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WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Industrial wastewater treatment


using biofilm system

Prof. ZAINI UJANG

Institute of Environmental & Water Resource Management (IPASA)


Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 1


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Biofilm Processes
(Also known as Fixed Film Process)

„ The population of active organisms is developed


over a solid media (rock or plastics).
„ The attached growths of organisms stabilise the
organic matter as the wastewater passes over
them.
„ Two major types of biofilm processes:
• Trickling filters
• Rotating biological contactors

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 2


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Trickling Filter

„ Require hydraulic system to distribute the liquid sewage


over the media.
„ Traditionally, fixed system:
- Problem with dead zones / no wetting
„ Rotating system, flow uniformly distributed.
„ Thick biomass falls off for collection in settlement tank
„ Traditional media - stones 50mm diameter.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 3


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Trickling Filter Components


„ Filter media tank „ Effluent & sloughing materials?
„ Filter media „ Sludge handling
„ Hydraulic control „ Rotating distributor
„ Piping

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 4


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Organisms:
„ Bacteria
„ Protozoa (predator)
„ Fungi

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 5


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Traditional Configuration
„ Filter media - rocks/stone 50 mm diameter; 1.8 m deep
„ Rotary distribution - where liquid sewage trickles from on
top of circular tank
„ Perforated floor - to let air/liquid/biomass pass through
„ Underdrain system - to collect liquid/biomass to the
settlement tank
„ Dosing chamber to maintain supply of sewage to f low
continuously to filter media.
„ Media tank followed by humus or settlement tank - effluent
discharged & settled sludge to treatment
„ Achieve BOD reduction
- generally nitrification in high temperature.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 6


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Mechanism
„ Biomass aerobic at outer surface, anaerobic at media/solid
interface - oxygen consumed up before it reach inside.
„ Biomass contains fungi and bacteria
- responsible for organic degradation
„ Protozoa and rotifier in more aerobic areas.
- Consume lower animals
- Control the bacteria population
„ Algae near the top media if sunlight
- provides oxygen & can clog the media
„ Higher animals - worms, larvae in aerobic/surface layers
- consume organic/biomass.
„ Filter flys
„ More treatment at top, ‘cleaner effluent’ at base.
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 7
Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 8


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 9


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-2
Typical trickling filter
process flow
diagrams:
(a) Single stage and

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 10


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-2
Typical
trickling filter
process flow
diagrams:
(b) two-stage.
Where used,
the most
common flow
diagrams are
the first two of
each series.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 11


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Process Model
„ Define biomass and loading as similar to activated sludge
„ More difficult than activated sludge because:

- culture is not homogeneous, varies vertically within filter


and within biomass
- flow patterns through filter not easily predicted
- difficult to characterize biomass/media

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 12


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Design Formula
„ Many available
„ Often based on upon observation of performance
„ Many observations do not or could count of variations such
as clarifier performance, media variability, wetting, etc
„ Many are probably site specific and almost all are colder
climate data
„ NRC or Galler and Gotaas commonly used for rock filters
„ Germain for plastic media

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 13


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Other Considerations
„ More flow, better distribution through media and probably better
oxygen transfer
- contrary to previous model
- media uniformly wetted
- induce more air circulation from hydraulic turbulence
„ Increase flow by re-circulation
- improve flow despite putting more dilute wastewater over filter
„ If reduce diameter below 50 mm, biomass growth tends to clog
media
- prevent liquid f low
- disrupt air f low
- cause anaerobic pocket in filter, odorous

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 14


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Variations
„ Re-circulate effluent
- effluent from the humus tank is recycle to the dosing tank
- mixture will be diluted in BOD

„ Re-circulate around the filter

„ Alternating double filtration


- two filters, two settlement tanks
- flow through filter, tank,filter,tank
- alternate flow to filters
- requires pumping

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 15


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Other Media Used in Trickling Filter

„ Plastic

• higher specific surface, volume reduce


• lighter, deeper tower possible
• less clogging

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 16


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-3
Typical packing material for trickling filters: (a) rock, (b) and (c) plastic
vertical-flow, (d) plastic cross-flow, (e) redwood horizontal, and (f)
random pack. [Figs. (c) and (d) from American Surfpac Corp., (e) from
Neptune Microfloc, and (f) from Jaeger Products, Inc.] Note: the
random pack material is often used in air stripping towers.
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 17
Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 18


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 19


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-4
Typical distributors used to apply wastewater to trickling filter packing:
(a) View of early (circa 1920) rock filter with a fixed distribution system
(Library of Congress), and (c) view of top of tower trickling filter with four-arm
rotary distributor.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 20


