ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

(volumetric analysis)

STUDENT NAME: OMED HASHIM MAULOOD

ASKANDER Course: 2nd semester Instructor:
Assist.prof.:Nazli A. Shahbas Assist. lect.: Fatma M. Jabar
Date: 21/6/202

1
INTRODUCTION :

Volumetric Analysis is the procedure of mixing a standard solution of known volume with
a solution of known volume of unknown concentration. Volumetric analysis is done usually
through titration and the purpose of this process is to ultimately find the unknown
concentration of the solution. Usually, titration between solutions that will result in an acid-
base reaction will be conducted and the titre is recorded once the end point has been
reached.
The equivalence point is the point during a titration when all the solutions have been mixed
together in their respective mole ratios as given by its overall balanced stoichiometric
equation.
The end point is the point where the indicator/solution changes colour. Ideally, the end
point and equivalence point should be the same however conditions such as temperature
and insufficient stirring of solutions may lead to a lack of colour change even when
solutions have been added in their mole ratios.
A standard solution is a solution with an accurately known concentration.
Primary standard are substances of high purity that their mole can be measured accurately
from their mass. Some examples of primary standards include zinc powder, sodium
carbonate and benzoic acid. Traits that define a primary standard include

2
 Reaction and reagent in volumetric analysis:
reactions in volumetric analysis
There are four main types of reaction

1. Acid-base or neutralization reactions, where free bases are reacted with a standard acid (or vice versa).
These reactions involve the combination of hydrogen and hydroxide ions to form water.
2. Complex formation reactions, in which the reactants are combined to form a soluble ion or compound.
The most important reagent for formation of such complexes is ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid, EDTA
(as the disodium salt).
3. Precipitation reactions, involving the combination of reactants to form a precipitate.
4. Oxidation-reduction reactions, i.e. reactions involving a gain (reduction) or loss (oxidation) of electrons.
The standard solutions used here are either oxidizing agents (e.g. potassium permanganate) or reducing
agents (e.g. iron (II) compounds).

Reagent in volumetric analysis

Many kinds of organic reagents have been used for analytical chemistry. Most of the reagents are
chelating reagents. On the other hand, there is an ionassociation reagent which does not belong to the
chelating reagent. The chelating reagent is composed of an organic compound and can react only with a
metal ion (cation) to form its chelate compound, whereas the ion-association reagent is either organic or
inorganic compound, so it can react with either cation or anion. The anionic ion-association reagent reacts
with ion-associable cations and the cationic one reacts with ion-associable anions to form the respective
ion associates in an aqueous solution. When the concentration of the ion-associate is relatively high in
water, it is precipitated. This fact is used for gravimetric or volumetric analysis. When it is diluted, it is
extracted into an organic solvent which is immiscible with water and the extract is used for
spectrophotometry to determine a trace component in the ion-associate. The ion-association occurs in
water, which is a highly polar and hydrogen-bonded solvent. The ion associable ion is slightly hydrated,
because the ion can

3
Endpoint:
Titration measures the concentration of an unknown solution that reacts with a
solution of known concentration. The process is often used to check the purity of
synthesized chemical compounds, such as pharmaceuticals. The ideal point for
the completion of titration is known as the equivalence point. The end point
demonstrates the equivalence point, typically by some form of indicator. For
example, with a color indicator, the solution changes color when the titration
reaches its end point.

4
 Concentration change during titration
titration: The determination of the concentration of some substance in a solution by
slowly adding measured amounts of some other substance (normally using a burette)
until a reaction is shown to be complete—for instance, by the color change of an
indicator.
1. An acid – base titration is used to determine the unknown concentration of an acid or base by
neutralizing it with an acid or base of known concentration.
2. Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and a neutralized base.
3. A strong acid yields a weak conjugate base (A–), so a strong acid is also described as an acid whose
conjugate base is a much weaker base than water.

