere may also contribute industrial effluents and traffic fumes to
produce chaotic patterns around corbels and ledges, which in any case
concentrate rainwater. The outer skin of concrete, however skilfully moulded,
takes the full force of attack and must of necessity be durable, whether air-
entrained or otherwise. Appearance is largely determined by the properties of the
cement paste, which in practice is regularly wetted so that dirt lodges in its pores;
the rich laitance is etched to change its colour towards that of the fine aggregate.
As the grime builds up it will give a measure of protection against further etching,
but may show more contrasting efflorescence if the salt source is still operative.
A more encrusted growth is produced by water percolating through cracks in a
wall bringing lime to the surface, but this to some extent protects reinforcement.
Efflorescence can be confused with streaking caused by rainwater which cleans
along irregular lines, and here again experience will indicate profiling or at least
diffusion.
Concrete, in the same way as any other material, becomes dirty, and with tall
buildings care must be taken to counteract the effects of wind turbulence.
Painting may have to be considered but this should always be seen as a second
line of defence. What is unforgiveable is the recurrent blemishing of an otherwise
welldesigned structure simply because of a careless attitude to long term
performance. Efflorescence is liable to occur on hardened concrete if, during the
pouring of successive lifts, the joint is not perfectly sealed, as free water can carry
a concentration of salts along myriad paths. Weather patterns are so often
determined by the configuration and efficiency of movement joints, so that their
location must be carefully established. Daywork joints must also be positioned
economically and intelligently.
Cracking of in situ walls or across a building unit allows moisture to
concentrate along channels which feed the fissures and highlight those already
evident at the end of sills and at badly formed joints between precast units.
Structural elements, such as the abutments of bridges, are prone to the migration
of groundwater into them, and retaining walls are targets for outpourings from
mortar.
 CAUSES 5

2.1.1
Mechanism
The formation of efflorescence depends upon a number of chemical and physical
processes involving the nature and solubility of salts and their transfer through
porous concrete. Local conditions dictate how these evolve, so that the deposits
can be unpredictable in extent and location. Once a solution has become
saturated, cooling will cause most salts to separate out in solid form, but loss of
water by evaporation will also result in deposition, even without change in
temperature. There may be a time lapse between the completion of a building
and the appearance of the effects of salts, and their immediate location is no
certain guide to provenance, but simply a convenient drying surface.
The structure of concrete will dictate its drying rate and the place of
disfiguration. With a fine-pored surface, capillary forces will draw free water
through the wall, crystals will appear on the exposed face and variable porosity
will result in sporadic staining. With an open-textured surface, water will
evaporate short of the face and the salts remain just within the wall, possibly
causing disruption. Salt-laden moisture may leave precipitations taking the form
of localized striation corresponding with joints or architectural features. It is
essential to keep track of such movement and its degree of replenishment, to
study the origin and nature of the salts, and to have prior knowledge of spillage or
defects in drainage. The unpredictable festoon can be seen in buildings soon after
completion but will gradually fade away with the aid of wind and rain if its source
has been stemmed.
As concrete is a mixture of natural constituents, attention must be paid to
selection of raw materials and their proportioning, compaction and curing. The last
of these does not imply a remedial process but ensures adequate hydration of the
immediate surface for consistency in colour and durability. The containing shutter
must itself be treated with due deference, as should rigidity, striking time and
release agent. It has been said that there are nearly a hundred kinds of concrete
blemish, many of which have a common cause, such as variable shrinkage and
absorption, with the catalyst so often the entry of soluble salts. Other forms are
sand discoloration, blowholes, aggregate transparency, mottling, scouring and
scaling.
Water in the concrete mix is normally distributed across the wall and can be
adversely augmented if protective measures are not taken against absorption from
the ground or rainfall. Efflorescence is more likely to occur if the building is
erected during winter and if drying through the external wall is rapid in the early
part of the year. When salts disappear from a surface, they have not necessarily
been washed away, but have sometimes been absorbed back into the wall and will
reappear at progressively lower concentrations. If, after precautions such as
covering the works have been taken, they recur on drying, then excessive water
is entering the wall through faulty detailing or waterproofing.
6 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

2.1.2
Hydration
The whole subject of salts is discussed later but it is worth noting that in addition
to the alkalis of potash and soda, cements contain sulphate as gypsum added at
grinding to control the set and on mixing with water these go into solution. After
a few hours the sulphate is fixed insolubly, leaving the alkalis as hydroxides which
are gradually converted into carbonates by the atmosphere to leave a surface
deposit. If the sulphate is transferred with the mixing water by capillary action to
an adjoining building unit, the quantity of salt in that unit will also be increased.
In other cases staining is caused by the movement of soluble calcium sulphate to
the concrete surface, this generally emanating from soil in contact with it.
The reaction of hydrating cement with carbon dioxide in the air
reduces alkalinity. Such carbonation also increases shrinkage of the concrete and
can lead to cracking, although not penetrating too deeply. Aggregates near the
surface which are not well graded may also cause cracking, distinguishable from
that caused by drying shrinkage in that it takes longer to develop. Only in very
porous concrete is there a problem, and here an assurance of adequate cover to
reinforcement is essential. Cracking through which salts find ingress can also arise
from differential settlement.

2.1.3
Formwork
The time of stripping formwork is not necessarily significant, but blemishes may
be caused by warping or deflection of the form which leave an air gap allowing
rapid localized drying and a finish inconsistent with the rest of the surface.
Careful selection of form face can inhibit most types of staining although some
linings are unsuitable and easily damaged. A dark coloration is common if casting
temperatures are low but this can be offset by insulation. Variable surface
appearance is a difficult problem, but in broad terms quality depends on good
placing and an evenly applied release agent. Efflorescence is not so likely to occur
on surfaces cast against absorptive forms, which encourage the water in the mix to
carry cement particles to the surface where they are deposited as dense skin of low
permeability, so restricting the migration of lime and reducing carbonation.
Impervious forms, on the other hand, trap excess water at the face. In some cases
light coloured areas tend to occur near the top of a lift and not lower down
where the pressure of the plastic concrete brings a relatively greater flow of water
into the receptive lining.
Exposure of concrete to the air leads to evaporation of the pore water, and if this
is rapid with only vapour reaching the surface, the carbonate will be deposited
below the surface with possible disruption. There is also an intermediate state
causing localized effect by gross variations in porosity due to poor compaction and
 CAUSES 7

segregation. In this case water reaches the surface through relatively large channels
and leaves an erratic deposit, although much less common on precast elements.

