Chapter 2

Earthquake Response Analysis

of High-Rise Buildings

2.1 Summary of Dynamic Analytical Method for High-Rise

Buildings in Japan

The design of the structure identifies safety for the long-term load in a static calcula-
tion and confirms safety for the additional horizontal load by a dynamic calculation
(time history analysis). The procedure of the dynamic analytical used lumped mass
system is given in Fig. 2.1.
For a dynamic calculation used three-dimensional frame analysis, the restoring
force characteristics are necessary to replace the restoring force characteristics per
story with the restoring force characteristics for each structural member, such as
column, beam, and bearing wall.

2.2 Set Up Structural Design Criteria

The structure design method is considered by dividing into two Levels 1 and 2,
corresponding to the magnitude of earthquake ground motions.
Level 1: The earthquake ground motions that meet with several times during the
service life of the building.
Level 2: The past and future strongest earthquake ground motion occurred in the
construction place of the building.
In the dynamic design method, the criteria of the design are proposed by the
structural design. The response produced by the earthquake ground motion of Level
1 and Level 2 must satisfy the criteria of the design proposed for each level. The
details criteria in the practical design are given in Okamoto’s Ref. [1].
The design criteria are enhanced by the social importance of the building. The impor-
tant factors I are 1.0, 1.25, and 1.5. The important factor for regular buildings is 1.0.
Since public buildings with I = 1.5, such as a backbone building of the administrative

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 15

H. Takabatake et al., Simplified Dynamic Analysis of High-Rise Buildings,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7185-1_2
16 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

Flow of dynamic analytical method for skyscrapers subject to seismic ground motions

(1) Preparations
Setting of design criteria
Level 1 Level 2
Maximum inter-story drift index 1/200 1/100
Maximum response story shear force Below shear force Below horizontal load-
for primary design carrying capacity
Ductility factor for story 1(elastic) Less than 2
Ductility factor for structural member 1(elastic) Less than 4

(2) Modeling of structure

Analytical method
Analytical model of structure
1) Modeling - Multi-degree of freedom of lumped mass system, 3D frame
2) Freedom – one-dimensional vibration(sway), 3D vibration (sway and torsion)
3) Base condition – clamped, sway and rocking
Analytical method of elasto-plastic dynamic response
1) Restoring force characteristics for lamped mass analysis – Bi-linear type, Tri-linear
type
2) Nonlinear stress-strain relation for frame analysis
Damping constant
1) stiffness proportional type (usual case)
2) mass proportional type
Earthquake ground motions
1) The number of seismic motions used for time history response analysis shall be 3
waves or more for simulated wave and site wave and 3 waves for observed seismic
wave. These earthquake motions should not deviate to a specific spectrum. The maxi-
mum acceleration of observed earthquake ground motions is converted to the maximum
velocity 25cm/s for Level 1 and 50 cm/s for Level 2

(3) Eigenvalue analysis

(4) Dynamic calculation

(All dynamic responses must satisfy each design criteria for Levels 1 and 2.)
1) Maximum response displacement
2) Maximum response inter story drift index
3) Maximum response story shear force
4) Maximum response overturning moment
5) Ductility factor for Level 2

Fig. 2.1 Flow of dynamic analysis to high-rise buildings

2.2 Set Up Structural Design Criteria 17

agency, are subject to the condition that use after the earthquake can be done without
repair, the deformation of the building is restricted. Specifically, the maximum inter-
story drift index at level 2 is stipulated as 1/200 for reinforced concrete buildings
and steel-reinforced concrete buildings, and 1/100 for steel-framed buildings.
The main check items of the dynamic design are as follows:
For Level 1: Maximum response story shear force is less than the story shear force
prescribed on the first class of the structural calculation method.
For Level 2: Maximum story shear force is less than the horizontal load-bearing
capacity of the structure.

2.3 Analytical Model

In the early years of computers, the analytical method based on lumped mass sys-
tem, replaced the frame with discrete mass and spring, was dominant. The lumped
mass system has two types: the shear model and the bending-shear model, consid-
ered approximately bending deformation. Meanwhile, due to dramatic progress of
personal computers in recent years, three-dimensional frames for buildings can be
analyzed approximately as three-dimensional structure. Buildings consist of many
structural members, such as columns, beams, floors, and bearing walls and joints of
their members. The exact analysis is accomplished by analyzing simultaneously the
behavior of rods (column and beam) and plates (slabs, bearing walls) under the same
accuracy. However, the current computer’s ability to execute the analytical method
is insufficient. The behavior of structures depends on a simplified analytical model
used various engineering assumptions, such as the assumptions that the cross section
is rigid and the in-plane stiffness of floor’s slabs are rigid. The structural engineers
is necessary to understand the level of modeling and analytical method used.

