CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Definition of Writing

Writing is to state ideas, notions, thinks, or feelings on written expression. To

state the ideas on written expression is not easy. We should have competence not only

to think well but also to know other related aspects such as written content

understanding, written form understanding and motivation to write.

Besides, writing will have many purposes such as descriptive text, narrative

text, recount text, procedure text, report text, announcement, short message, shopping

list, invitation, personal letter, greeting card as well as advertisement. Writing can be

produced if we have idea, knowledge and information about everything. We can

share what we have in our mind to pursue, argue, and comment something on writing.

And writing can also give many advantages to measure our knowledge whether or not

we comprehend something we read.

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary gives definition that writing is to

produce something in written form so that people can read, perform or use it.1

The meaning of writing according to Oxford new edition dictionary, writing is

activity of writing; written or printed words. In the other source recite from the

website the definition of writing is the activity of putting something in written form.
1
A.S. Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2003), p. 1560

7
 8

Perhaps writing might best be viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the

more mechanical or formal aspects of “writing down” on the one end to the more

complex act of composing on the other. This seems most sensible in the context of

second and foreign language learning, where beginning language students must first

struggle with the transcription of speech before they can engage in more complex

forms of written expression.

Magnan (1985) suggests that in secondary schools and in lower-level college

classroom, we might expect students at first to write down or transcribe in the second

language something they might say. In the way, writing might be considered

primarily as a support skill for speaking. Gradually, however, we can help student

shape their written production in the direction of the conventions of proficient

writers, teaching the cognitive processes of organization, elaboration, comparison and

contrast, explanation, generalization, and the like.2

James A. W. Heffernan and John, E. Lincoln define that writing is a means of

communication you must consciously learn.3 And part of what make it hand to learns

is that written word usually have to express your meaning in your absence have to

speak all by themselves, in writing, there is no a facials expression gesture or body

English of a kind. The writer uses punctuation to speak with words. Furthermore,

writing is solitary act.4 When we walk, we normally take to someone who walks

back, who raises questions, who lets you know whether or not you making yourself
2
Hadley Omaggio Alice, Teaching Language in Context, (Heinle & Heinle), p.281
3
Heffermen James. A. W and John, Writing a Collage Handbook,(New York: W.W Norton
and Company, 1986), p.3
4
Ibid.,
 9

clear, the writer language is a kind of notation of the sound, pauses, inflection,

stresses, tones, gesture, and facial expression which transmit meaning in speech and

he said writing may serve the child's emerging individually as can no other kinds of

study.

As Prof. Dr. Henry Guntur Tarigan defined "menulis merupakan suatu

keterampilan berbahasa yang dipergunakan untuk berkomunikasi secara tidak

langsung, tidak tatap muka dengan orang lain. Menulis merupakan suatu kegiatan

yang produktif/ekspresif.5

According to Anne Ruggles Gere, writing is communication: writing is a form

of self-expression, writing is a public, writing is rule; governed behavior, and writing

is a way learning, all of them point to what writing does and collect.6

Mc Crimmon defines that writing is opportunity to convey something about

yourself, to communicate ideas to people beyond your immediate vicinity and learn

something you didn’t know.7

It means that writing as a process of recording language in the form of

conventionally visible marks or graphic signs on a surface, and it is an idea to people

beyond your immediate vicinity and learns something you didn’t know.

Whereas, writing can also be defined as an activity to convey the message

(communication) using writing form as its media. The message is a content which

5
Henry Guntur Tarigan, Menulis Sebagai Keterampilan Berbahasa, (Bandung: Angkasa,
1982), p. 3
6
Anne Ruggles Gere, Writing and Learning, (New York: McMillan, 1987), p.2
7
James Mc Crimmon, The Writing Process, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1983),
p. 2
 10

conclude in writing. Therefore, in writing form, there can be four aspects included

such as; the writer (message conveyer), writing content, writing media as well as

reader (message receiver).