1. strong acid: A strong acid is one that completely ionizes (dissociates) in water; in other words, one
mole of a strong acid (HA) dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the
conjugate base, A−.
2. titration: The determination of the concentration of some substance in a solution by slowly adding
measured amounts of some other substance (normally using a burette) until a reaction is shown to
be complete—for instance, by the color change of an indicator.
3. stoichiometry: The calculation of relative quantities or reactants and products in chemical
reactions.
4. strong base: A strong base is a basic chemical compound that is able to deprotonate very weak
acids in an acid-base reaction. Common examples of strong bases are the hydroxides of alkali
metals and alkaline earth metals, such as NaOH and Ca(OH)2. Very strong bases are even able to
deprotonate very weakly acidic C–H groups in the absence of water

5
5. .

Acid - Base Indicators and Titrations

Acid - Base indicators (also known as pH indicators) are substances which change
colour with pH. They are usually weak acids or bases, which when dissolved in water
dissociate slightly and form ions.

Consider an indicator which is a weak acid, with the formula HIn. At equilibrium, the following
equilibrium equation is established with its conjugate base:

The acid and its conjugate base have different colours. At low pH values the concentration of H3O+ is
high and so the equilibrium position lies to the left. The equilibrium solution has the colour A. At high pH
values, the concentration of H3O+ is low - the equilibrium position thus lies to the right and the
equilibrium solution has colour B.
Phenolphthalein is an example of an indicator which establishes this type of equilibrium in aqueous
solution:

6
 colourless (Acid) pink (Base)

Phenolphthalein is a colourless, weak acid which dissociates in water forming pink anions. Under acidic
conditions, the equilibrium is to the left,and the concentration of the anions is too low for the pink colour
to be observed. However, under alkaline conditions, the equilibrium is to the right, and the concentration
of the anion becomes sufficient for the pink colour to be observed.
We can apply equilibrium law to indicator equilibria - in general for a weak acid indicator:

Kln is known as the indicator dissociation constant. The colour of the indicator turns from colour A to
colour B or vice versa at its turning point. At this point:

So from equation:

The pH of the solution at its turning point is called the pKln and is the pH at which half of the indicator is
in its acid form and the other half in the form of its conjugate base.

Indicator Range

7
At a low pH, a weak acid indicator is almost entirely in the HIn form, the colour of
which predominates. As the pH increases - the intensity of the colour of HIn decreases
and the equilibrium is pushed to the right. Therefore the intensity of the colour of
In- increases. An indicator is most effective if the colour change is distinct and over a
low pH range. For most indicators the range is within ±1 of the pKln value: - please see
the table below for examples, to the right is a model of the acid form of each indicator
- with the colour of the solution at the turning point.

Colour pKln pH range

Indicator
Acid Base

Thymol Blue - 1st change red yellow 1.5 1.2 - 2.8

Methyl Orange red yellow 3.7 3.2 - 4.4

Bromocresol Green yellow blue 4.7 3.8 - 5.4

Methyl Red yellow red 5.1 4.8 - 6.0

Bromothymol Blue yellow blue 7.0 6.0 - 7.6

Phenol Red yellow red 7.9 6.8 - 8.4

Thymol Blue - 2nd change yellow blue 8.9 8.0 - 9.6

Phenolphthalein colourless pink 9.4 8.2 - 10.0

8
A Universal Indicator is a mixture of indicators which give a gradual change in colour over a wide pH
range - the pH of a solution can be approximately identified when a few drops of universal indicator are
mixed with the solution.
Indicators are used in titration solutions to signal the completion of the acid-base reaction.

Theories indicator behavior:

An indicator is a substance which show characteristic change in its colour when comes in contact
with acid or base and thus it is used to determine dicators the degree of acidity or basicity of any
solution. For example litmus solution or litmus paper.