2.4 Damping Ratio

The damping of structures is roughly divided into internal damping and external
damping, as shown in Table 2.1. Since damping is still unclear in many points, it is
generally represented by internal viscous damping, which is in proportion to velocity,
and historical damping, which is produced by the plasticity of structural members.
The conventional value of damping constant h 1 for the primary vibration mode
of the internal viscous damping adapts h1 = 3–5% for reinforced concrete structures
and steel-reinforced concrete structures and h 1 = 2% for steel structures. There are
two types of higher models for the internal viscous damping.
• Type proportioned to frequency h i = h 1 ωω1i
• Constant type h i = h 1
18 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

Table 2.1 Classification of damping

where ωi = natural frequency (rad/s) of the first mode; and ωi = natural frequency
of the i-th mode. It is better to use a constant type for slabs. On the other hand, the
hysteresis damping is constant regardless of the frequency.
The damping is represented by the damping matrix [C] consisting of the damp-
ing coefficient ci , as given in Eq. (2.4). Assuming that the damping matrix [C] is
determined for each mode, the orthogonality condition for mode can be used. Such
damping is called proportional damping. A proportional damping matrix [C] is rep-
resented by the following linear sum of the mass matrix [M] and the stiffness matrix
[K];

[C] = a0 [M] + a1 [K ] (2.1)

where a0 and a1 are constants. Depending on the value of these constants, the propor-
tional damping is classified as Table 2.2. The damping constant h i of the i-th mode
of these proportional damping is given in Table 2.3 and is related with the primary
damping constants, in which ωi , ω j , h i and h j are the i-th and j-th mode natural
frequencies and damping constants, respectively.
Therefore, the damping constant in the mass proportional damping is inversely
proportional to the natural frequency, and damping is small as the higher order mode.
The damping constant in stiffness proportional damping is proportional to the natural
frequency, and damping is greater as the higher order mode.

Table 2.2 Proportional damping

Proportional damping Damping matrix [C] Constant
Mass proportional damping [C] = a0 [M] a0 = 2 hi ωi
Stiffness proportional damping [C] = a1 [K] a1 = 2 hi /ωi
 
Rayleigh damping [C] = a0 [M] + a1 [K] 2 ωi ωj hj ωi − hi ωj
a0 =
ω2i − ω2j
 
2 hi ωi − hj ωj
a1 =
ω2i − ω2j
2.4 Damping Ratio 19

Table 2.3 Relations between h i and h 1

Proportional damping Damping constant h i of the i-th mode
Mass proportional damping hi = h1 ωω1i
Stiffness proportional damping hi = h1 ωω1i
Rayleigh damping ω1 ω2 h1 ω2 −h2 ω1 ω2 −h1 ω1
hi = ωi ω22 −ω21
+ ωi h2 ω 2 −ω2
2 1

Table 2.4 Calculation method for the damping matrix [C] commonly used in practice
Target structure and ground Method
Steel structure (S) (1)
Reinforced concrete structure (RC) (2)
Mixed structure of S and RC (4)
When avoid overestimating the higher order (3)
damping constant
Viscous damping of the ground (1) or (2)
Note Method is given in Table 2.5

Table 2.5 How to create a damping matrix

Method Damping type Input data Damping matrix [C] Damping constant hj
(1) Initial stiffness h1 [C] = α[K] hj =
ωj
ω1 h1
proportional type Here [K] = initial
2h1
stiffness; α = ω1
(2) Instantaneous h1 [C] = α[Kt] above
stiffness Here [Kt] =
proportional type instantaneous
2h1
stiffness; α = ω1
(3) Rayleigh h1 , h2 [C] = α[M] + β[K] hj = α
+
βωj
2ωj 2
damping Here [M] = mass
matrix; α, β =
solutions of
α + βω12 = 2ω1 h 1
α + βω22 = 2ω2 h 2
(4) Internal viscous hm [Cm ] = αm [Km ]
type Here [Cm ], [Km ] =
damping and
stiffness matrices of
member; αm = 2h ω1
m
20 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

There are two methods for determining the damping matrix [C]. The first method
can be applied when all the mode damping constants are known. In the second
method, the damping matrix [C] is expanded each coefficient of the mass matrix
[M] and the stiffness matrix [K] to power series, and the unknown constants are
determined using the orthogonality condition for mode. The damping matrix [C]
obtained from both methods is the same. For details of these, see the Refs. [2, 3].
For structures with large degrees of freedom, it takes time to calculate the damping
matrix [C]. Also, from the uncertainty of the damping itself, Table 2.4 is often used
as a calculation method for the damping matrix [C] commonly used in practice, in
which the method in Table 2.4 is given by Table 2.5.

2.5 Earthquake Ground Motion Using for Dynamic

Analysis

(1) Input earthquake ground motions

The types of earthquake ground motions which are used, in general, in dynamic
analysis of structures are the following three kinds: observed earthquake waves,
simulated waves, and site waves [4], as shown in Fig. 2.2.

➀ Observed earthquake waves

This ground motion is an earthquake wave observed at a specific point by an earth-
quake generated in the past. Three standard earthquake waves used well in Japan
are El-Centro wave (Imperial Valley earthquake, United States, 1940); Taft wave
(Kern Country earthquake, United States, 1952); and Hachinohe wave (Tokachi
earthquake, Japan, 1968). For the dynamic analysis of high-rise buildings in Japan,
the maximum velocities for Levels 1 and 2 are prescribed 25 cm/s and 50 cm/s,
respectively. When the maximum velocity of the observed earthquake ground motion
is less than the above-prescribed values, the observed ground motion expressed in
acceleration is modified by multiplying the value of the original acceleration by
the ratio of the prescribed maximum velocity to the original maximum velocity of
the original earthquake wave. Since the observation wave is often measured in a
ground surface, this wave can be applied to structure model clamped at the base of
the structures. Therefore, the earthquake wave inputs into the base of the structure.