2.1.4
Rainwater
Rainwater absorbed into any porous material is released by natural drying, the
significant factors being solar radiation, wind speed, atmospheric humidity and the
aspect of a building. The nature of concrete itself plays a large part in determining
loss of water from a surface and it is difficult to measure the overall affect with
such a variety of influences. Penetration is obviously greater in regions where the
rain index is high and the walls have less chance of drying out between
downpours. The criterion by which the degree of exposure can be judged is
described in BRE Digest 127. Sites may be graded between sheltered and severe
but, in areas of moderate exposure, high buildings which stand above their
surroundings or on hilltops should be regarded as being one grade more exposed
than indicated. Although incidence of rain conforms to a rough pattern for any
given locality, short intense periods may be experienced from any direction and
much of the penetration of walls occurs during a few prolonged storms
accompanied by strong wind. The annual mean index gives a fair indication of
the total amount to be expected, but while helpful in gauging the likely frequency
and intensity, is less useful in assessing run-off from surfaces or entry through
joints. Experience of the behaviour of concrete in any situation is of critical value,
as is guidance from the Meteorological Office.
The resistance of a solid wall is appreciably increased by the application of
rendering in accordance with BS 5262, while blockwork may also benefit in areas
of severe exposure by the prevention of ingress through joints, cracks or the unit
itself. Walls with a cavity afford a more effective barrier than a single leaf,
provided the quality of materials and workmanship is equally high.

2.1.5
Weathering
Concrete does not normally weather well over long periods in terms of
discoloration; a comparison should, therefore, be made of the design of similar
projects with a vew to controlled variation and intentional highlighting of
detailing to distract the eye. It exhibits its age by symptoms such as dirt
accumulation, growth of algae and efflorescence, some being superficial but
others deep seated. The surface obviously changes from its initial freshness, with
properties that alter in porosity and frost susceptibility. This outside layer varies,
absorption determining the ability to hold the grime or resist aggression from the
air, so that exposure may be uniform but the result patchy.
Weathering should ideally enhance the appearance of a building if only by
traditional mellowing, but the very lightness in tone of concrete in plain walling
8 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

is a disadvantage in combatting darker stains, while the modular patterns of

precast units should render these less prominent. Mortar is another matter in that
clay brickwork, and even blockwork, can be disfigured to almost paint-pot degree
if a balance is not reached as to its constituents. Curing is the final act of surface
attention, by water spray or otherwise, to ensure that the susceptible external
layer is not dried too quickly, by hydrating the cement particles at the surface and
minimizing vulnerable laitance.

2.2
BLOCKWORK
Two forms of efflorescence may be found on concrete blocks—sodium/
potassium carbonates and calcium carbonate. Each is derived from corresponding
free hydroxides brought to the surface during hardening. Sodium and potassium
carbonates appear as a soft deposit which is easily washed or brushed off,
particularly if the unit has been exposed to soaking and slow drying in a stockyard.
Calcium carbonate is not so common and its harder crust is more difficult to
remove. Masonry can bring together a wet mortar and a block containing variable
moisture such that the water content of the wall is relatively high and deposit
more likely to form on completion of the work.
Concrete blocks, lightweight or otherwise, should never be set in unnecessarily
strong mortar as this can lead to cracking in or near the joints, whereas a weaker
mix yields enough to accept small movements in a wall, and hairline cracking will
be distributed or less permeable. Strong cement/sand mixes are appropriate for
heavy engineering works in units of comparable strength or in foundations and
below damp-proof courses, but may display more efflorescence than a mix
containing lime. While the latter contributes more salt, the denser joints offer
more resistance to the passage of moisture and the precipitate sometimes spreads
over the blockwork on evaporation from the wall as a whole. In the same way a
white deposit round the edges of blocks suggests that the units have absorbed
water from a mortar containing alkaline sulphates. Even if there was no
absorption from the joints during laying, these sulphates may still be transferred to
the units if an unfinished wall is not covered in heavy rain. The answer lies in
matching the qualities of blocks and mortar by using cement/lime/sand or
masonry mixes which are not stronger than necessary. It is worthy of note that a
technical survey was undertaken by the International Concrete Block
Commission to collect data on the improvement of long term colour integrity of
masonry.
Efflorescence on precast products in general may appear as white patches or as
an overall lightening of colour. Where the units are exposed, acidic rainwater will
slowly dissolve the film, and in the case of paving slabs, abrasion by foot traffic
will remove it more rapidly.
 CAUSES 9

2.3
BRICKWORK
Efflorescence on brickwork can appear as a loose white powder or a hard glossy
substance, partly covering and penetrating the face. It can be a seasonal
occurrence and become less marked in ensuing years, but often affects retaining
and freestanding walls and is removed only slowly by rain. Magnesium sulphate is
particularly disruptive and its deposition not readily washed from either the whole
face or under copings from which lime has leached. The only satisfactory
treatment may be to render the wall after removing all loose material and raking
out the mortar which may itself be impregnated.
Certain brickwork has very low porosity and little sulphate content, whereas a
highly porous mortar will allow even a minute quantity of salt diffused along its
courses to be shown clearly against the background. Flettons may be highly
absorptive with appreciable sulphates, and within themselves may result in salts
appearing on the surface over a wide area of the wall. A white deposit is brought
to the surface by the dry winds of April, sucking salts into its external face either
through the joints or the units depending on relative percolation. The greatest
risk is from wind-blown rain finding its way through cracks in joints which are as
strong as the bricks but on shrinking permit water movement. Many tarnished
multi-storey buildings are victims of this lack of knowledge as to the interaction of
various parts of a wall at different shrinkage and drying rates.
Clay products are prone to a legacy of lime, with deposits more prominent on
their relatively dark surface and exhibiting the same crystallization of salts which
have percolated in solution to the face. Again the extent depends on the attendant
amounts of both salt and water, and on their chemical nature. Salts of calcium,
sodium and potassium are, in the main, superficial but spoiling, some of these
already being present in the clay or formed at firing, with calcium sulphate of low
solubility constituting the major source. Salts in brickwork can have an influence
on adjacent concrete in transferring from one material to another.

2.4
MORTAR
Cement-based mortars may be attacked by sulphates derived from clay bricks as
well as from external sources such as flue gases. The onset is gradual and only
occurs when the brickwork is consistently damp. The most common effect of
soluble salts is to produce a deposit which, although unsightly, is usually
temporary and harmless. A high percentage of calcium sulphate may cause little
efflorescence, while a lower porportion of sodium or magnesium sulphate can
give rise to heavy impregnation at the end of a long wet spell. Crystallization of
the salts within the brickwork may, however, cause spalling of the face similar to
frost attack. While keeping winter working in mind, it must never be assumed
10 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

that the higher the strength of the mortar the better, because when it is too strong
it simply concentrates movement into fewer but wider cracks.
The use of low alkali masonry cement will reduce the staining capacity of
mortar but the overall design of a building must ensure that the walls are kept as
dry as possible by, say, an overhanging roof and the shielding of surfaces from
rainwater generally. Drains should be of ample capacity and maintained in
serviceable condition. Present day mortars are fortunately much more durable and
likely to resist erosion in highly contaminated air. Guidance is given in BS 3921
as to discoloration of brickwork.
Although cement contains less salts than hydraulic lime, care should be taken to
prevent migration of mixing water from mortar to bricks or blocks before the
cement has hardened, as salts in solution switch easily from one part to another by
capillary action. It is quite possible for a wall which is initially free of salts to be
contaminated by their movement from the mortar, as indicated by the
predominance of sodium or potassium compounds at the surface. There is little
evidence to suggest that mortar plasticizers contribute significantly to efflorescence
because they are added in such small amounts.
 CAUSES 11