Role of indicators in chemistry is very important. They are used are also used to find out the end point in
a titration.
In acid-base titrations, organic substances (weak acids or weak bases) are generally used as indicators.
Indicators change their colour within a certain pH range.The colour change and the pH range of some
common indicators used are tabulated below:
Indicator pH Colour of Colour
Range
Acidic of Basic
Solution Solution
Methyl Orange 3.2- Orange Yellow
4.5

9
 Methyl Red 4.4 – Red Yellow
6.5
Bromothymol 6.0 - Yellow Blue
blue 7.8
Phenolphthalein 8.3- Colourless Pink
10.0
Alizarin Yellow 10.1 Yellow Red
–
12.1
Litmus 5.5- Red Blue
7.5
Phenol red 6.8- Yellow Red
8.4

There are two theories which explain the change of colour indicators with change in pH.

Types of EDTA titraition:

is a type of volumetric analysis wherein the coloured complex is used to determine the endpoint of
the titration. Titration is one of the common method used in laboratories which determines the unknown
concentration of an analyte that has been identified. It is a method used in quantitative chemical analysis.
It is sometimes termed as volumetric analysis as measurements of volume play a vital role. Here reagent is
used as a standard solution, and they are called titrant. Titrant Volume is defined as the volume of a titrant
that is reacted. Complexometric Titration is in the detection of mixtures of different metal ions present in
the solution.
When each drop of titrant is added, the reaction reaches an equilibrium state swiftly. There would be no
chance for any interfering situations. The equivalent point can be identified very accurately using a complex
metric titration. EDTA is used as a titrant and it is pretty much well established.

10
Endpoint for EDTA titration:

Calamite and Eriochrome Black (EBT) are such indicators that change from blue to pink when
they complex with calcium or magnesium. The endpoint of a complex metric EDTA
titration using either Calamite or EBT as the indicator is detected as the color changes from pink
to blue

use mechanism indicator for edta titration:

To carry out metal cation titrations using EDTA, it is almost always necessary to use a complex
metric indicator to determine when the end point has been reached. Common indicators are
organic dyes such as Fast Sulphon Black, Eriochrome Black T, Eriochrome Red B, Patton
Reeder, or Murexide. Color change shows that the indicator has been displaced (usually by
EDTA) from the metal cations in solution when the end point has been reached. Thus, the free
indicator (rather than the metal complex) serves as the endpoint indicator.

Oxidation and reducing reagent:

An oxidizing agent, or oxidant, gains electrons and is reduced in a chemical reaction. Also known as the
electron acceptor, the oxidizing agent is normally in one of its higher possible oxidation states because it
will gain electrons and be reduced. Examples of oxidizing agents include halogens, potassium nitrate, and
nitric acid.
A reducing agent, or reductant, loses electrons and is oxidized in a chemical reaction. A reducing agent is
typically in one of its lower possible oxidation states, and is known as the electron donor. A reducing agent
is oxidized, because it loses electrons in the redox reaction. Examples of reducing agents include the earth
metals, formic acid, and sulfite compounds.

Definitions

1. A reducing agent reduces other substances and loses electrons; therefore, its oxidation
state increases.
2. An oxidizing agent oxidizes other substances and gains electrons; therefore, its oxidation
state decreases
Table 1: Commons oxidizing and reducing
agents

11
 Common Common
oxidizing reducing
agents agents

O2 H2

O3 CO
F2 Fe
Br2 Zn
H2SO4 Li

Halogens (they favor gaining Alkali metals (they favor losing

an electron to obtain a noble an electron to obtain a noble
gas configuration) gas configuration)
To help eliminate confusion, there is a mnemonic device to help determine oxidizing and reducing agents.
OIL RIG:
Oxidation Is Loss and Reduction Is Gain of electrons
Example 1: Identify reducing and oxidizing agents

Identify the reducing and oxidizing agents in the balanced redox reaction:

Cl2(aq)+2Br−(aq)→2Cl−(aq)+Br2(aq)(1)(1)Cl2(aq)+2Br−(aq)→2Cl−(aq)+Br2(aq)
Oxidation half reaction

2Br−(aq)→Br2(aq)(2)(2)2Br−(aq)→Br2(aq)
Oxidation States: -1 0
Reduction Half Reaction