➁ Simulated waves

The simulated wave is to be simulated artificially an earthquake wave which occurs

an elastic response spectrum prescribed as the design target of the structure. The
simulated wave can be made out by technical guidance of making earthquake wave
for designs and the notification No. 1461 of the Ministry of Construction. A phase
characteristic is necessary to make the earthquake wave corresponding to target
2.5 Earthquake Ground Motion Using for Dynamic Analysis 21

Fig. 2.2 Creating ground motions used for dynamic analysis of structures

response spectrum. The phase characteristic uses a phase characteristic given from
uniform random numbers and practical earthquake motion. When uniform random
numbers are used, its form is prescribed by an envelope function.
➂ Site waves
Earthquake ground motions are waves propagated from epicenter and are influenced
by properties of epicenter, route of propagation, and site. Since these characteristics
are different from every site of construction spot, the earthquake wave based on the
characteristics of the current site is made up. So, it is called site wave. Therefore, the
earthquake ground motion observed in the past at the site is the observed earthquake
wave and is a site wave again.
22 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

There are three kinds of theoretical method, half empirical methodology, and
empirical methodology for making of the site wave. And there is a hybrid method
that combined the merits of the abovementioned these methodologies.
As employing the abovementioned earthquake waves into dynamic calculation,
the following attentions are necessary.
When simulated wave and site wave are prescribed on outcropping surface of
engineering bedrock, the earthquake wave acting on the foundation of the structure
is necessary to consider the amplification of the surface ground, in which the sur-
face ground is defined as the ground above the outcropping surface of engineering
bedrock.
(2) Standard value of the maximum velocity of earthquake motions
In observed earthquake waves, the following values are used.
• 25 cm/s for Level 1
• 50 cm/s for Level 2
The relationship between the maximum acceleration and maximum velocity has
approximately the following relation:
maximum velocity = 0.1 × maximum acceleration
(3) Acceleration of ground motions used for structural design
Time history of acceleration in ground motions is used for the dynamic calculation, in
which the maximum value of acceleration is determined from the prescribed value of
the velocity. This means the action of ground motions is prescribed by the velocity
instead of acceleration. The acceleration used for earthquake ground motions is
modified by

the acceleration input for dynamic calculations

(the maximum velocity for design)
= (original value of the acceleration) ×
(the maximum velocity of original wave)

(4) Acquisition of earthquake ground motions

After Hanshin Awaji great earthquake that occurred in 1995, K-NET (Kyoshin Net)
system is organized to watch ground motions in Japan, in which the seismometers
set up 1000 point covered Japan at equal intervals of 20 km. Also, the seismometers
in KiK-net (Kiban-Kyoushin Net) set up at the location of two points of a depth
of several hundred meter and the ground surface into the well sunk for observation
at the location. These systems are implemented by National Research Institute for
Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED).
The data of earthquake ground motions may be obtained from K-NET and KiK-net
via the Internet, as shown in Table 2.6. Seismometers can generally measure accel-
eration in three directions of east–west, north–south, and up–down. If the principal
axes of the building installed the seismograph deviate from the abovementioned three
2.5 Earthquake Ground Motion Using for Dynamic Analysis 23

Table 2.6 Format of earthquake ground motions by K-NET, KiK-net

Origin time 2011/03/11 14:46:00 Occurred time of earthquake (1st line)
Lat. 38.103 Epicenter north longitude (2nd line)
Long. 142.860 Epicenter east latitude (3rd line)
Depth (km) 24 Focal depth (4th line)
Mag. 9.0 Magnitude (5th line)
Station code CHB008 Observation point code (6th line)
Station lat. 35.6537 Observation point north latitude (7th line)
Station long. 139.9023 Observation point east longitude (8th line)
Station height (m) 4 Observation point elevation (9th line)
Record time 2011/03/11 14:47:30 Recording start time (10th line)
Sampling freq (Hz) 100 Hz Sampling period (11th line)
Duration time (s) 300 Measurement time (12th line)
Dir. N-S Channel (13th line)
Scale factor 3920 (gal)/6182761 Scale factor (14th line)
Max. acc. (gal) 125.136 Maximum acceleration (15th line)
Last correction 2011/03/11 14:47:15 Last correction time (16th line)
Memo. Remarks (17th line)

19297 19346 19344 19316 19311 19314 19335 19354

19305 19220 19200 19229 19189 19117 19135 19216 Seismic acceleration
19243 19185 19154 19214 19292 19357 19376 19327 of each time
19307 19361 19410 19386 19295 19224 19250 19300
19258 19159 19127 19167 19188 19160 19156 19214
19251 19240 19245 19277 19327 19377 19364 19309
19278 19291 19338 19328 19253 19240 19271 19264

axial directions, the seismograph is installed to much the longer and shorter direc-
tions of the current building. Data of such seismographs are biased and converted
into three axial directions. The synthesized vector of the three axial components acts
on the building as for the earthquake ground motion.
24 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