Plate 2: A marked contrast between the upper vertically diverting fluting and the plain
rendered base which should have been similarly treated. Alternatively, the lower wall might
have been covered with exposed aggregate panels.
12
 3
SOLUBLE SALTS

Salt is defined as a compound of molecules which in the solid state are

geometrically packed as crystals, but which lead an independent existence in
aqueous solution. The action of salts is in part associated with cement-based
materials as the source of alkalis according to the location and porosity of the
medium. The resulting deposit is the product of their migration through concrete
of poor quality, and of subsequent evaporation which can build up an appreciable
crust on or within the surface. The readiness with which this forms depends on
the nature of the salts, and if the first fine crystals in the pores are such that still
smaller capillary passages are left, further crystals may surmount these. Salts
derived from external sources, or moving from one part of a wall to another, are
of fundamental importance, and their composition is to a great extent determined
by their origin. Portland cement and hydraulic lime in mortars provide the
sulphates and carbonates of sodium and potassium, whereas the presence of
nitrates or chlorides points to groundwater as the source. Chlorides may also
come from rubble fill and polluted atmospheres. Sulphates are found in building
materials, industrial waste and some clay soils although the top few feet are generally
free. All these salts, together with calcium oxide, are very soluble in water, and
even calcium sulphate dissolves to some extent.
The two main constituents of cement are dicalcium and tricalcium silicates,
which react with water in concrete to give products which are highly alkaline.
Carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the surface layer of the concrete to reduce
alkalinity in the process known as carbonation. This often intractable film is the
result of the crystallization or precipitation of salts in solution, replenished from
inside the wall and found also within the pores in company with excess water.
The chemical action takes place more rapidly when the concrete is at an
intermediate stage between saturated and completely dry, but less so if it is well
cured.
In the initial stage, calcium hydroxide or free lime is released from the cement
during the setting process and migrates to the surface where it is converted into
calcium carbonate or chalk which is not readily removed because of its low
solubility. In the early stages of hydration, lime remains in solution until the
concrete hardens, and efflorescence can be caused by very small concentrations. As
carbonation proceeds in the normal course of weathering, the remaining
14 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

hydration products, including calcium silicates and aluminates, are slowly

decomposed by sulphur dioxide from industrial airborne sources, leading to
calcium sulphate. In good quality concrete this produces little change in
appearance, as the sulphate acts as a binder and, while retaining dirt in sheltered
places, helps to keep washed areas clean because of its slight solubility.
Magnesium sulphate is responsible for many of the failures resulting from
soluble salts, although it is not present in great quantities and is readily washed
away except in sheltered parts. Potassium sulphate forms a hard film, whereas
sodium sulphate produces a fluffy deposit when it crystallizes. Surface failure is
often most severe when the salts are in more than one state of hydration, and
solar heat may convert these to a form occupying several times the earlier
volume, with excessive pore pressure and powdering.
Depending on their origin, nature, distribution and quantity, salts may result in
the following effects:

(a) temporary but unsightly fluffy encrustation;

(b) a glossy skin that causes blistering of the surface;
(c) a reaction with certain compounds in the cement which gives rise to
softening and possible sulphate attack;
(d) crystallization within the surface pores resulting in pitting and disruption and
known as crypto-efflorescence.

The source and solubility of salts vary, their path is devious and their movement
dictated by moisture and humidity. Ability to dissolve increases with temperature,
and calcium hydroxide is among the few salts which act more freely with cold
water than hot.

3.1
CARBONATION
Air in permeating concrete decomposes the accessible hydrated compounds to
reduce alkalinity in the process known as carbonation. This is normally limited to
the exposed surface and, if the concrete is well compacted and of low
permeability, the resulting white deposit is built up very slowly in the presence of
moisture. Its occurrence also depends on the aggregates, cement and admixture
content, water/cement ratio, curing and exposure. The proportion of carbon
dioxide in the air is not usually significant, but may be influenced by pollution. On
the other hand a degree of carbonation and corresponding reduction in alkalinity
has a bearing on the corrosion of reinforcement. Normal mixing water has only a
small percentage of carbonic acid dissolved in it and has little aggressive effect.
Since partly hydrated cement paste is more permeable, factors which delay
hydration such as cold working conditions may increase the surface deposit.
Although there is minimal transfer of calcium hydroxide from the interior of a well-
built concrete wall, there are always localized effects caused by variations in
 SOLUBLE SALTS 15

porosity, in which case water is channelled into the surface, bringing with it
dissolved hydroxide and leading to heavy isolated excrescence. Moreover,
rain can dissolve calcium carbonate or calcium sulphate from concrete copings to
leave salts lower down if the wall is not designed to eject rainwater clear of the
surface or at least dissipate it.

3.2
CONTAMINATION
Concrete can be contaminated by colliery shale used as hardcore in foundations
and under floor slabs, while the soil itself provides a possible reservoir which is
continually renewed. Some aggregates may contain sulphur compounds and
soluble alkalis, but crushed stone, gravel and sand from well-established quarries
are normally free of deleterious chemicals. Unwashed sea-sand should not be used,
for apart from its salt content, it will absorb moisture from the air to aggravate the
situation. Precast products are only prone to attack from outside sources. Trouble
is not usually experienced with cladding unless it is located against salt-bearing
brickwork and it should in any case be fixed when both surfaces are dry.

Plate 3: A good example of striated walling bush-hammered to expose aggregate and

diverting the flow of rainwater within its channels. The facade is eyecatching, with
efflorescence submerged with the fluting and masked by the bold exposure of the
aggregate between the windows.
16 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

Plate 4: This fault is common in structures such as car parks where the joint detail is badly
designed and the workmanship poor. The edge beam could have been effectively covered
by exposed aggregate panels or fluted to mask the junction between road slab and
supporting cantilevered beam. An uncontrolled flow of water is finding a ready exit for
salts in solution within the concrete or from outside.
 4
PREVENTION