Cl2(aq)→2Cl−(aq)(3)(3)Cl2(aq)→2Cl−(aq)
Oxidation States: 0 -1
Overview

1. B- loses an electron; it is oxidized from Br- to Br2; thus, Br- is the reducing agent.
2. Cl2 gains one electron; it is reduced from Cl2 to 2 Cl-; thus, Cl2 is the oxidizing agent.
Exercise

Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent in the following redox reaction:

MnO−4+SO2−3→Mn+2+SO2−4(4)(4)MnO4−+SO32−→Mn+2+SO42−

12
Solution
SS is the reducing agent and MnMn is the oxidizing agent.
Applications
Oxidizing and reducing agents are important in industrial applications. They are used in processes such as
purifying water, bleaching fabrics, and storing energy (such as in batteries and gasoline). Oxidizing and
reducing agents are especially crucial in biological processes such as metabolism and photosynthesis. For
example, organisms use electron acceptors such as NAD+ to harvest energy from redox reactions as in the
hydrolysis of glucose:
C6H12O6+2ADP+2P+2NAD+→2CH3COCO2H+2ATP+2NADH(1)(1)C6H12O6+2ADP+2P+
2NAD+→2CH3COCO2H+2ATP+2NADH
All combustion reactions are also examples of redox reactions. A combustion reaction occurs when a
substance reacts with oxygen to create heat. One example is the combustion of octane, the principle
component of gasoline:

2C8H18(l)+25O2(g)→16CO2(g)+18H2O(g)(2)(2)2C8H18(l)+25O2(g)→16CO2(g)+18H2O(g)
Combustion reactions are a major source of energy for modern industry.

Summary
By looking at each element's oxidation state on the reactant side of a chemical equation compared with the
same element's oxidation state on the product side, one can determine if the element is reduced or oxidized,
and can therefore identify the oxidizing and reducing agents of a chemical reaction.

Oxidizi Reduci
ng ng
Agents Agents

Oxidati
Decrea Increa
on
ses ses
State

# of
Electro Gained Lost
ns

Substa
Reduce Oxidiz
nce
d ed
is...

Problems
1. Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent in the following redox reaction:

13
 MnO2(s)+4H+(aq)+2Cl−(aq)→Mn2+(aq)+2H2O(l)+Cl2(g)(5)(5)MnO2(s)+4H+(aq)+2Cl
−(aq)→Mn2+(aq)+2H2O(l)+Cl2(g)
2. For the
reaction, 2NO2(g)+7H2(g)→2NH3(g)+4H2O(g)2NO2(g)+7H2(g)→2NH3(g)+4H2O(g),
is hydrogen an oxidizing agent or a reducing agent? Explain.
3. An element that is oxidized is a(n) __________ agent and an element that is reduced is
a(n) __________ agent.
4. Identify the reducing agent in the following redox reaction:
5SO2−3+2MnO−4+6H+→5SO2−4+2Mn2++3H2O(6)(6)5SO32−+2MnO4−+6H+→5SO
42−+2Mn2++3H2O
5. What is the oxidizing agent in the following redox reaction?
Zn(s)+Cu2+(aq)→Zn2+(aq)+Cu(s)(7)(7)Zn(s)+Cu2+(aq)→Zn2+(aq)+Cu(s)
6. Determine the oxidizing and reducing agent of the following chemical equation for
aerobic respiration:
C6H12O6(s)+6O2(g)→6CO2(g)+6H2O(l)(8)(8)C6H12O6(s)+6O2(g)→6CO2(g)+6H2O(
l)
7. For a general redox reaction involving species AA and BB, with AA losing electrons
and BB gaining electrons: Is A the oxidizing or reducing agent? Is B the oxidizing or
reducing agent? Which one is reduced and which one is oxidized?
8. In a redox reaction, there must be
1. an oxidizing agent and no reducing agent
2. a reducing agent and no oxidizing agent
3. a reducing agent and an oxidizing agent
4. no reducing or oxidizing agent
9. Which of the following is a strong reducing agent? Which of the following is a
strong oxidizing agent?
NO−3NO3−, NONO, N2H4N2H4, NH3NH3
Solutions
1. Cl−Cl− is the reducing agent because it is oxidized and loses one electron (starting with an
oxidation state of -1 in the Cl−Cl− ions and increasing to 0 in Cl2Cl2). Remember that
gaining electrons means it is "reduced". MnO2MnO2 is the oxidizing agent because it is
reduced by gaining two electrons (starting with MnMn in an oxidation state of +4
in MnO2MnO2 and decreasing to +2 in free Mn2+Mn2+ ions). Keep in mind that losing
electrons means it is "oxidized".
2. In this reaction, hydrogen loses one electron. Hydrogen is oxidized, thus making it the
reducing agent.
3. An element that is oxidized is a reducing agent, because the element loses electrons, and
an element that is reduced is an oxidizing agent, because the element gains electrons.
4. SO2−3SO32− is the reducing agent because it loses two electrons, sulfur changes from an
oxidation state of +4 in SO2−3SO32− to an oxidation state of +6 inSO2−4SO42−.
5. Cu2+(aq)Cu2+(aq) is the oxidizing agent because it gains two electrons, decreasing from
an oxidation state of +2 in Cu2+(aq)Cu2+(aq) to an oxidation state of 0 in Cu(s).