Table 2.7 Examples of seismic waveform input data for ground motions (Acceleration time history
data)

EL CENTRO-NS WAVE
EL CENTRO 1940 NS (BCJ) _____________________ Seismic wave
IMPERIAL VALLEY EARTHQUAKE _____________ Name
MAY 18, 1940 - 2037 PST _______________________ Observation date
EL CENTRO SITE IMPERIAL VALLEY ___________ Observation point
341.70 2.12 0.02 53.74
(5F10.2)________ Acceleration time history data
-1.40 -10.80 -10.10 -8.80 -9.50
-12.00 -14.20 -12.80 -11.00 -8.50
-8.50 -13.10 -17.60 -19.40 -16.20
-14.40 -10.80 -8.20 -4.20 -6.60 Acceleration time history data

0.50 -1.00 -2.90 -4.60 -6.90

As for input data format of earthquake ground motions, we show Urayasu-NS

wave which is acceleration data measured by a seismograph installed at Urayasu of
seismic waves generated at the Great East Japan Earthquake. This data was down-
loaded from K-NET. The acceleration value is obtained by multiplying the accelera-
tion of the seismic waves at each time listed on and after the 18th line by scale factor
listed on the 14th line. The increment time of the acceleration becomes seconds (s)
when the unit of Hz of the 11th line is inverse number. In this case, it is 1/100 (Hz)
= 0.01 s. The time step of the seismic wave data is often 0.02 s in the seismic wave
of the old age and 0.01 s of the seismic wave of the new generation in many cases.
Therefore, it is necessary that the seismic wave data is entered in a unified format,
and in my laboratory, it is input in the format shown in Table 2.7. Each Earthquake
wave managed by this format is numbered specifically.

2.6 Various Dynamic Analysis Methods and Its Application

Range

The dynamic calculation method of multi-degree of freedom systems can be classi-

fied as shown in Table 2.8. Since the horizontal stiffness of the structure becomes
elastoplastic accompanied with the increase of the horizontal load, the analytical
method must be to reflect on the variation of the stiffness corresponding to the defor-
mation state. The step by step integral method such as the linear acceleration method
is suitable for the elastoplastic problem in which the horizontal stiffness of structures
changes nonlinearly with increasing load.
2.7 Modal Analysis (Elastic Analysis) 25

Table 2.8 Analytical methods to forced vibration of multi-degree of freedom systems

Analytical method Elastic response Elastoplastic response Remarks
Analytical solution ◯ × Time history
(Duhamel integral) analysis
Modal analysis ◯ × Time history
analysis
Response spectrum ◯ × Maximum response
method
Step by step integration ◯ ◯ Time history
method analysis
・ Linear acceleration
method
・ Average acceleration
method
・ Newmark-β method
・ Wilson-θ method
・ Others
Note ◯ Applicable; × Not applicable

2.7 Modal Analysis (Elastic Analysis)

Modal analysis can only be used for elastic response because the distribution shape
of response in the height direction of buildings is assumed to be the eigenfunction
of each mode in elastic response. This section describes dynamic response analysis
of multi-degree of freedom systems used modal analysis (lumped mass analytical
system based on equivalent shear model).

We consider the multi-degree of freedom systems subject to the earthquake ground

motions ẍ0 , as shown in Fig. 2.3.
When the structure subjects to the ground motions at the base, the acceleration of
the ground motion acts simultaneously on all mass points. The equation of motion
of multi-degree of freedom systems subject to the seismic acceleration ẍ0 can be
expressed by

Fig. 2.3 Multi-degree of freedom systems subject to earthquake ground motions

26 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

[M] {ẍ} + [C] {ẋ} + [K ] {x} = −[M]{I }ẍ0 (2.2)

where [M], [C], and [K] = the mass matrix, damping matrix, and stiffness matrix,
respectively. In the case of the total n mass points, they are square matrix of n × n;
{x}, {ẋ}, and {ẍ} = displacement (relative displacement), velocity, and acceleration,
respectively. They are column vector with n × 1; {I} = unit column vector.
⎡ ⎤
m1 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢ m2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ m3 ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
Mass matrix [M] = ⎢ ⎥ (2.3)
⎢ ⎥
⎢ mi ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎣ . ⎦
0 mn
⎡ ⎤
c1 + c2 −c2 0
⎢ −c c + c −c ⎥
⎢ 2 2 3 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −c3 c3 + c4 −c4 ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
Damping matrix [C ] = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −ci ci + ci+1 −ci+1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎣ . ⎦
0 −cn−1 cn
(2.4)
⎡ ⎤
k1 + k2 −k2 0
⎢ −k k + k −k ⎥
⎢ 2 2 3 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −k3 k3 + k4 −k4 ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
Stiffness matrix [K ] = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −ki ki + ki+1 −ki+1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. ⎥
⎣ . ⎦
0 −kn−1 kn
(2.5)
2.7 Modal Analysis (Elastic Analysis) 27