Designer, operative and occupier all have a part to play in avoiding disfigurement
which may become evident sooner or later. Control of migrating salts is essential
and water must be denied entry to a wall. These are the enemies of visual
acceptance and conservation, but can be subdued by imaginative direction of rain,
even in temperamental weather. Precautions should be taken at all times against
the transfer of soluble chemicals into the fabric of a building, and it must be
remembered that atmospheric gases adversely affect calcerous materials. When
deciding on mix proportions it may be better to have a slightly lower fines content
and a richer mix, but too little sand will allow segregation. Placing should be as
rapid as possible consistent with full compaction, and the head of concrete should
normally be less than 300 mm above the level of vibration.
The designer must attempt to predict weather conditions over many years, and
his aim should be to let each section of the building be cleaned by rain along lines
which may actually improve its appearance. Vertical ribbing and fluting will
control the flow and discourage concentration, and a finish can profitably be
specified by reference to an existing structure in similar location and time. The
water course must be predicted to its ultimate destination, and strategies should
include intense modelling to overwhelm staining. This channelling will
accumulate dirt in sheltered unwashed positions, but more evenly.
The effect of weather on concrete may take the form of crazing or frost
scaling, and the most vulnerable parts are those with laitance on the surface. Long
term appearance can be improved by exposing new rough-textured surfaces
containing a high proportion of inert particles, and the alternative approach is to
constrain the flow along pre-determined paths which will be visually rewarding.
CP 121 for walling provides a driving rain index for each of eight wind
directions at 20 stations, while diagrams include details of copings to cavity walls
and recommendations for bonding, jointing and pointing. Tables offer suggestions
for mortar mixes, methods of reducing cracking, exclusion of rain and damp-proof
courses. Rainwater must be evenly organized with attention to string course and
cope; the minimum of run-off from flat roofs should be ensured by upstands at
least 200 mm high. Below windows it may be expedient to inisist on hidden
gutters behind panels so that these weather evenly, while a system of concealed
flow may be successfully conceived by the use of neoprene tubing.
18 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

Concrete is unpredictable in surface coloration even when every care is taken

in its casting. An understanding of the value of curing is essential in preventing
too rapid drying which can lead to dusting and a friable finish. One approach is
certainly the provision of vertical fluting at constant or variable spacings, with
boldly expressed panels separated by distinct joints; the accent must be on pattern
and profile to control rain dispersal and hide its hallmarks. It is sometimes
beneficial to provide a separate, narrow feature at returns or corners near the top
of a building, one side of which will be washed relative to the other depending
on the prevailing wind, but eye-catching by its contrast with the adjoining main
walls.
Key words are detailing and diffusion, bearing in mind the consequential loss
of face in more senses than one if salts are allowed to have their way. Weather in
such cases is not the discourse of fools; its graceless outcome must be sidetracked,
while rain and the natural ingredients of the ground as the arch enemies must be
sensibly directed. Efflorescence is the end product of design and execution which
are less than adequate, but can be controlled if not altogether prevented. Our
graffitic generation should at least try to eliminate it, for concrete so afflicted is
natures own vandalism; fortunately it can yield to scientific if not to psychological
treatment.

4.1
CONCRETE QUALITY
It is crucial that the concrete should be as dense and impenetrable as possible as
the rate of salt attack is dependent upon the ease with which water can enter its
surface or move within its mass. Particular attention should be given to optimum
cement content, proportioning of aggregates and workability consistent with full
compaction. It must be remembered that concrete is quantifiable on paper but
not on site; the age at which it is put into use is another factor, as the material is
vulnerable when still green, and external protective measures may be required in
exceptional cases. To ensure minimum porosity and a hard, durable surface,
particular care is required from the very beginning. A new understanding of
concrete rheology is needed for a reduction in segregation and bleeding during
placing and in its defacement from whatever cause. Quality control begins with
the selection of its constituents and ends with thorough external treatment.

4.2
ADMIXTURES
Well-dispensed admixtures can reduce permeability with increased durability so
that rain penetration is reduced and colour retention achieved; good mix design
and constant care are the basic guarantees against such contingencies.
Airentraining or water-reducing admixtures and plasticizers will improve
resistance to frost and to sulphates; workability aids assist in compaction and allow
 PREVENTION 19

lower water/cement ratios. Repellents reduce the passage of moisture by

countering capillary action, butyl stearate permits it to be better distributed
through the matrix as an emulsion, while integral waterproofers can inhibit the
migration of salts and lessen the need for cleaning. The subject is further covered
in the section on mortar.

4.3
BLOCKWORK
A building should be dimensioned to suit the precast module aesthetically and
practically. Blocks should be carefully unloaded before laying, preferably above 4°
C, and have joints of appropriate strength. Even units designed for facing work
can be penetrated by driving rain, but effective membranes and cavities deal
satisfactorily with excessive surface flow. Movement joints should be provided at
changes of height and wall thickness to anticipate expansion of floor slabs, and at
all openings. Common defects include unfilled perpends, bonding patterns not
maintained, faulty lintel bearings and blocks built into a wall when excessively
wet. Flexible damp-proof materials should be stored away from heat, and
protected from damage by squashing.
Blockwork should be divided into rectangular panels, bed-joint reinforcement
inserted in courses above and below windows, and slip-planes inserted between
the wall and a concrete roof. The units must be kept dry to minimize shrinkage
quite apart from discoloration, and covers should not restrict the circulation of
air, as otherwise condensation may form. The blocks should be used in order of
delivery, permit inspection and sampling, and must be protected from
sulphatebearing ground to avoid chemicals being drawn into them.
Precast elements may be contaminated on site or in the makers yard, and
different kinds should be kept apart. It is wise to stack them on a platform above
the ground and to guard against corrosion of metals, frost action and change in
moisture content. Lintels should have matured and dried before being built into
the wall to prevent cracking at the ends due to shrinkage, while those cast in situ
should be propped and allowed time to develop strength before carrying a load.
Long units should be supported on damp-proof courses to permit movement.
Care should be taken in the accurate setting out of the first course to avoid
subsequent inaccuracy of the superstructure, and all units laid on a full bed of
mortar with joints adequately finished. A careful study should be made of overall
design concepts and the effective damp-proofing of walls subject to excessive
surface flow and rain ingress.

4.4
CLADDING
The choice of cladding will be dictated by a combination of practical, economic
and aesthetic factors. Concrete can vary considerably in its weathering
20 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

characteristics and the designer should be aware of the likely changes in colour of
both the units and their jointing. Conspicuous staining can be caused by uneven
rain washing, particularly in association with glazed areas, and it should be
anticipated that there will be some rain penetration and condensation within the
cavity. Adequate provision for drainage and damp-proofing over openings
should, therefore, be ensured, as any trapped water will find a way out, bringing
salts with it.
Cladding should normally be left to weather naturally, as cleaning
systems sometimes adversely affect appearance. The migration of salts may be
prevented by coating adjoining brickwork with a waterproofing agent before the
cladding is fixed, providing a cavity of width recommended in CP 297 and CP
298. In certain cases efflorescence can be removed by a dilute acid followed by
copious washing, and there is evidence that it may initially be reduced or
eliminated by the application of a silicone-based waterproofer. BS 3826
recommends that waterrepellents should be applied to completed walls rather than
to individual building units to avoid inadvertent treatment of beds which will
affect mortar bonding, and to ensure that the faces of joints are also treated. The
surface of precast units covered with silicone will give protection for some years.