14
6. The oxidizing agent is oxygen and the reducing agent is glucose. Oxygen is reduced, so it
is an oxidizing agent. The glucose is oxidized, so it is a reducing agent.
7. When AA loses electrons, it is oxidized, and is thus a reducing agent. When BB gains
electron, it is reduced, and is thus an oxidizing agent. AA is oxidized and BB is reduced.
8. The answer is C: In a redox reaction, there is always an oxidizing and reducing agent
9. NO−3NO3− is most likely to be a strong oxidizing agent. NH3NH3 is most likely to be a
strong reducing agent. This is determined by comparing the oxidation numbers of nitrogen.
Because NO−3NO3− has the highest oxidation number of +5, compared to the other
molecules, it will most likely be the oxidizing agent. Because nitrogen in NH3NH3 has an
oxidation state of -3, it has the lowest oxidation state and will most likely be the reducing
agent.

Q/10 A

15
Q10/ B

Eqwt of Na2CO3=106/2=53
No. of mg HCl =no. of mg .eq Na2CO3
𝑤𝑡×1000
N= 𝑒𝑞𝑤𝑡×𝑉𝑚𝑙

1.5×1000
N= 53×95

N=0.2979

16
 PARTICAL volumetric chemistry
Q1:

1-Precipitation Titration Definition

It is a titrimetric method which involves the formation of precipitates during the experiment of titration.
The titrant reacts with the analyte and forms an insoluble substance. The titration is continued till the last
drop of the analyte is consumed. When the titrant is excess it reacts with the indicator and signals to
terminate the titration process.

Precipitation Titration Example

Here we have discussed an example of precipitation titration.
Example – To determine the concentration of chloride ion in a certain solution we can titrate this solution
with silver nitrate solution (whose concentration is known). The chemical reaction Occurs as follows:
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq)→ AgCl(s).
AgCl in the form of a white precipitate can be seen settled at the bottom of the flask during titration. The
quantity of silver ion used to equivalence point is equal to the quantity of chloride ion which was
originally present.
To calculate the number of moles of chloride ion or silver ion we can use n = cV …(molarity definition)
To calculate the volume of the added solution or molar concentration of ion the corresponding values of
either of the ions should be known.