Relative Relative Relative Unit column

displacement
⎧ ⎫ velocity
⎧ ⎫ acceleration
⎧ ⎫ vector
⎪ x
⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ẋ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ẍ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎪ ⎪
⎪
1
⎪ ⎪ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪ x2 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ẋ2 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ẍ2 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎧ ⎫
⎪ 1⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ x3 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ẋ3 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ẍ3 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ . ⎬ ⎨ . ⎬ ⎨ . ⎬ ⎨1⎪ ⎬ (2.6)
{x} = .
. {ẋ} = .
. {ẍ} = .
. {I } = 1
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ .. ⎪
⎪
⎪ xi ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ẋi ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ẍi ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ .⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
⎪
⎪ .. ⎪⎪ ⎪
⎪ .. ⎪⎪ ⎪
⎪ .. ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪ . ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ . ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ . ⎪
⎪ 1
⎪
⎩ ⎪ ⎭ ⎪
⎩ ⎪ ⎭ ⎪
⎩ ⎪ ⎭
xn ẋn ẍn

in which m i , ki , and ci = lumped mass, horizontal stiffness, and damping coefficient

corresponding to mass point i. Each relative amount is defined as the value obtained
by subtracting the corresponding amount in the base.

Since the displacement {x(t)} depends on the time t and the height direction of the
structure, it is necessary to separate the variables for analysis. The merit of modal
analysis is to replace the distribution in the height direction of the displacement with
an eigenfunction.


n
{x(t)} = [φ]{q(t)} = {φi } qi (t) (2.7)
i=1

where [φ] = eigenmode matrix (n × n) consisted of {φi }(i = 1, . . . , n); {φi } = the i-th
eigenfunction; {q(t)} = time function vector (n × 1) consisted of qi (i = 1, · · · , n);
qi (t) = function of the i-th mode with respect of time.
The eigenmode matrix [φ], the eigenvector {φi }, and the time function vector
{q(t)} are written in detail as follows. The transposed representation of the column
vector is used to reduce the number of print lines.

[φ] = [{φ1 }, {φ2 }, . . . , {φn }]

{φi }T = {φi1 , φi2 , . . . , φin }
{q(t)}T = {q1 (t), q2 (t), . . . , qn (t)}

Here φi j = eigenvalue at the j-th lumped mass of the i-th mode, in which the
first subscript indicates mode and the second subscript represents the lumped mass
(floor).

Substituting Eq. (2.7) into Eq. (2.2) and multiplying the reduced equation by the
transposed eigenvector {φ j }T of the j-th mode, we have the following equation:
28 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

{φ j }T [M]{φi }{q̈(t)} + {φ j }T [C]{φi }{q̇(t)} + {φ j }T [K ]{φi }{q(t)}

= −{φ j }T [M]{ I } ẍ0 (2.8)

From the orthogonality of eigenfunctions, the following relationship holds:


0 ( f or i = j)
{φ j }T [M]{φi } = (2.9)
Mi ( f or i = j)

0 ( f or i = j)
{φ j } [C]{φi } =
T
(2.10)
Ci ( f or i = j)

0 ( f or i = j)
{φ j }T [K ]{φi } = (2.11)
K i ( f or i = j)

where,
M i = Mode mass (generalized mass) = {φi }T [M] {φi }
C i = Mode damping (generalized damping) = {φi }T [C] {φi } = 2h i ωi Mi
K i = Mode stiffness (generalized stiffness) = {φi }T [K ] {φi } = ωi2 Mi
in which ωi = natural frequency (rad/s) of the i-th mode; h i = damping constant of
the i-th mode. When the normalized eigenfunction {φ̄i } is used for the eigenfunction,
the mode mass and the mode stiffness become Mi = 1 and K i = ωi2 , respectively.
Hence, Eqs. (2.9)–(2.11) are rewritten as follows:
 
  0 ( f or i = j)
{φ̄ j }T [M] φ̄i = (2.12)
1 ( f or i = j)
 
  0 ( f or i = j)
{φ̄ j }T [C] φ̄i = (2.13)
2h i ωi ( f or i = j)
 
  0 ( f or i = j)
{φ̄ j } [K] φ̄i =
T
(2.14)
ωi2 ( f or i = j)

Using the orthogonality of eigenfunctions into Eq. (2.8), an uncoupled equation of

only the i-th mode is obtained. This equation is an independent equation for each
mode.

{φi }T [M]{ I }
q̈i (t) + 2h i ωi q̇i (t) + ωi2 qi (t) = − ẍ0 (2.15)
{φi }T [M]{φi }

Here, defining the coefficient on the right side of the above equation as βi , this coef-
ficient is called the i-th mode participation factor because it acts on the magnitude of
the acceleration of the ground motion. The participation coefficient βi is determined
for each mode, and known if the eigenfunction is known.
2.7 Modal Analysis (Elastic Analysis) 29

{φi }T [M]{I }
βi = (2.16)
{φi }T [M]{φi }

The participation factor βi of the i-th mode defined by Eq. (2.16) is specifically
expressed by the following equation:

n
{φi }T [M]{I } j=1 m j φi j m 1 φi1 + m 2 φi2 + · · · + m n φin
βi = = n = (2.17)
{φi } [M]{φi
T } j=1 m j φi j
2
m 1 φi1
2
+ m 2 φi2
2
+ · · · + m n φin
2