Writing is different from speaking, a useful summary of some of the

differences between speaking and writing can be found in Brown (1994). Brown

provides the following list of the characteristics that ordinarily differentiate written

language from spoken language:

1. Permanence; oral language is transitory and must be processed in real time,

while written language is permanent and can be read and reread as often as one

likes;

2. Production time: writers generally have more time to plan, review, and

revise their words before they are finalized, while speakers must plan, formulate,

and deliver their utterances within a few moments if they are to maintain a

conversation;

3. Distance between the writer and the reader in both time and space which

eliminates much of shared context that is present between speaker and listener in

ordinary face-to-face contact and thus necessitates greater explicitness on the part

of the writer;

4. Orthography, which carries a limited amount of information compared to the

richness of devices available to speakers to enhance a message (e.g. stress,

intonation, pitch, volume, pausing, etc.);

 11

5. Complexity: written language tends to be characterized by longer clauses and

more subordinators, while spoken language tends to have shorter clauses

connected by coordinators, as well as more redundancy (e.g. repetition of nouns

and verbs);

6. Formality: because of the social and cultural uses to which writing is

ordinarily put, writing tends to be more formal than speaking;

7. Vocabulary: written texts tend to contain a wider variety of words and more

lower-frequency words, than oral texts.8

From the explanation above, the writer concluded that writing is a complex

activity which needs many requirements, writing is more difficult than speaking. In

writing also, the writer is reinforced to have good language, because the writing

content will be read by many people continuously. The writer does not need facial

form and gesture to ensure the readers, but he/she needs punctuation to communicate.

B. Types of Classroom Writing Performance

Classroom writing performance means the writing activity where both

students and teachers can learn writing together in the class. These types of classroom

writing performance need some spaces because teaching and learning writing is so

complex.

Many ways that can be done to develop students’ writing skill especially for

descriptive text, it depends on the style of teaching method. Here are the types of

classroom writing performance:

8
Sara Cushing Weigle, Assesing Writing, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press),
p. 15-16
 12

1. Imitative or writing down

At the beginning level of learning to write, students will simply “write down”

English letters, words, and possibly sentences in order to learn the conventions of the

orthographic code. Some forms of dictation fall into this category although dictations

can serve to teach and test higher order processing as well. Dictations typically

involve the following steps:

a. Teacher reads a short paragraph once or twice at normal speed.

b. Teacher reads the paragraph in short phrase units of three or four words each,

and each unit is followed by a pause.

c. During the pause, students write exactly what they hear.

d. Teacher then reads the whole paragraph once more at normal speed so

students can check their writing.

e. Scoring of students’ written work can utilize a number of rubrics for assigning

points. Usually spelling and punctuation errors are not considered as severe as

grammatical errors.

2. Intensive or controlled

Writing is sometimes used as a production mode for learning, reinforcing, or

testing grammatical concepts. This intensive writing typically appears in controlled,

written grammar exercises. This type of writing would not allow much, if any,

creativity on the part of the writer.

A common form of controlled writing is to present a paragraph to students in

which they have to alter a given structure throughout. So, for example, they may be
 13

asked to change all present tense verbs to past; in such a case, students may need to

alter other time references in the paragraph.

Guided writing loosens the teacher’s, control but still offers a series of

stimulators. For example, the teacher might get students to tell a story just viewed on

a video tape by asking them a series of questions: Where does the story take place?

Describe the principal character. What does he say to the woman in the car?

Yet another form of controlled writing is a dicto-comp. Here, a paragraph is

read at normal speed; then the teacher puts key words from the paragraph, in

sequence, on the blackboard and asks students to rewrite the paragraph from the best

of their recollection of the reading, using the words on the board.

3. Self-writing

A significant proportion of classroom writing may be devoted to self- writing,

or writing with only the self in mind as an audience. The most salient instance of this

category in classrooms is note taking, where students take notes during a lecture for

the purpose of later recall. Other note taking maybe done in the margins of books and

on odd scraps of paper.

Diary or journal writing also falls into this category. However, in recent years

more and more dialogue journal writing takes place, where students write thoughts,

feelings, and reactions in a journal and an instructor reads and responds, in which

case the journal, while ostensibly written for oneself has two audiences.

