UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO CNC MACHINES

COMPUTERS IN INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURING

The manufacturing industries have been undergoing a tremendous change because of
the advancements that are taking place in many of the allied fields. The most
important advancement that is becoming increasingly important is the advancements
in microelectronics. The ever increasing advancements in microelectronics are allowing
for automation in various facets of manufacturing.

In general, we can expect computers to be used in manufacturing in two possible

ways :

(i) Computer monitoring and control of the manufacturing process.

(ii) Manufacturing support applications, which deal essentially with the

preparations for actual manufacturing and post-manufacture operations. In the first

category are the applications of computers for controlling various parts of a
continuous flow manufacturing such as a cement plant or a petrochemical
manufacturing unit. These will be in principle similar to the computer control of a
modern fully automatic washing machine. In these cases the control algorithm will be
completely embedded in the form of a computer with the necessary hardware
(sensors, relays, etc.) and software within the controller. In most of the cases,
generally such control will be prefixed with very little control, except for some of the
options that may be present within, such as different wash or rinse cycles in the case
of an automatic washing machine.

Our interest is actually in the second part of the computer application, since a majority
of the manufacturing that we will be interested in is the discrete part manufacturing.
In this particular case, computer will be used in a majority of the components that will
be used in the total manufacturing cycle of a given product. But to understand the role
of computer it is essential to get the nature of operations that are involved in the
product manufacturing.

NUMERICAL CONTROL
Prior to the second world war, the developments in manufacturing that took place are
mostly related to hard automation or what is generally called as Detroit automation.
This is characterized by the use of automatic machine tools that run on cams and
hydraulic attachments and transfer lines. These require a large amount of time for
design, manufacturing and setting. However they provide high productivity at low cost.
However they are difficult to modify for any small changes. Thus these are used for
mass manufacture only.

After the second world war, two important things have been encountered by the
manufacturing industries which are :
(i) the success of aeroplane in providing a decisive control in the war supremacy, and
(ii) invention of the digital computer which for the first time allowed a facility for
large scale computation;

The first development means that the manufacture requires small batches, but with
very precise manufacturing requirements. The second development helped in taking
care of the necessary flexibility in manufacturing for small batches.

Numerical control (NC) of machine tools may be defined as a method of automation

incorporated into the machine tools that can be carried out by letters, numbers and
symbols. This helps that a NC machine tool runs on a part program fed to it. The part
program contains precise instructions about the way the part is to be manufactured in
terms of the table movements. Some typical examples could be what tool to be used,
at
what speed, at what feed and to move from which point to which point in what path.
Since the program is the controlling point for product manufacture, the machine tool
becomes flexible and can be used for any part that falls in its part spectrum. All the
functions of a NC machine tool are therefore controlled through an external power
source, which may be electronic, hydraulic and/or pneumatic.

The principle of operation of a NC machine tool is shown in Figure 1.2. The part
geometry, cutting process parameters and the cutting tools used will be input into the
system. This part program is then entered into the controller of the machine that in
turn runs the machine tool to make the part as shown in Figure 1.3.

Basic NC Machine
Advantages of NC
Numerical control is superior to conventional manufacturing in a number of ways
because of the programmability

(i) The idle time on NC machine tools is reduced that results in lower manufacturing
time. The machine tool builder tries to design the NC machine where the non-cutting
time can be made as low as possible.

(ii) Parts can be produced more accurately even for smaller batches without any
human skill involved in the process.

(iii) Less scrap is generated in NC machines since the operator is not involved in the
actual machining process.

(iv) The need for expensive jigs and fixtures is reduced or eliminated to a great extent
since the geometry is built into the part program.

(v) It is possible to use the general-purpose tools without any special tools.

(vi) Manufacturing lead times for the jobs can be reduced to a great extent

depending upon the complexity of the job.

(vii) The NC machine tool can be utilized continuously, some times even 24 hours,
since these are designed for such conditions.

(viii) Varying part designs can be easily translated into manufacture with simple
changes in part programs.

Limitations of NC
In spite of many advantages mentioned above, there are a few limitations that one
should consider while making a change over to numerical control.

(i) The NC machine tool is much more expensive compared to conventional machine
tool. This calls for a very high initial investment that needs to be appropriately justified.

(ii) Skill of the people required to operate a NC machine is generally high in view of the
complex and sophisticated technology involved. This calls for a shift in the quality and
education of the people involved in the operation of the NC machine tools.

(iii) As NC is a complex and sophisticated technology, it also requires higher

investments in support technologies, such as maintenance.

Types of NC System
Machine controls are divided into three groups:

(a) Traditional numerical control (NC);

(b) Computer numerical control (CNC);

(c) Distributed numerical control (DNC).

The original numerical control machines were referred to as NC machine tool.

They have “hardwired” control, whereby control is accomplished through the
use of punched paper (or plastic) tapes or cards. Tapes tend to wear, and
become dirty, thus causing misreading. Many other problems arise from the use
of NC tapes, for example the need to manual reload the NC tapes for each new
part and the lack of program editing abilities, which increases the lead time. The
end of NC tapes was the result of two competing developments, CNC and DNC.