Rewriting the right side of Eq. (2.15) using Eq. (2.16), we have

q̈i (t) + 2h i ωi q̇i (t) + ωi2 qi (t) = −βi ẍ0 (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) (2.18)

Here, ωi = the natural frequency (rad/s) of the i-th mode; h i = the damping
constant of the i-th mode. Concretely writing the above equation for a structure of n
degrees of freedom systems with the lad lamped mass n, we have

q̈1 + 2 h 1 ω1 q̇1 + ω12 q1 = −β1 ẍ0 (for the 1 st mode)

q̈2 + 2 h 2 ω2 q̇2 + ω22 q2 = −β2 ẍ0 (for the 2 nd mode)
...
q̈n + 2 h n ωn q̇n + ωn2 qn = −βn ẍ0 (for the n−th mode)

The product βi {φi } of the participation coefficient of the i-th mode βi and the eigen-
function {φi } is called the participation function of the i-th mode. The participation
coefficient represents the degree of influence in each vibration mode. Normally, the
participation coefficient largely affects the vibration of the first mode, and decreases
as the order becomes higher.

The participation function of the i-th mode at the n-th floor is βi φin : in which the
value φin is the eigenfunction at the n-th floor of the eigenfunction {φi }.
The participation function holds the following relation for the mass point i:


n
β j φ ji = 1 (for mass point i = 1, 2, . . . , n) j = 1, 2, . . . mode (2.19)
j=1

Namely, for lumped mass point i, the following equation holds:

β1 φ1i + β2 φ2i + · · · + βn φni = 1 (for mass point i = 1, 2, . . . , n) (2.20)

30 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

The sum of participation functions of all modes at each lumped mass point position
must be 1. Using this relationship, the validity of the calculation can be checked.
The solution of Eq. (2.18) is given by an equation including Duhamel integral.

qi (t) = exp(−h i ωi t)[C1 · sin ω Di t + C2 · cos ω Di t]

t
1
− exp[−h i ωi (t − τ )] · sin ω D (t − τ )βi ẍ0 dτ (2.21)
ω Di
0

where

ω Di = ωi 1 − h i2 (where h i = damping constant of the i-th mode) (2.22)

The constants C1 and C2 are determined from the initial conditions. Since the dynamic
behavior of structures is generally governed by only Duhamel integral in transient
response, the first term and the second term are omitted.

t
1
qi = exp[−h i ωi (t − τ )] sin ω Di (t − τ )[−βi ẍ0 (τ )]dτ (2.23)
ω Di
0

When the normalized eigenfunctions {φ̄i } are used for eigenfunctions, the partic-
ipation coefficients β̄i using normalized eigenfunction is given by the following
formula:

{φ̄i }T [M]{I }  n
β̄i =  = m j φ̄i j (2.24)
{φ̄i } [M] φ̄i
T
j=1

Equations (2.19)–(2.23) are also applicable by changing βi with β̄i .

The horizontal displacement {x} in the height direction of structures is given by the
following equation:


n 
n
{x} = {φi } qi (t) or {x} = {φ̄i } q̄i (t) (2.25)
i=1 i=1

Here, q̄i represents the solution when βi on the right side of Eq. (2.15) is β̄i .

The analysis procedure of modal analysis is as follows:

2.7 Modal Analysis (Elastic Analysis) 31

2.8 Use of Response Spectrum

(1) Outline of Response Spectrum

The dynamic response of structures depends on the periodic characteristics of the

ground motions and the natural period of the structure. If they match, the response
becomes a resonance state so that it becomes large. Since structures subject to various
kinds of ground motions, it is important in design that the natural period of the build-
ing does not resonate with the ground motions which occur serious response to the
building. Response spectrum can be obtained by sequentially plotting the maximum
response value of one-degree of freedom systems (ODOFS) for the structure when
changing the natural period of the building against a specified ground motion. They
are called acceleration response spectrum, velocity response spectrum, displacement
response spectrum, for acceleration, velocity, and displacement, respectively.
Since the dynamic response of the structure subject to the ground motion acceleration
ẍ0 is governed by the natural period corresponding to the primary eigen mode of the
structure, the response spectrum is obtained by using a model of one-degree of
freedom systems (ODFS), as shown in Fig. 2.4.
32 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

2
Natural period T (sec)

k
Natural frequency (rad/s)
m

Fig. 2.4 Analytical model of one-degree of freedom systems

The equation of motion of one-degree of freedom systems subject to the acceler-

ation ẍ0 of earthquake ground motion is given as

ẍ + 2hω ẋ + ω2 x = −ẍ0 (2.26)

where h = the damping constant; ω = the natural frequency of one-degree of freedom

system; x = the relative displacement; ẋ = the relative velocity; and ẍ = the relative
acceleration.
The motion of one-degree of freedom system subject to ground motions ẍ0 can
be expressed by the Duhamel integral as follows:
(Relative displacement)

t
1
x̄(t) = − ẍ0 (τ ) exp [−hω(t − τ )] sin ω D (t − τ ) dτ (2.27)
ωD
0

(Relative velocity)

t
ω
x̄˙ (t) = − ẍ0 (τ ) exp [−hω(t − τ )] cos [ω D (t − τ ) + α] dτ (2.28)
ωD
0

(Absolute acceleration)

t
ω2
x̄¨ (t) + ẍ0 (t) = ẍ0 (τ ) exp [−hω(t − τ )] sin [ω D (t − τ ) + 2α] dτ (2.29)
ωD
0