4.5
MORTAR
The main functions of mortar are to provide even load distribution, resist external
forces, release stresses that might otherwise crack the wall and control alignment.
Without admixtures, the best compromise is 1/1/6 of cement/lime/sand,
although a 1/2/9 mix may be used for lower strength lightweight blocks when
there is no risk of freezing during construction. A mortar should be no stronger
than necessary for structural and durability purposes. Other properties such as
workability and rate of hardening are also important, although mortar need only
support the given load and have adequate weather resistance. Movements during
construction can be taken up by a slow-setting mortar with the minimum of
cracking and drying shrinkage, further reduced by the use of air-entraining
plasticizers. A mix which is too rich may result in porosity of the jointing by
hairline cracks which encourage penetration, whilst one which is too wet may
soak the building units, unnecessarily promoting efflorescence by increasing
moisture movement and dangerous if frost is expected.
Most plasticizers contain an additive which improves the bond to high suction
blocks. Masonry cements consist of Portland clinker and a small proportion of air-
entraining agent, together with a mineral filler which increases cohesion without
undue water demand. These cements are usually lighter in colour than normal
and have lower shrinkage and a better resistance to freeze/thaw conditions.
Movement of excess sulphate-laden water from the mortar into blocks or bricks
will occur if the units are very dry at the time of laying, but on the other hand
 PREVENTION 21

prior soaking may lead to loss of adhesion, so that the right balance must be
sought.
Mortars containing admixtures can be more durable, assist in pigmented colour
retention and have a water-retaining capacity which provides a tighter bond and
prevents passage of moisture. By this means re-wetting of the mortar to keep it
workable is unnecessary, and greater plasticity allows a longer spread. Some
admixtures are supplied in liquid form ready for use, with less water needed for
gauging, no difference in colour and the absence of chemical action. A mix of 1
part cement to 6 parts sand, plus a plasticizer, will improve resistance to rain
penetration and frost attack, but in exposed conditions the cement content should
be increased by richening to 4½ parts sand.
Efflorescence forming round the edges of building units suggests that these have
absorbed water from the mortar before it hardened and that its constituents have
been converted into alkaline sulphates. There must be a happy balance between
the porosities, but always consistent with overall durability. Even when no
moisture has been absorbed from mortar during laying, these compounds may still
be transferred to the blocks if the partly finished wall is left unprotected during
rain, resulting in the formation of white bands. A similar effect is seen if the unit
itself is impermeable but the mortar is less so.
The chief danger to brickwork from the presence of salts is that of sulphate
attack, showing itself as expansion of the mortar or horizontal cracking of the
rendering which becomes hollow and falls away. If the wall has to be rebuilt and
salts are likely to persist, the mortar should be made with sulphate-resisting cement,
but the basic aim is to prevent further attack by the provision of a damp-proof
course at all levels. Unnecessarily strong mortars can lead to wide cracks, while a
weaker but still durable mix yields sufficiently to accommodate small movements
in a wall, with distribution into cracking which is less permeable. Mortar made on
site should preferably be mixed by a machine which is regularly cleaned to avoid
contamination, or if by hand in small quantities on watertight platforms. Pointing
is also significant as a drying surface, for when it is denser than the mortar,
evaporation at the joints will be restricted. Calcium chloride is not effective in
protecting from frost by heat evolution, and may lead to dampness and corrosion
of wall ties.

4.6
JOINTS
The greater use of thin easily assembled concrete units, the more the need to
consider the dangers of water ingress. Wall thickness no longer overcomes the
natural absorbency of the material or its constituent parts, so that jointing needs
very special attention. Ideally a feature should be made of all joints and, although
grooves may give rise to streaking, the division of large areas into panels of
appropriate size will distract sufficiently by their composite appeal. When precast
panels are being fixed, accurate alignment to agreed tolerance is essential so that
22 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

there is minimum interruption to the flow of rainwater. The performance of

sealants is important, as the failure of mastics in expansion joints by loss of
adhesion or by restraint must be avoided. If, in spite of precautions, a light deposit
does appear, there is obviously faulty damp-proofing or drainage. No remedial
action will hide a poorly made junction between lifts, and this is best attained by
casting against a slightly roughened face which is dry and not treated with a
priming layer of mortar. Contraction joints may also present a visual problem in
that they will appear as strongly marked lines and must be regularly spaced and
bear some relation to aspects of the elevation such as sills and lintels. Sometimes a
small lip is left which, if not buffed off, can divert the flow of water to result in
undesirable staining.

4.7
PIGMENTS
Pigments minimize surface differences, contribute visual interest and should be
regarded as inert fines. Sufficient intensity of colour is obtainable by a small
addition, although consistency can be affected by differing vibration, leading
to local concentration. Moreover, it will in time be masked by soot deposits and
should, therefore, be secondary to form, texture and three-dimensional features
capable of dictating water paths. In coastal areas it may be advisable to specify a
shade lighter than would otherwise be chosen, as sea salts play a role in the
disfiguration of darker surfaces.

4.8
DETAILING
New concrete has a lightness of tone which emphasizes differential grime, to
which efflorescence will make its own contribution if the surface is ill-conceived.
Detailing cannot be dismissed as irrelevant and there has justifiably been a long-
standing practice of capping which, for good measure, gives a strong outline.
Adequate throating will throw the water clear and although it will probably blow
back at a lower level, it will at least be scattered and less pronounced.
Consideration must be given to the relationship of all the materials and features
making up the structure, with particular emphasis on openings and projections;
although forming a pattern themselves, their individual treatment is crucial, as
even a small crack can cause discoloration if it is fed by rain on a large area of
glazing. Care must also be taken to anticipate the impact of contaminated salts, air
pollution and the general susceptibility of wallings, rendering and backings, before
deciding on suitable protective measures.
Traditional units were smaller than the present day concrete monoliths and,
while each element varied slightly, the overall effect was often strong enough to
subdue weather marking. The modern preference for cement in mortar has also
upset this balance. Lack of attention to the disciplines of practical construction
 PREVENTION 23

using sensitive detailing has led to some criticism of concrete, especially in the
current quest for new shapes and finishes which are not always proof against the
rigours of weathering. For example, a mastic joint would allow for slight
movement to prevent ingress and it may be advisable to specify sulphate-resisting
cement where chemically vulnerable in wetter districts. There is often a finely
balanced combination of direction and duration of rain with variable evaporation
and in all prior assessment of this movement, salt-laden or otherwise, previous
experience of any locality is invaluable and salutary. Such a study should be
implemented by a consideration of all surface projections and by the provision of
membranes below ground floors and around foundations. BS 4315 lists methods of
measuring resistance to rain penetration by recording the increase in area of
dampness and amount of leakage. Transfer of dirt from a horizontal to a vertical
surface can be avoided by raking backwards, while reveals may be recessed and
sills inclined to grooves discharging into a drainage pipe. Rain splashings from
pavements can often contribute to the disruption of plinths, and there is a case for
polished granite in this situation.