4. Display writing
 14

It was already noted earlier that writing within the school curricular context is

a way of life. For all language students, short answer exercises, essay examinations,

and even research reports will involve an element of display. For academically bound

ESL students, one of the academic skills that they need to master is a whole array of

display writing techniques.

5. Real writing

While virtually every classroom writing task will have an element of display

writing in it, nevertheless some classroom writing aims at the genuine communication

of messages to an audience in need of those messages. The two categories of real and

display writing are actually two ends of a continuum, and in between the two

extremes lie some practical instances of a combination of display writing and real.

Three subcategories illustrate how reality can be injected:

a. Academic. The Language Experience Approach gives groups of students’

opportunities to convey genuine information to each other. Content-based

instruction encourages the exchange of useful information, and some this

learning uses the written word. Group problem-solving tasks, especially those

that relate to current issues and other personally relevant topics, may have a

writing component in which information is genuinely sought and conveyed.

Peer-editing work adds to what would otherwise be an audience one (the

instructor) and provides real writing opportunity. In certain EAP courses,

students may exchange new• information with each other and with the

instructor.
 15

b. Vocational/technical. Quite a variety of real writing can take place classes of

students studying English for advancement in their occupation. Real letters

can be written; genuine directions for some operation or assembly might be

given; and actual forms can be filled out. These possibilities are even greater

in what has come to be called “English in the Workplace” where ESL is

offered within companies and corporations.

c. Personal. In virtually any ESL classes, diaries, letters, post cards, notes,

personal messages, and other informal writing can take place, especially

within the context of an interactive classroom. While certain tasks may

somewhat contrived, nevertheless the genuine exchange of information can

happen.9

The writer gives recommendations the teachers and students to have some

spaces in learning writing. From the classroom writing performance above, the

teachers can choose the suitable classroom writing performance for their students.

C. Definition of Peer Editing

When you edit a document, your basic job is to read “like the real reader”

would. This means you try to anticipate the audience’s expectations, level of

knowledge, and purpose. As an editor, you offer suggestions, request clarifications,

and provide advice to the writer. As part of a “review and revision” process, you and

9
H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents, 1994), p. 327-330
 16

your colleagues will often write, edit, and revise as a team, creating documents that

do the best possible job of conveying your intended meaning to the intended user.

Peer editing can increase students’ motivation to write well, students’ peer

gives comment, compliment and suggestion on their writing each other. They will

have good ability in writing. Peer editing is known as learning method in improving

students’ peer.

We know that peer editing consist of two words, peer and editing. Peer is

someone your own age. And editing means making suggestions, comments,

compliments, and changes to writing. Working with classmates to help improve

students’ writing can be lots of fun. But remember, the word editing has similar

meaning according different source. It can be editing, proofreading, and revising.

Some people use the terms “editing”, “proofreading”, and “revising” are

interchangeably. Others mean something very different with each term:

1. Editing is the process of looking at the whole paper to note its overall content,

organization, and other major issues that make the paper an effective document.

2. Proofreading is the process of looking more closely at sentences and word

choices to be sure they are effective and grammatically correct.

3. Revising does not come only toward the end of the process but occurs

throughout the thinking, planning, drafting and editing of a paper.

Editing is a process quite different from revising. Editing means replacing a

weak word with a stronger one, a vague word with a more specific one, an abstract or

general word with a more concrete or precise one. Editing also means checking for
 17

correct usage, that is, spelling, punctuation, subject-verb agreement, pronoun use, and

so on. It may also include combining ideas differently in sentences or rearranging

sentence parts. But editing rarely includes any work beyond a sentence or two at a

time.10

Editing is the process of checking written work for the conventions of writing

and any lingering concerns with voice, tone, and style.11

To do peer editing or peer review in the class, the teacher can do the step as

follows:

1. Read once quickly through the entire paper; then reread again more carefully

and make notes on each of the following questions. Use your notes during

discussion with your partner in class next time.

2. Reread the introductory paragraph(s). Do they give you an idea of what the

whole paper is going to be about? Do they make you want to continue reading?