√
where ω D = ω 1 − h 2 ; and α = phase difference with the relation

h
tan α = √ (2.30)
1 − h2
2.8 Use of Response Spectrum 33

Ignoring the phase difference α and when the damping is small, the approximate
relation ω D ≈ ω becomes effective. Hence, Eqs. (2.27)–(2.29):

t
1
x̄ (t) = − ẍ0 (τ ) exp[−hω(t − τ )] sin ω D (t − τ ) dτ (2.31)
ω
0
t
x̄˙ (t) ≈ − ẍ0 (τ ) exp[−hω(t − τ )] cos ω D (t − τ ) dτ (2.32)
0
t
ẍ = x̄¨ (t) + ẍ0 (t) = ω ẍ0 (τ ) exp [−hω(t − τ )] sin ω D (t − τ ) dτ (2.33)
0

Replacing cos by sin in an approximate expression of Eq. (2.31), we have

t
x̄ (t) ≈ − ẍ0 (τ ) exp [−hω(t − τ )] sin ω D (t − τ ) dτ (2.34)
0

Although the approximations used in these developments cause an error for the
maximum velocity in very long period (long cycle) or the maximum acceleration in
very short period, there is no problem in practical use.
From the comparison of Eqs. (2.31), (2.34), and (2.33), we get the following
approximate relationships:

1
x̄ = ẍ (2.35)
ω2
1
x̄˙ = ẍ (2.36)
ω
From the above relationships, when any one of the absolute acceleration ẍ, the
relative displacement x̄, and the relative velocity x̄˙ is obtained, the other is known.
The response spectrum method uses this relationship.
Indicating the maximum value of displacement, velocity, and acceleration given
in Eqs. (2.31), (2.34), and (2.33) with a displacement response value Sd , velocity
response value Sv , and acceleration response value Sa , respectively, the following
relations for Sa , Sd , and Sv are obtained from Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36).

Sv = ω1 Sa Pseudo-response relativevelocity
(2.37)
Sd = ω12 Sa Pseudo-response relative displacement
34 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

If one of Sa , Sd , and Sv is known, the other two are known. It must be noticed that Sv
and Sd are obtained from response relative acceleration by the use of the relationships
Eq. (2.37) and they do not obtained directly from response calculation. Therefore,
these are called “pseudo-response velocity” and “pseudo-response displacement”,
respectively, to distinguish from response values obtained directly.
The calculation of the response spectrum uses a step by step integration method, such
as the β method of Newmark, rather than Duhamel integral. The response spectrum
can be easily created by earthquake ground motions, maximum acceleration, and
damping constant. When the natural period of the structure is taken as the axis
of abscissas, the values of the vertical axis corresponding to it give the maximum
response values of displacement, acceleration, and velocity. Tripartite logarithmic
represents these response spectra in a single figure, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.5 shows schematically the characteristics of the three response spec-
trums for displacement, velocity, and acceleration. The more the natural period T
of structures increases, the smaller the response acceleration spectrum becomes. In
response acceleration spectrum, the structural designers should pay attention to the
two periods T 2 and T 3 , prescribed at both ends of the region indicating constant
acceleration and it is undesirable that the primary period of the structure includes
between the two periods.
The response spectrum differs according to earthquake ground motions. There-
fore, it is convenient to prepare a response spectrum diagram for representative
earthquake ground motions. Also, by preparing a response spectrum covering many
ground motions which must be considered in structural design, the maximum
response value to be considered in designing can be easily found out. This is called
a design response spectrum.
Figure 2.6 shows the elastic response spectrum for EL-CENTRO 1940, which
is created for the maximum ground velocity of 1 g. In addition, the acceleration,
velocity, and displacement are represented by one figure.

Fig. 2.5 Schematic response

spectrum
2.8 Use of Response Spectrum 35

Fig. 2.6 Response spectra for elastic system for the 1940 El Centro earthquake (from Blume et al.
1961) [2]. (Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: Springer Nature [2], Copyright (1991))

Figure 2.7 shows the response spectrum for elastic design with the maximum
acceleration of 1.0 g of ground motion and the damping of the structure by 5%,
created by averaging the response results for various ground motions. It follows
from the figure that the maximum acceleration of the ground motion is 1.0 g, the
maximum velocity is 48 in/s (121.92 cm/s), and the maximum displacement of the
ground motion is 36 in (91.44 cm). Since the maximum acceleration of the ground
motion is standardized at 1.0 g, when the maximum acceleration of the ground motion
is 0.32 g, the response values are obtained by multiplying the value read from the
response spectrum by (0.32 g/1.0 g).
(Participation) 1 in = 2.54 cm, 1 g = 980 cm/s2
The shear force coefficient spectrum is given from the acceleration response as

 
 kx  Sa
Sq =   ≈ (2.38)
mg max g

where g = gravitational acceleration 9.8 m/s2 ;