4.9
DAMP-PROOFING
Damp-proof courses should be inserted just above ground level and below
overhangs, with flashings of impervious sheeting firmly bedded and provided with
adequate lapping to cover any intersection or vulnerable joint. Copings should
be specified for walls to throw rainwater clear of the faces, well-dripped and
prevented from displacement. The aim is to keep any form of moisture out of the
structure and to reduce concrete shrinkage; it is necessary to recognize the effect
of leakage other than that due to cracking, and to foresee all points of ingress.

4.10
FORMWORK
The performance of a concrete face is largely conditioned by formwork. Its effect
on discoloration arises from variations such as lining absorption, displacement of
release agent and workmanship during and after compaction. The form should be
well supported to ensure rigidity in countering excessive vibration; lack of ability
is sometimes evident along bridge parapets where a regular pattern coincides with
vertical supports, and this can be aggravated by carelessness at the erection and
removal stages.
After striking, a carbonation layer is established on exposure to air; the more
porous the concrete the thicker the layer will be. The surface of structures to be
backfilled should, therefore, be left for a few days to develop this protective skin.
Free water on a newly cast, non-carbonated surface is undesirable and it is often a
disadvantage to strip the shutter at an early age, quite apart from mechanical
damage caused by premature removal. Recommendations as to winter concreting
24 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

are given in CP 110 where a strength of 5 N/mm2 is suggested at a concrete

temperature not less than 5°C, and striking times are tabulated in CIRIA Report
36. For high quality fairfaced concrete the goal is a surface as struck without the
need to make good. The number of uses should be restricted, all fixings applied
from behind and the holes set out to an agreeable design. Joints in the shutter
should be well taped to avoid grout runs spoiling the lift below, while release
agents should be carefully selected and consistently applied.

4.11
RENDERING
Rendering mixes should be weaker than the surfaces to which they are applied
and each successive coat no stronger nor thicker than its predecessor. New work
should be kept damp for the first three days and the second coat delayed until the
first has hardened. Although slight watering may be necessary to reduced suction,
free moisture should never be left on the surface, and suitable admixtures may be
used to reduce loss of water and improve workability. Dense coatings such as 1/3
cement/sand should not be applied to walls with appreciable sulphate content and
in danger of shrinkage cracking. If so damaged, the facing should be stripped off
and the brickwork allowed to dry before re-application with a more porous mix
of 1/1/6 cement/lime/sand which permits readier evaporation, and using a
sulphate-resisting cement for both rendering and jointing mortar.

4.12
URBAN ENVIRONMENTS
The designer in an urban area should regard pollution as inevitable. The extent of
sulphur dioxide in the air can be regrettably high and to offset this, coloured
concrete or exposed aggregates should be specified. The cement content of
all facings must, of course, be consistent with durability. The other key factors in
assessment of any kind are location, aspect, severity of climatic conditions and the
effects of aggressive salts. While one approach may lie in cleaning the building
regularly, this will accentuate the dirt but mask a light deposit. A hopeful maxim
is that the rougher a wall the less the signs of staining, so that it may be better to
specify a coarse-textured dissipating surface.
Discoloration of concrete can be caused by chemical changes in adjacent
materials or emerging deposits washed by rainwater from windows above,
however much these openings divert from its overall pattern. Backward sloping
surfaces have a tendency to streak because of partial water flow, while forward
slopes may collect silt at their bases. Ideally the elevation should be modelled to
attract this in areas of greater shadow, if by so doing the other parts are kept
cleaner. The art of concealment and prevention should be practised, with
attention given to extreme weather attack on exposed faces or relatively
unwashed alcoves and returns.
 PREVENTION 25

Concrete is generally less permeable than traditional materials, but its

absorbency is not uniform and it colours unevenly. No building is self-cleansing
and smooth surfaces tend to weather in the manner dictated by rainfall along
random paths. The remedy is to influence this movement by regulating its sequence
or to scatter by the use of say abrasive blasting. The striations of a ribbed profile
hide imperfections, and when the edges are hammered off they assume the
appearance of hewn rock. Streaking may only occasionally be acceptable as, for
example, on the soffit of bridges, but even this can be objectionable where it is
obviously the result of poor design.
When considering surface permeability it should be remembered that calcined
flints are themselves minutely crazed in baking and absorb water in hairline
cracks, while cement paste between fine aggregate particles will also absorb unless
conscientiously cured. A good concrete can be marred by dark patches with a
lower water/cement ratio than the body of the wall, and it is difficult to ensure
complete uniformity over large smooth areas. It may be advisable to emphasize
shadow effects and even the lifts themselves without excessive obtrusion. The
effect of disfiguration can also be reduced by planning contrast between adjacent
faces using panels alternating in colour and profile. If the concrete is at risk from
chemical or corrosive attack at the rear face it would be sensible to coat with a
waterproof backing, well-bonded and flexible enough to inhibit cracks or faulty
joints through which salts might filter.

4.13
SURFACE TREATMENT
The specified requirements for concrete surfaces to suit extreme weathering are
stringent, but must be offset against the cost of cleaning or repair. Efflorescence is
only one form of tarnish in a range from scaffolding rust to grout spillage but,
unlike others, is often an in-built irritation. It may be necessary to paint the
surface after careful preparation, as has profitably been done on motorways, where
discoloration is offensive even at speed, but concrete can be restored to something
approaching its original appearance. Painting may be considered for aesthetic
reasons or for easier run-off. The colour scheme should be wellbalanced using the
many shades available, but their number kept to a minimum for any given
project.
Another approach is to use transparent coatings such as silicones which fill the
pores as water-repellents but can result in subdued evaporation and the possible
build-up of disruptive crystalline growth under the surface. Such coatings should
not be used to improve the durability of the concrete if already suspect by virtue
of salt action. A soluble silicate in powder form may give reduced permeability
and protection against the creation of further crystals in the pores, but this
assumes good mix design and quality control.
All walls containing cementitious products are vulnerable to alkali attack and
either non-saponifiable paints or alkali-resistant agents may be employed.
26 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

Plate 5: The result of not extending the exposed aggregate panels to cover the edge beam.
Efflorescence in the lower part has been dissipated by the bold rounded aggregate. There has
been failure to ensure a satisfactory bond between slab and beam, and to prevent ingress of
water. Another approach would have been vertical fluting instead of concrete off a plain
shutter.
Emulsions are also valuable in that they are formulated with polymers of similar
properties; when used for rendering they should be applied thinly and should
penetrate the surface rather than create a glossy film to which paint may not
adhere. Efflorescence can be difficult to scrape off and may disrupt an impervious
decorative layer, but can be covered over if a suitable primer is applied.
 PREVENTION 27

Plate 6: This illustrates the failure to prevent efflorescence at the junction of otherwise
attractive panels by a suitable mortar mix, with the resulting entry of water from the deck.
28
 5
REMOVAL