CNC refers to a system that has a local computer to store all required numerical
data. While CNC was used to enhance tapes for a while, they eventually allowed
the use of other storage media, magnetic tapes and hard disks. The advantages
of CNC systems include but are not limited to the possibility to store and
execute a number of large programs (especially if a three or more dimensional
machining of complex shapes is considered), to allow editing of programs, to
execute cycles of machining commands, etc.
The development of CNC over many years, along with the development of local
area networking, has evolved in the modern concept of DNC. Distributed
numerical control is similar to CNC, except a remote computer is used to control
a number of machines. An off-site mainframe host computer holds programs for
all parts to be produced in the DNC facility. Programs are downloaded from the
mainframe computer, and then the local controller feeds instructions to the
hardwired NC machine. The recent developments use a central computer which
communicates with local CNC computers (also called Direct Numerical Control)

COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC) MACHINES

The present day computer can be considered as a direct consequence of the
progress in the field of numerical control of machine tools. A real breakthrough
was achieved around 1965 when numerical control machines were fitted with
minicomputers which introduced the name Computer Numerical Control. The
first step in the process of implementing automation in any industry is to
manufacture parts or components through automation using machines and
machine tools with little human intervention. In order to meet the increasing
demand to manufacture complicated components of high accuracy in large
quantities, sophisticated technological equipment and machinery have been
fairly rapidly without much attention. The design and construction of Computer
Numerically Controlled (CNC) machines differs greatly from that of conventional
machine tools. This difference arises from the requirements of higher
performance levels. The CNC machines can be operated automatically using
computers. A CNC is specifically defined as “The numerical control system
where a dedicated, stored program computer is used to perform some or all of
the basic numerical control functions in accordance with control programs
stored in read & write memory of the computer” by Electronic Industries
Association (EIA).

CNC is a microprocessor based control system that accepts a set of program

instructions, processes and sends output control information to a machine tool,
accepts feedback information acquired from a transducer placed on the
machine tool and based on the instructions and feedback, assures that proper
motion, speed and operation occur.

Some of the important parts of CNC machines are Machine structure, guide
ways, feed drives, spindle and Spindle bearings, measuring systems, controls,
software and operator interface, gauging, tool monitoring
A CNC system basically consists of the following :

(a) Central processing unit (CPU)

(b) Servo control unit

(c) Operator control panel

(d) Machine control panel

(e) Programmable logic controller

(f) Other peripheral devices.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the heart of a CNC system. It accepts the information stored in the
memory as part program. This data is decoded and transformed into specific
position control and velocity signals. It also oversees the movement of the
control axis or spindle and whenever this does not match with the programmed
values, a corrective action as taken.

All the compensation required for machine acquires (like lead screw pitch error,
tool CNC Machine Tools wear out, backlashes.) are calculated by CPU depending
upon the corresponding inputs made available to the system. The same will be
taken care of during the generation of control signals for the axis movement.
Also, some basic safety checks are built into the system through this unit and
continuous necessary corrective actions will be provided by CPU unit. Whenever
the situation goes beyond control of the CPU, it takes the final action of shutting
down the system and in turn the machine.

Servo Control Unit

The decoded position and velocity control signals, generated by the CPU for the
axis movement forms the input to the servo control unit. This unit in turn
generates suitable signals as command values. The command values are
converted by the servo drive units which are interfaced with the axes and the
spindle motors. The servo control unit receives the position feedback signals for
the actual movement of the machine tool axes from the feedback devices (like
linear scales, rotary encoders, revolvers, etc.)

Operator Control Panel

The Operator Control Panel provides control panel provides the user interface
to facilitate a two way communication between the user, CNC system and the
machine tool. This consists of two parts are Video display unit and Keyboard.

Machine Control Panel

It is the direct interface between the operator and the NC system, enabling the
operation of the machine through the CNC system. During program execution,
the CNC controls the axis the motion, spindle function or tool function on a
machine tool, depending upon the part program stored in the memory. Prior to
the starting of the machining process, machine should first be prepared with
some specific takes like, establishing a correct reference point, loading the
system memory with the required part program, loading and checking of tool
offsets, zero offsets, etc.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLC’s were basically as replacement for
hard wired relay control panels. They were basically introduced as replacement
for hard wired relay panels. They developed to be re-programmed without
hardware changes when requirements were altered and thus are re-usable.
PLC’s are now available with increased functions, more memory and larger
input/output capabilities. In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to
controlling a machine or a process. The CPU receives input data, performs
logical decisions based upon stored programs and drives the output connection
to a computer for hierarchical control are done through CPU.

Other Peripheral Devices

These include sensor interface, provision for communication equipment,
programming units, printer, tape reader interface, etc.

CNC Concept
A CNC system may be characterized in terms of three major elements:
hardware,software and information.

Hardware

Hardware includes the microprocessors that effect control system functions and
peripheral devices for data communication, machine tool interfacing and
machine tool status monitoring.