Types Precipitation Titration

1. Volhard’s method – This method involves the titration of bromides, iodides, and
chlorides, in an acidic medium. The chloride in the solution is converted to silver chloride
when reacted with excess silver nitrate solution. The leftover silver nitrate is estimated
against potassium thiocyanate solution. When all thiocyanate consumes all the silver, the
excess of thiocyanate is made to react with an indicator. It gives a red color on reacting
with ferric ammonium sulfate indicator and a ferrous thiocyanate complex is formed.
2. Fajan’s method – This method uses the reaction between the precipitate formed and
indicator. The indicator used is dichlorofluorescein which acts as an anion in solution. In
chloride solution, due to excess of chloride ions, they form the primary layer of the
precipitate. The second layer is formed by the cations of sodium. The reaction ends with
the silver ion in excess. Therefore the positively charged silver ion becomes the primary
layer and attracts indicator to form a secondary layer. The color of the indicator signals
the end of the reaction.

1. Method selection – This method is used to determine chlorides in neutral solution. The
chromate ion in acidic conditions is protonated to form chromic acid. Therefore does not

17
 produce a precipitate. Highly alkaline solutions result in forming silver hydroxide. This
formation results in brown color and this infers the endpoint.
To learn more about the precipitation titration along with the detailed explanation of the different types of
precipitation titration method, register to BYJU’S.

2-In the Mohr method

for Cl– using Ag+ as a titrant, for example, a small amount of K2CrO4 is added to
the titrand's solution. The titration's end point is the formation of a reddish-brown precipitate of
Ag2CrO4. ... A second type of indicator uses a species that forms a colored complex with
the titrant or the titrand.05/06/2019

3-writing a chemical eqation for mohr method

To the right is the chemical equation as to how sodium chloride reacts with silver nitrate and then
with silver chromate to form silver chloride and chromate.
After the silver nitrate has complexes with all of the chloride contained in the sample, the silver
reacts with the chromate in the sample to form an reddish brown color solid, which is the silver
chromate.

4-storin the solution of AgNO3 :

In the presence of light silver nitrate decompose to form silver. hence to prevent the
decomposition it is kept in dark colored bottles.

Q2: Acid -base titration:

1-difference between primary and secondary solution:

Difference Between Primary and Secondary Standard Solution. The key difference between

18
primary and secondary standard solution is that primary standard solution has a high purity and
less reactivity whereas secondary solution has a less purity and high reactivity

Primary standard solution:

A solution of accurately known concentration, prepared using standard substances in one of
several ways. A primary standard is a substance of known high purity which may be dissolved in
a known volume of solvent to give a primary standard solution.

2-difference between titration and standardization:

Standardization is used to determine the exact concentration of a prepared solution. ... The
main difference between standardization and titration is that standardization processes essentially
uses primary standard solutions whereas titrations do not essentially use primary standard
solutions.

3-doing titration several times:

Since you know how much standard you have used and its concentration you can work out the
concentration of the unknown sample. Remember you should always repeat whole process at
least 3 times to ensure you have an accurate result, as there is the potential for both random and
systematic errors to affect your results.
Q3/ explain types of titration with example:

What is Titration?
A quantitative and volumetric technique, to determine the unknown concentration of a solution
by the known concentration of a solution in the presence of indicator is called Titration
Titration is a common laboratory method of using quantitative chemical analysis. This method is
used to determine the unidentified concentration of a known analyte. The volume measurement
is known as volumetric analysis, and it is important in the titration.

Types of Titration

19
There are many types of titration when considering goals and procedures. However, the most
common types of titration in quantitative chemical analysis are redox titration and acid-base
titration.
Titrations can be classified as:

2. Acid-base Titrations
3. Redox Titrations.
4. Precipitation Titrations.
5. Complexometric Titrations.

Four Types of Titration

1. Acid-Base Titration
The strength of an acid can be determined using a standard solution of a base. This process is
called acidimetry. In the same way, the strength of a base can be found with the help of a
standard solution of an acid, which is known as alkalimetry. Both titrations involve in
the neutralization reaction of alkali.

What is Acid-Base Titration?