5.1
WASHING AND BRUSHING
Feathery or fluffy efflorescence should be allowed to dry out before removal with
a bristle brush; even if glossy and encrusted it is often possible to eradicate by
scraping when it is not strongly keyed, first softening the deposits and then
discarding them before washing the surface with water. This should preferably be
carried out by men skilled in the procedure and with a knowledge of local
conditions. If some of the salts soak back into the wall and re-appear, the same
techniques should be adopted until their movement ceases or they at least become
acceptable. Continued physical treatment, vigorous or otherwise, demands
sensitive workmanship to avoid damage, and restoration of important buildings
should only be undertaken by specialist firms. Before dealing with an extensive
outbreak of efflorescence, it is advisable to consider the effect of cleaning a small
section which may show up another. It is better to leave certain areas until the
concrete is, say, a month old to let nature take its course. In any case, little can be
done to remove hydration discoloration which is a more deep-seated contrast in
shade.
While efflorescence can often be removed by water only, and possibly with
jetting, any treatment aimed at suppressing evaporation may lead to crystallization
below the surface, entrapment in the pores and spalling. In sheltered spots,
deposits not reached by rain can sometimes be removed by repeated washing. It is
important to remember that dirt at any point not only affects appearance but acts
as a reservoir for harmful chemicals and hides evidence of decay. All may be
dissolved in due course by natural means, but if it is too tenacious and the time
factor important, other remedies must be applied.
Particular care should be taken with structures of architectural or historical
importance when cleaning by mechanical means such as grit-blasting and grinding
or buffing discs, always guarding against dust if the surface contains free silica. If in
doubt it is better to use hand tools, non-ferrous brushes or abrasive blocks rather
than rotary power unless the staining is deep-seated and widespread. Wire
brushing should only be applied in extreme cases and never to sand-faced surfaces
30 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

likely to be damaged by attention of this kind. If cleaning by water spray working

from the top of the building, it should be directed only in sufficient quantity to
keep the deposits moist until they soften, generally in a few minutes. They may
be amenable to pressure hosing, supplemented by careful and timely brushing, a
disadvantage being possible leakage into the actual building, although modern
techniques have made this unlikely. Operations should be restricted to those areas
giving most offence, but at the risk of blotching, as attempts to fade out are rarely
successful.

5.2
ACIDS
If brushing is unsuccessful, treatment with a 5–10% solution of hydrochloric acid
is normally effective. The surface would first be wetted down and the acid applied
with a soft brush or broom. Then, as soon as the deposit has dissolved and
chemical action ceased, the area should be washed thoroughly, starting from
above and ensuring that galvanized and aluminium metalwork is protected. For
integrally coloured concrete a more dilute 2% solution will prevent undue
penetration which may otherwise expose the aggregate in places and radically
change the texture. Again the face should be dampened beforehand to prevent
absorption of the acid. In all cases a trial should be carried out on an
inconspicuous part, applying the solution to areas about a 1 m2 or less, waiting a
few minutes before removing the salt with a stiff brush and cleansing copiously. In
the main operation, entire walls should, if necessary, be treated to avoid
aggravating the situation.
Among other forms of agent are those containing hydrofluoric acid, leaving
behind no soluble chemicals but running the risk of unsightly etching of
windows. Also recommended for cement-based surfaces is the application of a
10% solution of phosphoric acid which converts lime to an insoluble compound
before suitable priming and painting. If the wall cannot be obtained in a dry
condition it must be covered with a porous alkali-resistant coating, ensuring that
conditions of heat and ventilation are good. Although proprietary materials are
available for the removal of mortar stains, there is no chemical which will
completely inhibit the effects of a saturated salt solution, even if the wall is sealed
by silicone-based repellents. A typical cleaner, stored in plastic or rubber
containers, is applied by brush and immediately washed. Coverage of this mild
acid is about 20 m2 per 5 litres depending on surface porosity and the thickness
and extent of deposits. It will also deal with algae growth and normal atmospheric
staining, and there is no residual chemical reaction when it is used either neat or
in equal parts with water. However, in the first place the use of a softer brush and
dilute solution over a restricted area is recommended and the surface should be
quickly washed down, as indeed is good practice after every application of this
kind, whatever the concentration. At joints, while stains caused by leaching from
fresh mortar or soaked blocks can also be removed by dilute acid, it may be
 REMOVAL 31

advisable to paint the surface of rendering rather than attempt to clean it if the
deposit is difficult to eradicate or likely to re-appear.
Corrosive substances should be handled with rubber gloves, and goggles and
other protective clothing worn. Care must also be taken to wipe splashes off the
skin with bicarbonate of soda or at least soap and water. Above all, it is best
to seek expert advice and to engage specialist operatives, as acids can permanently
scarify and must be treated with respect. The cleaning of a building should be
sensibly planned, including safety measures, and a study made of all available
methods relative to the extent and origin of the stains.
32
 6
CONCLUSION

Discoloration of concrete surfaces, however transient, can present a complex

problem to designer and contractor alike in its cause and prevention. The degree
of disfigurement is determined by vagaries in weather and workmanship but
initially results from lack of knowledge on how best to disperse rainwater over a
structure. Many blemishes arise from defective detailing, damp-proofing and
construction joints as the crucial factors, whilst localized staining can be caused by
variation in porosity.
It is often difficult to prevent the movement of salts which pass into solution
and on evaporation become more concentrated into solids which are superficial
but unsightly; while porous materials are more likely to bring these to the surface,
there can be disruption if evaporation is inhibited. All elements of a building should
be selected as to minimum salt content, and saturation prevented by sensible
stacking and protection of work as it proceeds. When rendering a wall, too much
sand or excessive trowelling should be avoided. Unduly strong jointing mortar
can lead to fine cracks, through which the alkaline solution may filter and leave
its mark.
The answer also lies in breaking up the surface by attractive profiling or the
imaginative use of panels and exposed aggregate. Above all, care should be taken
to ensure that the concrete is of high quality and reliable durability, with attention
given to grading of the mix, optimum cement content and effective curing.
34 EFFLORESCENCE AND THE DISCOLORATION OF CONCRETE

Plate 7: A close-up view of a parapet where fluting has certainly helped to break up the
surface and direct the flow of rainwater down the grooves at varied centres, but the feature
has not been taken down to the foot of the wall and has failed to prevent corresponding
stains on the lowest quarter of the face.
 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY

VIEWPOINT PUBLICATIONS
The following are available from Eyre & Spottiswoode Publications Limited,
Distribution Centre, George Philip Services Limited, Arndale Road, Wick,
Littlehampton, West Sussex BN17 7EN.