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-5
Typical underdrain for rock filter: (a) fiberglass grating
and (b) vitrified clay block.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 21


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-6
Typical
underdrain
system for
tower filter.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 22


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-4 Correction factors for computing head loss in


non-vertical trickling filter packing based on Eq. (9-10)ª

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 23


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-7
Recommended
trickling filter clarifier
overflow rates as a
function of the
clarifier sidewall
depth. (Adapted
from WEF, 2000.)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 24


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Table 9-5 Trickling filter applications, loadings, and effluent quality

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 25


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-8
Example of trickling filter performance at 20ºC. Effect of BOD
loading removal efficiency for plastic media filter.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 26


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-10
Effect of influent
wastewater
BOD/TKN ratio on
nitrification rate in
tickling filters with
plastic packing
used for both BOD
removal and
nitrification.
[Adapted from
Okey and
Albertson, WEF
(2000).]

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 27


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

RECIRCULATION

„ Generally improves performance


„ Improves distribution, wetting., reduce filter flys,
maintain thin film
„ Can recycle through primary tank
„ Recirculation ratio 0.5 to 4.0
„ Particularly important to recirculate during low
flow, e.g. at night

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 28


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

IMPROVEMENT
• Hydbrid system
-combine fixed film and activated sludge system
• Separate reaction tanks
-e.g. Activated bio-filtration
-trickling filter / solid contact
• Media in tank
-several proprietary systems which have support
systems hung in the tank or floating in the tank
• Recirculation – control type of sludge sloughed off
-different from activated sludge, not form flocs
-difficult to settle
-recirculate to get better sludge (thin)
• Media configured to optimize aeration

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 29


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

PRACTICAL DESIGN

• Usually relies upon empirical loading factors


• Inter-related loading
- organic load kg BOD/m3d
- hydraulic load m3/m2d
• Related to specific surface area for particular media
• Organic loading between 0.05 and 2 kg BOD/m3d from
conventional to high rate plastic media

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 30


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

OTHER FACTORS
• Control SRT by fixing biomass to media
• Majority of treatment aerobic
• Minimize anaerobic biomass - thinner film
• Operated for domestic sewage as
- BOD reduction
- BOD and ammonia oxidation
- Nitrifying filters
• Rock media 1-2 m deep
- 50 mm diameter
- 1600 kg/m3
- 60 m2/m3
- 50% void
• Random pack
- 50 kg/m3
- 80-160m2/m3
- 95% void
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 31
Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

NITRIFICATION

• Low loading rates achieve BOD and ammonia removal


• Need BOD < 20 mg/L to promote growth of nitrifier
• Separate higher specific surface area media can be used for
nitrification
• Thick biomass run out of oxygen
• Tend to get more nitrification at the bottom of filter
• High BOD applied and ammonia to oxidize in the same
filter or low BOD applied mainly to oxidize ammonia

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 32


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

High BOD Nitrification


• Rock filled filter get complete nitrification if BOD <
80g/m3.d
• locally, higher value due to higher temperature
• For both rock and plastic media BOD load < 2.5 g/m2d
(specific surface area) corresponds to rock 120 g/m3.d,
plastic 220
• Other considerations affect, recirculation, temperature,
DO
• Higher BOD:TKN tends to reduce overall TKN removal
rate

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 33


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Low BOD Nitrification

• Second stage - receiving treated effluent BOD:TKN < 1.


soluble BOD < 12 mg/L
• Influence by ammonia and oxygen concentrations in
biofilm
• For high ammonia conc > 5 mg/L limited by transfer of
oxygen across liquid film
• At low ammonia load, removal decreases for low ammonia
availability

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 34


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

RBC PLANTS
• Settled sewage in trough
- effluent from primary settlement
• 40% of disc submerged in trough
- drive above liquid
• Rotate disc through air for oxygenation
• Biofilm develops - aerobic at surface, anaerobic at
disc/solid interface
• Thicker film falls off
• Design based upon loading to remove BOD or ammonia
and not deplete oxygen (loading exceeds the oxygenation
rate)
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 35
Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-11
Typical RBC units: (a) conventional RBC with mechanical drive and optical air
input, (b) conventional RBC in enclosed reactor

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 36


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 37


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-12
Typical RBC staging arrangements: (a)flow parallel to shaft, (b) flow perpendicular
to shaft, (c) view of RBCs with flow perpendicular to shaft