Software

Software includes the programs that are executed by the system

microprocessors and various types of software associated with CNC.

Information

Information regarding the dynamic characteristics of the machine and many

other information pertaining to the process.When any of these unreliable
components fails, the diagnostics subsystem would automatically disconnect
the faulty component from the system and activate the redundant component
in place of faulty one so that newly installed component can perform its
function.

ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

(a) High Repeat-ability and Precision, e.g. Aircraft parts.
(b) Volume of production is very high.
(c) Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined, e.g. Turbines.
(d) Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap.
(e) Safer, higher productivity, better quality.
(f) Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead times.
(g) Easier to program.
(h) Easy storage of existing programs.
(i) Avoids human errors.
(j) Usually generates closer tolerances than manual machines.
(k) Program editing at the machine tool.
(l) Control systems upgrades possible.
(m) Option -resident CAM system at machine tool.
(n) Tool path verification.

DISADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

(a) Costly setup, skilled operators.
(b) Computers, programming knowledge required.
(c) Maintenance is difficult.
(d) Machines have to be installed in air conditioned places.

PARTS SUITABLE FOR CNC MACHINES

The following parts are usually made in practice on the CNC Machines :

(a) Aerospace equipments.

(b) Automobile Parts.
(c) Complex shapes.
(d) Electronic industry uses CNC e.g. Printed circuit board.
(e) Electrical industry uses CNC e.g. Coil winding.
(f) For small to medium batch quantity.
(g) Where the set-ups are very large.
(h) Where the tool storage is a problem.
(i) Where much metal needs to be removed.
(j) When the part geometry is so complex.
(k) The operations are very complex.
(l) For parts subjected to regularly design changes.
(m) When the inspection is required 100%.
(n) When lead time does not permit the conventional tooling manufacture.
(o) When the machining time is very less as compared to down.
(p) Where tool storage is a problem.
(q) Where repetitive operations are required on the work.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL FOR CNC MACHINES

There are various factors, which are very much important to maintain proper
environmental conditions. CNC machines are very costly and complex in design,
so great care is necessary for these machines in handling as well as up keeping.
For proper working of these machines, the following environmental conditions
are to be maintained

(a) Well air circulation.

(b) Working temperature should be within control limits.
(c) Space should not be congested but should be quite open.
(d) Electrical power supply should be regulated.
(e) There should be proper disposal point for scrap.
(f) There should not be presence of noisy source near to the machine.
(g) There should not be presence of harmful chemicals near to the machine.
(h) Proper lighting to the system.
(i) The machine should be protected from the moisture.
(j) There should not be presence of vibrating source near to the machine.
(k) Power supply should be regulated.
(l) Floor should be cleaned free from oily and greased.
(m) Trained person should operate the machine.
(n) Dust free floor space and environment.
(o) Sufficient supply of coolant required during machining

FEEDBACK DEVICES

The NC machine tools generally are run with a closed loop control system. For
this purpose it is necessary to provide appropriate feedback in order to achieve
accurate control of the movement of the axes. The feedbacks that are normally
used are the displacement and velocities of the individual axes in the machine
tool. The typical positional sensors used in the NC machine tools are :

(a) Encoders, and

(b) Linear scales.

The encoder is a transducer that is connected directly to the rotor or the lead
screw and hence is the simplest arrangement requiring no additional gearing.
An optical rotary encoder converts the rotary motion of the motor into a
sequence of digital pulses. The pulses counted to convert to the position
measurement. The optical encoder consists of a disc with a number of
accurately etched equidistant lines or slots along the periphery. The encoder
disc is attached to the shaft of the machine whose rotary position needs to be
measured. The disc is placed between a light source and a light-measuring
device. When the disc rotates the lines are interrupted and the light-measuring
device counts the number of times the light is interrupted. By a careful counting
and appropriate calculations it is possible to know the position traversed by the
shaft. The rotary encoder is normally mounted on the servo motor shaft or at
the end of the lead screw as shown. This allows the control to calculate the
actual distance moved from the rotary motion by using the lead of the lead
screw. If the lead screw has any backlash then that will be reflected in the
position indicated by the encoder. It therefore becomes mandatory to eliminate
the backlash in the lead screw to accurately get the position of the axis. Also this
requires that the pitch of the lead screw be more accurate over its entire length
for accurate sensing of the position.To obviate such a predicament, it will be
better if the exact position reached by the slide can be measured by means of a
transducer rather than the indirect way with the encoder.

This can be done with the help of a linear scale attached directly to the slide. In
this case the positional measurement will be direct and hence any of the
inaccuracies present will not be affecting the measurement. The linear scale
consists of a finely graduated grating made of either glass or stainless steel,
which is the measuring surface attached to one part of the slide. A scanning unit
is fixed to the other part. The scanning unit consists of a light source, a glass grid
with graduated windows and some photo diodes as receptors.

CNC Machines The basic principle employed in such measurements is that when
two gratings overlap each other, a fringe pattern is formed corresponding to the
displacement. The actual distance moved can be calculated by measuring the
shift in the fringe pattern.