TATTERSHALL, G.H. The workability of concrete. 1976, 138 pages, A5. Order No: 11.008
RICHARDSON, J.G. Concrete notebook. 1974, 92 pages, A4. Order No: 12.063
RICHARDSON, J.G. Formwork construction and practice. 1977, 275 pages, A4. Order No:
13.019
RICHARDSON, J.G. Formwork notebook. 1982, 2nd edition, 120 pages, A4. Order No:
12.082

CEMENT & CONCRETE ASSOCIATION

The following are available from the Publications Sales Unit, Cement & Concrete
Association, Wexham Springs, Slough SL3 6PL, Berkshire.

42.313 The effect of weather on the formation of efflorescence

42.380 Concrete surface blemishes
42.384 The influence of concrete mix proportions and type of form face on the
appearance of concrete
42.414 Construction joints in concrete
42.467 A survey of literature relating to the properties and use of concrete blocks
42.480 The crazing of concrete

42.493 An investigation into the incidence of colour variation in formed concrete

surfaces
42.505 Mechanical damage to concrete by early removal of formwork
45.007 Winter concreting
45.012 The determination of proportions of aggregates
36 BIBLIOGRAPHY

45.013 Concreting in hot weather

45.015 Chemical methods of removing stains from concrete
45.016 Impurities in aggregates for concrete
45.020 Controlling algae and other growths on concrete
45.022 Air-entrained concrete
45.030 Superplasticizing admixtures in concrete
45.031 Concrete mixes for general purposes
45.034 Concrete in sulphate-bearing ground

Man on the job leaflets

45.101 Cements
45.102 Aggregates—delivery and storage
45.103 Testing aggregates
45.104 Concrete admixtures
45.105 Reinforcement
45.106 Batching and mixing concrete on site
45.107 Transporting and pumping concrete
45.108 Placing and compacting concrete
45.109 Curing concrete
45.110 Making good and finishing
45.111 Tooling concrete
45.112 Testing for workability
45.113 Concrete test cubes
45.114 Construction joints
45.115 Formwork
45.116 Ready-mixed concrete
45.117 Dry lean concrete
45.118 Concreting in cold weather
46.001 Concrete finishes for highway structures
46.019 The appearance of concrete highway structures
46.504 Watertight concrete construction
47.008 Abrasive blasting of concrete surfaces
47.010 Specification for high quality finishes
47.018 Striated finishes for in situ concrete
47.020 The curing of concrete
47.101 Visual concrete—design and production

47.102 External rendering

47.103 The control of blemishes in concrete
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 37

47.104 Efflorescence on concrete

48.010 White concrete
48.037 Concrete practice
48.041 Precast concrete cladding
48.043 Model specification for concrete blockwork
94.017 The brighter face of concrete
REPRINT 1/80 Structural concrete finishes: A guide to selection and production
CATALOGUE 1982: Part 1—Publications, slide sets and films
Part 2—Research, development and technical reports

BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT

The following are produced by the Building Research Establishment of the
Department of the Environment, and are published by H M Stationery Office.

BRE Digest No 45: Design and appearance—1

No 46: Design and appearance—2
No 54: Damp-proofing solid floors
No 77: Damp-proof courses
No 85: Joints between concrete wall panels: open-drained joints
No 113: Cleaning external surfaces of buildings
No 125: Colourless treatments for masonry
No 127: An index of exposure to driving rain
No 137: Principles of joint design
No 160: Mortars for bricklaying
No 176: Failure patterns and implications
No 177: Decay and conservation of stone masonry
No 196: External rendered finishes
No 237: Materials for concrete
No 244: Concrete mixes
No 245: Rising damp in walls
No 250: Concrete in sulphate-bearing soils
No 255: Index of digests

Current Paper 23/77: Chemical resistance of concrete

Information Paper 6/81: Carbonation of concrete made with natural aggregates
BRE Information Directory 1982
HMSO Sectional list No 61: Construction 1982
38 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION

The following British Standards and Codes of Practice are published by the
British Standards Institution, 101 Pentonville Road, London N1 9ND.

BS 12: 1978 Ordinary and rapid-hardening Portland cement

BS 743: 1970 Materials for damp-proof courses
BS 882: 1975 Aggregates from natural sources for concrete
BS 890: 1972 Building limes
BS 1014: 1975 Pigments for Portland cement and Portland cement products
BS 1180: 1972 Concrete bricks and fixing bricks
BS 1198: 1976 Building sands from natural sources
BS 1199: 1976 Sands for external renderings
BS 1200: 1976 Sands for mortars
BS 2028, 1364: 1968 Precast concrete blocks
BS 3826: 1969 Silicone-based water repellents for masonry
BS 3921: 1974 Clay bricks and blocks
BS 4315: Part 2: 1970 Methods of test for resistance to air and water penetration
BS 4551: 1980 Methods of testing mortars and specification for mortar sand
BS 4887: 1973 Mortar plasticizers
BS 5075: 1982 Concrete admixtures
BS 5262: 1976 Code of practice for external rendered finishes
CP 110: 1972 The structural use of concrete
CP 111: 1970 Structural recommendations for loadbearing walls
CP 121: Part 1: 1973 Brick and block masonry
CP 297: 1972 Precast concrete cladding (non-loadbearing)
CP 298: 1972 Natural stone cladding (non-loadbearing)
YEARBOOK 1983 Summaries of British Standards

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

PERKINS, P.H. Concrete structures: repair, waterproofing and protection. Applied Science
Publishers Ltd., London, 1977.
GAGE, M. & KIRKBRIDE, T. Design in blockwork. Architectural Press Ltd., London,
1980
WILSON, J.G. Exposed concrete finishes. Vol 1—Finishes in in situ concrete and Vol 2—
Finishes to precast concrete. G R Books Ltd., London, 1962.
GAGE, M. Guide to exposed concrete finishes. Architectural Press Ltd., London, 1970
NEVILLE, A.M.and CHATTERTON, M. New concrete technologies and building design.
Pitman Publishing Ltd., London, 1979.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 39

ADDLESON, L. Materials for building. Vol 3—Water and effects. Iliffe, London, 1972.
BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Principles of modern building. Vol 1—The
building and the wall, 1975 and Vol 2—Floors and roofs, 1977. HMSO, London.
CONCRETE SOCIETY. The weathering of concrete. Symposium, London, 1977.
CONCRETE SOCIETY. Guide to chemical admixtures. London, 1980.
SPECIFICATION. Building materials and products. Architectural Press Ltd., London, 1982.
SEALANT MANUFACTURERS CONFERENCE. Manual of good sealant practice.
London, 1976.
MARSH, P. Air and rain penetration of buildings. Construction Press Ltd., Lancaster, 1977.
40 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Plate 8: Good example of fluting and tiling on a self-cleansing facade.

 8
APPENDIX: CHECKLIST TABLE
42 APPENDIX: CHECKLIST TABLE
APPENDIX: CHECKLIST TABLE 43
44 APPENDIX: CHECKLIST TABLE
APPENDIX: CHECKLIST TABLE 45
46 APPENDIX: CHECKLIST TABLE
APPENDIX: CHECKLIST TABLE 47