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 38


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-12
Typical RBC staging arrangements: (d)step feed flow, and (e) tapered feed flow
parallel to shaft.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 39


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-11
Typical RBC units: (c) submerged-type RBC equipped with air capture cups (air
is used both to aerate the biodisks), and (d) typical submerged RBC equipped
with air capture cups. (From Envirex Inc.)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 40


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

PROCESS
START- UP

• At least 4 weeks for first time - difficult to get biomass to


sticks to the moving media
• Provide some remaining biomass for subsequent
start-up - quicker growth
• Reduce load - growth dies back towards first discs

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 41


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Features of RBC

Sludge generation similar to other secondary processes


• Power failure leave 60% of disc in air
- 60% biomass in discs dies and dries out
- affect balance
- make restart difficult
- rotate manually (provision) if long power failure
• Require settled sewage - good quality preliminary processes

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 42


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

DESIGN
• Mainly empirical as per previous course
- several design curves available
• Loading usually related to available surface area - specific surface
area
• Oxygen limitation in biomass considered to limit organic loading to
any bank of discs
• Overall loading on first stage
BOD loading < 30g/m2d
Soluble BOD loading < 12 g/m2..d
First stage BOD reduced 40-50%
- organic loading controls
• Subsequent stages depend on hydraulic loading
• Rotate about I rpm -peripheral vel < 0.3 m/s
- relate to oxygenation rate

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 43


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

DESIGN

• Temperature critical at lower temperatures


• For nitrification need soluble BOI) less than 15mg/L.
- then organic loading 1.4 to 1.59/m2d
• Maximum nitrif. rate 1.59N/m2d
• At ammonia conc. < 5mg/L rate decreases with conc.
• Can design purely for nitrification and use submerged
discs for de-nitrification
- fully submerged, no oxygenation
- de-nitrification if sufficient carbon source

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 44


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

DESIGN
• High density polyethylene (HDPE) widely used
• Incorporate carbon block as a UV inhibitor
• Media corrugations - better stiffness, increased surface
area, more uniform wetting
• Low density in first stages (9300ml on 3.7m diameter discs
and 8.2m shaft)
• Medium to high density on nitrification shafts (11000 to
1700OM2 on 3.7m diameter discs and 8.2m shaft)
• Drive mechanically or with diffused air
• Motor rated 3.5 - 6kW/shaft
• Air drives more sensitive to unbalanced media

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 45


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

PRACTICAL DESIGN
• Use self aligning bearings to eliminate deflections caused
by unequal wearing of shaft ends and bearings
• Easy access to lubricate bearings
• Covers of ten fiberglass, need to permit access
• Stage to improve overall performance
• Balance flows improve performance
• Recycle particularly for low or intermittent flows, step feed
to balance loads to discs
• Electronic or hydraulic load cells to periodically measure
total shaft weight
• D0 meters particularly in first and second stages of plant
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 46
Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Operational Flexibility
• Possible inclusion of supplementary aeration with
• Remove excess biomass with air/water stripping, speed control
Variable rotational speeds on first and second stages
• Multiple treatment trains
• Removable baffles between stages
• Positive influent flow control to each unit or train
• Positive flow distribution control, for example step feed options
Re-circulation of secondary clarifier effluent
• DO monitoring
• Ease of access
• Tank drains
• Load cells on shafts
• Ventilation, lifting equipment
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 47
Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Hybrid system

• RBC – Activated sludge


• Trickling filter – RBC
• Trickling filter – activated sludge
• etc

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 48


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-13
Combined trickling filter/activated-sludge processes: (a) schematic
flow diagram of trickling filter/solids contact (TF/SC) process

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 49


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 50


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-14
Combined trickling filter/activated-sludge process with return sludge
recycle to trickling filter: (a) schematic flow diagram of activated
biofilter (ABF) and

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 51


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-15
Schematic flow diagram of combined trickling filter activated-sludge
process with intermediate clarifier.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 52


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Table 9-12
Process parameters for series trickling filter-activated-sludge process
with intermediate clarifier

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 53


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-16
Equivalent SRT for
biosolids in a
trickling filter as a
function of the
BOD loading.
(Adapted from
WEF, 2000.)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 54


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)
WET Program Lecture Sept 2005 „ Module on Biofilm System „ Zaini Ujang

Figure 9-17
Approximate
amount of
particulate
BOD
degraded in a
trickling filter
as a function
of organic
loading. (From
Bogus, 1989.)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA zaini@utm.my 55


Institute of Environmental and Water Resource Management (IPASA)

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