Example 1 Find out the elastic response of one-degree of freedom system by the
use of the response spectrum. The design condition is that the maximum acceleration
of the ground motion is 0.4 g, the period of the structure is T = 1 s, and the damping
constant is 10%.
Use response spectrum for elastic design given in Fig. 2.6, in which the maximum
ground motion acceleration is 1 g.
36 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

Fig. 2.7 Basic design spectra normalized to 1.0 g (from Newmark and Hall 1973) [2]. (Reprinted
by permission from Springer Nature: Springer Nature [2], Copyright (1991))

Read the value corresponding to f = 1/T = 1 cps and ξ = 0.10 from Fig. 2.6
and multiply the correction coefficient 0.4 to change the maximum ground acceler-
ation from 1 to 0.4 g.
Maximum relative pseudo velocity Sv = 60 in./s × 0.4 = 24 in./s = 61.0 m/s
Maximum relative displacement Sd = 9.5 in. × 0.4 = 3.8 in = 9.7 cm
Maximum absolute acceleration Sa = 0.95 g × 0.4 = 0.38 g = 372 cm/s2
Maximum shear force coefficient Sq = 372 (cm/s2 )/980 (cm/s2 ) = 0.38
(Note) Correction is corrected by the ratio of maximum ground motion accelera-
tion.
(2) Linear vibration of multi-degree of freedom systems used response spectra
method.

Since the seismic response for the linear vibration of the multi-degree of freedom
systems has natural periods equal to the number of degrees of freedom, the maximum
response value for each mode is obtained by using the response spectrum created
based on the one-degree of freedom systems for each natural period. The response
value as a structure with multi-degree of systems is obtained from the response value
for each mode by the use of “Root Mean Square (RMS)” or “Square Root of Square
Sum (SRSS)”.
2.8 Use of Response Spectrum 37



 n  2
Sdi max =  β j φ ji j Sd (2.39)
j=1


 n  2
Svi max =  β j φ ji j Sv (2.40)
j=1


 n  2
Sai max =  β j φ ji j Sa (2.41)
j=1
Sai max
Sqi max ≈ (2.42)
g

where Sdi max , Svi max , and Sai max = response maximum displacement, velocity,
and acceleration of the i-th lumped mass (absolute acceleration = relative acceler-
ation + ground acceleration); Sai max = response maximum seismic intensity of
the i-th lumped mass; β j φ ji = participation function of the i-th lumped mass in the
j-th mode; j Sd , j Sv , and j Sa = displacement, velocity, and acceleration response
spectrum value of one-degree of freedom systems corresponding to the j-th natural
period. For example, in the case of a two-mass system, the maximum displacement
response value of Eq. (2.38) is: 
For the 1-th lumped mass (i = 1) Sd1 max = (β1 φ11 1 Sd )2 + (β2 φ21 2 Sd )2
For the 2-th lumped mass (i = 2) Sd2 max = (β1 φ12 1 Sd )2 + (β2 φ22 2 Sd )2

(Based shear Q B )

⎧  ⎫
⎨ 
n
 n  2 ⎬
|Q B |max = mi  β j φ ji j Sq a (2.43)
⎩ ⎭ g
i=1 j=1

where ag = the maximum ground acceleration.

(Based shear coefficient q B )

 
|Q B |max 
n
qB = where M= mi (2.44)
M i=1

In general, since the influence of the higher order mode on the base shear is small,
the following expression considering only the first-order mode is obtained [5]:
n
m i β1 φ1i
q B ≈ i=1 n 1 q̃ = λ ·1 q̃ (2.45)
i=1 m i
38 2 Earthquake Response Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

Here, λ = the correction coefficient of the base shear coefficient to transform from
one-degree of freedom systems (ODOFS) to one of the multi-degree of freedom
systems (MDOFS); and j q̃ = coefficient of shear force when maximum ground
acceleration is ag .
ag
≡ j Sq
j q̃ (2.46)
g
n
qB m i β1 φ1i
λ= = i=1n (2.47)
1 q̃ i=1 m i

(Overturning moment)

⎧  ⎫
⎨ 
n
 n  2 ⎬
|MT |max ≈ m i Hi  β j φ ji j Sq a (2.48)
⎩ ⎭ g
i=1 j=1

where H i =height of the i-th lumped mass measured from the base plane.

References

1. T. Okamoto, W. Kazunori, Problems in current structural design (Upper Structures), in Applied

Mechanics Series 10, Prospects for Creative Mathematical Design Methods of Building Struc-
tures. The Architectural Institute of Japan (2002), pp. 27–41 (in Japanese)
2. M. Paz, Response spectra, in Structural Dynamics: Theory and Computation, 3rd edn. (Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1991)
3. H.A. Buchholdt, in Structural Dynamics for Engineers (Thomas Telford Pub., London, 1997)
4. T. Ikeda, Present state of input earthquake ground motions for design. The Architectural Institute
of Japan, Architectural Association PD materials, Rationale for structural designers (2005),
pp. 25–30 (in Japanese)
5. S. Kawamura, Foundation of seismic design. Ohmusha, Dec 1988 (in Japanese)