It is a quantitative analysis method to determine an acid’s or bases’ concentration by precisely

neutralizing them with a standard solution of either acid or base of known concentration. It is
monitored with the help of a pH indicator to know the development of the acid-base reaction.
HA+BOH→BA+H2O
Acid + Alkali→Salt + Water
Or H+ + A– + B+ + OH– → B+ + A– + H2O
Or H+ + OH– → H2O

20
The acid-base titration is based on the reaction that neutralization is between a base or an acidic
and analyte. In this type, a reagent is mixed with the sample solution until it reaches the required
pH level. This type of titration majorly depends on the track change in pH or a pH meter.

2. Redox Titrations
The redox titration is also known as an oxidation-reduction reaction. In this type of titration, the
chemical reaction takes place with a transfer of electrons in the reacting ions of aqueous
solutions. The titrations are named after the reagent that is used in are as follows;

1. Permanganate Titrations
2. Dichromate Titrations
3. Iodimetric and Iodometric Titrations

Permanganate Titrations
In this titration, the potassium permanganate is used as an oxidizing agent. It is maintained with
the use of dilute sulphuric acid. Here is the equation.
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2 + 5O
Or MnO4– + 8H + 5e → Mn2++ 4H2O
Further, the solution remains colourless before the endpoint. The potassium permanganate is
used to estimate oxalic acid, ferrous salts, hydrogen peroxide, oxalates and more. While the
solution of potassium permanganate is always standardized before it is used.

Dichromate Titrations

These are titrations in which, potassium dichromate is used as an oxidising agent in acidic
medium. The medium is maintained acidic by the use of dilute sulphuric acid. The potential
equation is:
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 → K2Cr2(SO4) + 4H2O + 3[O]
Or Cr2O27- + 14H + 6e → 2 Cr3+ + 7H2O
The solution of potassium dichromate can be directly used for titrations. It is mainly used for the
estimation of ferrous salts and iodides.

Iodimetric and Iodometric Titrations

The reduction of free iodine to iodide ions and
oxidation of iodide ions to free occurs in these titrations.
l2 + 2e → 2l–……………. (reduction)
2l– + 2e → 2e ……………. (oxidation)

21
The solution is used as an indicator. Free iodine is used in the iodometric titration, while in the
iodometric titration an oxidation agent is used to react to liberate free iodine.

3. Precipitation Titrations
The titration is based on the insoluble precipitate formation when the two reacting substances are
brought into contact are called precipitation titration. For instance, when the solution of silver
nitrate is used to a solution of ammonium thiocyanate or sodium chloride, it reacts and forms a
white precipitate of silver thiocyanate or silver chloride.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
AgNO3 + NH4CNS → AgCNS + NH4NO3

4. Complexometric Titrations
The complexometric titration is where an undissociated complex is formed at an equivalence
point. It is greater than the precipitation titrations, and there will be no error due to co-
precipitations.
Hg2+ + 2SCN– → Hg(SCN)2
Ag+ + 2CN– → [Ag(CN)2]–
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is an important reagent that forms complexes with
metals.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the main purpose of an acid-base titration?

To determine the unknown concentration of a base or acid by neutralizing them with a base or
n acid of a known concentration.

What are acid-base indicators?

Substances that change their color when the pH of their surrounding changes are called acid-base
indicators. They are also called pH indicators.

22
Q4/
V=50ml M=0.01M W=?

𝑊∗1000
M=
𝑀𝑤𝑡∗𝑣𝑚𝑙

0.01∗174.259∗50
w=
1000
w=0.0871g

23
Q5/
V1=? V2=100ml N=0.5 sp.gr=1.048 %=37%

𝒔𝒑.𝒈𝒓×%×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
N= 𝒆𝒒𝒘𝒕

𝟏.𝟎𝟒𝟖×𝟑𝟕/𝟏𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
N= 𝟔𝟎

N=6.462

N1V1(conc)=N2V2(dil.)
[6.462 V1=0.5×1000]÷6.462
V1=77.37ml

Reference
24
1-volumetric analyses book
2-wikipedia.com
3www.byjus.com

25