Do they define key terms and issues clearly? What suggestions do you have for

(drafting or) improving the introductory paragraphs?

3. Is there a clearly stated thesis that ties the whole paper together? How can the

thesis be specified or clarified to improve the way it ties the paper together?

Review the paper once more to look for ideas that do not relate closely to the

thesis. Suggest places that should be revised or deleted in order to fit better with

the overall thesis.

10
Kate Kiefer, Readers as Writers: A Basic Rhetoric, (New York: CBS College Publishing,
1986), p. 124-125
11
Vicki Urquhart and Monette Mclver, Teaching Writing in the Content Areas, (Alexandria:
ASCD, 2005), p. 11
 18

4. Think about the organization of the paper. Are the paragraphs well-

developed? Are claims clearly stated and well supported with evidence? Are

paragraphs logically ordered? Suggest ways in which organization can be

improved.

5. Reread the assigned topic from the green assignment sheet from Cherry. Are

all the required aspects of the paper covered? Suggest ways the paper can more

directly prove the writer’s understanding of the topic, or suggest ways the writer

can make his/her perspective on this issue stronger in order to better address the

assignment.

6. Has the writer made it clear which ideas and claims come from him/her and

which ideas came from any other writer of background sources? Suggest places

and words that would help improve the differentiation between the writer’s ideas

and those of background resources.

7. Reread the concluding paragraphs of the paper. Do they completely discuss

the significance of the paper or the purpose of the paper? Remember, as an

outside reader, it may be easier for you to think of ideas that could help here than

the writer. Discuss ideas the writer can use to expand and strengthen his/her

concluding paragraphs.

8. What do you think of the title? Does it reflect the thesis of this particular

paper? Is it specific enough so that it could not be used for someone else’s paper?

Suggest ways to specify the title so that it more directly relate to the thesis of this
 19

particular paper. (if there is no title yet, help the writer compose a good, specific

one).12

It is clear that peer editing can help students improve their skill in writing.

The writer gives this method to the students and they fell that writing using peer

editing is lots of fun. Teaching writing can be fun and enjoyable.

D. Using Peer Editing in Classroom

Many methods and approaches can be applied to develop students’ writing

skill. One of them is peer editing, peer review or partnership editing. With proper

training, students make capable editing partners. By allowing students to review their

peer’s written work for proper grammar, correct spelling, and appropriate

punctuation, the teacher can increase the amount of time available to work on other

aspect of the writing process.

More important, the teacher can use this extra time to focus on content-area

instruction. In addition, students often make successful editing partners because it is

easier to find the errors in the work of others than it is to find them in their own

writing. Allowing time for partnership editing empowers your students to be helpful

writing assistants rather than passive receptor of writing rules. 13

Using peer editing is so important for both teachers and students to make time

efficient in teaching writing in the classroom. The teacher gives students opportunity

to check students’ written work. To use peer editing the teacher should have the

requirements below:
12
Cherry Campbell, Teaching Second-Language Writing: Interacting with Text, (Canada:
Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 1998), p. 52-53
13
Vicki Urquhart and Monette Mclver, Op. Cit., p. 115
 20

1. If you have the space in your classroom, designate a place for partnership editing

2. Model an editing session for your students they can gauge the amount of time that

their interactions should take and they can see the tone of voice and demeanor

that you use

3. Provide students with an Editing Checklist:

SAMPLE EDITING CHECKLIST

Author :
Editor :
Title/Assignment:
As you read this draft, make sure that the author:
 Correctly spells words
 Includes ending and internal punctuation
 Uses complete sentences (e.g., no sentence
fragments or run-on sentences
 Uses capitals when it is appropriate
 Uses appropriate grammar
 Includes additional documents when
necessary (e.g., table of contents, glossary)
 Sets off paragraphs by indenting or blocking

Checklists guide students through the editing process, reminding them to pay

attention to specific items. 14

4. Encourage students to use the Editing Style Sheet with

their partner:

14
Ibid., p. 115-116
 21

SAMPLE EDITING STYLE SHEET

 among/between—between is for two; among

is for more than two
One difference between cats and dogs is their method of communication.
The children were asked to select their favorite candy among M & M’s, Nerds,
and Tootsie Rolls.

 aid/aide—aid refers to assistance; aide refers

to an assistant
An aide is a helpful person who gives aid.

 appendixes/appendices—either is acceptable;
be consistent

 comma--**watch these**
January 2001
red, white, and blue

 affect/effect—“affect” is usually a verb;

“effect” is usually a noun
The weather will affect our decision.
The effect of the weather was unknown.

 lay/lie—“lay” means to set down; “lie” means

to recline
Please lay the book on the table.
When I lie down, I usually fall asleep.
 22

 use/utilize—“use” is better
The students will use a lot of books to complete their reports.
-not-
The student will utilize a lot of books to complete their reports

These sheet highlight essential English rules as difference between their,

there, and they’re.15

Beside the requirements above the teacher must give spaces to the students in

order to choose their peer. The teacher gives caution to the students on the

blackboard. It can be five points posted:

 Take out your peer review sheet, the original

assignment sheet for this paper, and your partner’s draft

 These are ROUGH drafts, give kind, helpful,

and specific comments

 For each writer’s paper, talk about each point

on the peer review sheet

 Make lots of suggestions about HOW to

improve (not only WHAT to improve)

 TAKE NOTES to remember your partner’s

advice16

15
Ibid., p. 116 and p. 124
16
Cherry Campbell, Op. Cit., p. 51
 23

Those points will make students pay attention to their responsibility in

working together.

E. Definition of Descriptive Text

Writing, unlike speech, has a number of different forms or types of message,

with associated conventions. Although there are, in speaking, some text types which

have a conventionalized form (e.g., valedictory speeches, after dinner speeches,

sermons, addresses of welcome, etc.) such text types tend to be associated with the

domain of public speaking, and they do not form part of the conventional language

syllabus. By contrast, in writing there are conventions which govern the form and

style of virtually any text type, from the informal note to the formal report.

The next types may be classified into two main groups: personal and

institutional. Personal text types include notes, telegrams, post cards, personal

messages, diaries and letters. Institutional text types include advertisements,

instructions, public notices, business letters, catalogues, forms, abstracts and

summaries, reports, and essays. The teaching of writing will involve familiarizing

students with the conventions of those text types which are appropriate to their needs.

We easily can find many descriptive texts in our daily life. Many texts such as

newspaper, magazine, and bulletin are talked about place, things or person. It

describes and gives information clearly about the topic well. Many kinds of text also

are given every day; it can be descriptive, narrative, recount, argumentative, as well
 24

as persuasive. But in this research the writer gives the information about descriptive

text. What is a descriptive text?

Descriptive text can be a text which says what a person or a thing is like. Its

purpose is to describe and reveal a particular person, place, or thing. Descriptive text

aims at giving vivid details of how something or something looks. A descriptive text

tells the readers what the things is, or what the thing does. A description should be so

unique that a descriptive text is not used to generalize. All different readers should be

able to show the same thing being described in the text.

According to Ida Maharani, “deskripsi berarti pemaparan atau penjelasan.

Jadi, descriptive text adalah teks yang memaparkan sesuatu. Hal yang biasa

dipaparkan dalam descriptive text adalah benda, makhluk hidup, dan tempat.

Descriptive text merupakan paparan tentang sesuatu sebagaimana adanya. Teks jenis

ini menjelaskan sesuatu berdasarkan bentuknya, ukurannya, unsurnya, atau sifat-

sifatnya. Jika yang dipaparkan berupa makhluk hidup maka paparan dapat dilengkapi

dengan kebiasaan hidup. Apabila kamu ingin memaparkan benda, kamu dapat

menuliskan bentuk dan sifat-sifatnya. Selain benda dan makhluk hidup, kamu juga

dapat mendeskripsikan tempat dengan cara menerangkan lokasi dan bagian dari

tempat tersebut”.17

The lexico-grammar of descriptive text is dominated with simple present

tense. This is due to the factual nature of a descriptive text. The text only shows facts.

17
Ida Maharani, How to Write Effectively: Menulis secara Efektif, (Yogyakarta: PT. Citra
Aji Parama, 2007), p. 65-66
 25

The clause system is dominated with relational and material process. Relational

process is much employed to show identifications of the thing being described, while

material process is used to show what the thing does. Because descriptive texts show

the attributes of the thing, most clauses use adjectives. The adjectives are mostly

descriptive rather than attitudinal. Descriptive texts usually also show part-whole

relationship. When describing a guava tree in front of your house, for example, the

description should cover the description of the whole tree and its parts like the trunk,

the branches, leaves, and many other parts.18

The writer should organize the descriptions present his details in a way that

makes sense to the reader (descriptions may be organized in any number of ways:

from top to bottom, left to right, near to far, most recent to least recent, etc.)

1. The Generic Structure of Descriptive Text

Descriptive text has structure as below:

a. Identification; identifying the phenomenon to be described.

b. Description; describing the phenomenon in parts, qualities, or/and

characteristics.

2. The Language Feature of Descriptive Text

a. Using attributive and identifying process.

b. Using adjective and classifiers in nominal group.

c. Using simple present tense

18
http://www.soloeducenter.com/component/content/article/47-factual-genre/48-description
 26

Some text types are quite difficult to differ. Such report and descriptive text

have the similarity in the social function and generic structure. However if they are

analyzed carefully, the slight difference between the two text types will reveal. The

purpose of the two texts are to give the live-description of the object/participant. Both

the report and descriptive text try to show rather than tell the reader about the factual

condition of the object.

Readers by themselves will catch the impressive point of the object through

that showing writing style. What make different, between report and descriptive text,

is the scope of the written object. If we talk about, eg: bicycle, it belongs to report

text. It will talk about bicycle in general; its parts, physical strength, function for

certain people or other general characters of bike. In the other hand, descriptive text

will convey more focus, for example "my bicycle" with its specific characters; color,

length, wheel style, etc.

In short, report text describes the way of certain things and frequently refer to

phenomenon of nature, animal and scientific object. Mostly, report is written after

getting careful observation. These scientific and technical senses make clearer

difference from descriptive text. The way of descriptive text in showing thing is

based on the objective fact of the thing. It describes the specific thing simply as the

thing is.19

Besides, descriptive text gives clearer information about place, things or

person described. Here are examples of descriptive text:

19
http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2008/06/differences-between-report-and.html
 27

Example 1: Place

Title The Cinema

Identificatio Metro is a very big cinema complex in my city.
n
Descriptions It is located in the middle of town near the main shopping centers and
malls. The cinema has five theaters. Each of them is able to seat more
than 100 persons. All theaters are fully air-conditioned and have
Dolby-stereo sound systems. At the back of each theatre, there is a
projector room. In this room, there is a projector machine. The
operator puts the film in the machine. The machine will project the
pictures on to a big screen in the front of the theater. The cinema also
has a snack bar. At the snack bar, people can buy popcorn, candy, and
drinks as well. They can bring the snacks inside the theaters. The
cinema is open every day, but it is usually very crowded during the
weekend.

Example 2: Things

Title My New Bag

Identificatio I have a new bag
n
Descriptions It is quite big. I can put ten books into it. It is yellow, so it is eye-
catching. It is square like a suitcase, but it is a backpack. It has a
handle at the top. There is also a picture of bear on it. It makes my
new bag funny. I really love my new bag because its shape and color
are beautiful.

Example 3: Person

Title My Classmate
Identificatio Adena is my classmate
 28

n
Descriptions She lives in Jalan Pemuda 52 Klaten. She is 13 years old. Now she is
in year seven at SMP 1 Klaten. She is very beautiful. She has rounded
eyes. Her hair is long and tidy. She is smart girl in the class. She is
good at all subjects. All her friends and teachers like her. 20

The conclusion is to use descriptive text is expected that the reader will have

same view of a person, thing or place. To describe a person, thing or place will give

information how they look.

20
Ida Maharani, Op. Cit., p. 67