Exploration Day 2

Basrah Oil Training Institute
Introduction To Oil Industry
Origin of Petroleum and Exploration

TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Introduc on
- Explora on and Produc on of Hydrocarbons
- The Organic Ma er and its Transforma on in H/C’s
 Migra on of H/C’s and Reservoir Rocks
- Different kinds of Traps
- Types of Rocks
 Hydrocarbons Explora on
- Surface Geology
- Explora on Projects Phases
* Basin Regional Study and Preliminary Area Evalua on
* Interest on a Specific Area
* Drilling, Appraisal and Development
INTRODUCTION
Explora on and Produc on of Hydrocarbons
 Natural hydrocarbons are chemically composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms to which
oxygen, nitrogen and Sulphur atoms may be added.
 The different physical characteris cs of H/C’s are due to their different molecular structure.
 All hydrocarbons” burn”, that is they quickly become oxidized, thus producing heat
 Most hydrocarbons are in liquid form under normal condi ons, and their mixtures, in various
propor ons, form petroleum
 Hydrocarbons are the remains of ancient plant and animal life which have been trapped in a
reservoir under specific condi ons. These are known as (a type of) fossil fuel. These reserves
can be exploited using drilling techniques.
INTRODUCTION
The Organic Ma er and its Transforma on in Hydrocarbons
 Hydrocarbons are generated by thermal degrada on of organic material contained in sedimentary rocks
 The evolu onary process of organic material can be subdivided into three stages:
a) Diagenesis: Organic material transform, due to the effect of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, whose ac on
tends to break up the natural organic macromolecules which units by means of condensa on reac ons.
The final product is kerogen.
b) Catagenesis: Transforma on of kerogen into H/C’s by thermal cracking due to high temperature and me.
c) Metagenesis: The evolu on of organic material leads to the forma on of natural gas and graphite (begins
when temperature has exceeded 180 ⁰C).
MIGRATION OF HYDROCARBONS AND RESERVOIR ROCKS
 Hydrocarbons migrate at an incredibly slow rate and are condi oned by endless changes within
the Earth's crust.
 Hydrocarbons are found in the intergranular porosity
 Hydrocarbons move (migrate) from the source rock, where they are expected to be in the form of
very minute droplets, into a reservoir forma on where they can be stored and produced.
 Oil and/or gas are always found together with water
 Good reservoir rocks have high porosity values and reservoir rocks must be permeable, the pores
of the rock must be connected together so that hydrocarbons can move from one pore to
another.
Different Kinds of Traps
A. Structural traps: these are related to tectonic phenomena which have deformed the original
posi on of the sediments.
a) An cline traps
b) Traps with a fault line
c) Traps with a fault line
d) Traps with a fault line
a b
e) Trap with a salt dome
Examples of Structural Traps
c d e
Different Kinds of Traps
B. Stra graphic traps: these are due to the par cular arrangement, within the stra graphic sequence,
of sediments with different physical proper es.
a b c
Examples of Stra graphic Traps
C. Mixed traps: these are the result of the combina on of the preceding two types. Thus they may be generated
by the combina on of folds and varia ons in porosity, or by a combina on of faults and varia ons in porosity.
Types of Rocks
Sedimentary rocks: these are rocks which are formed in
water or on the surface and come from the weathering of
.pre-exis ng rocks
Igneous rocks: these rocks originate from the solidifica on
.of magma within or outside the earth’s crust
Metamorphic rocks: these are the product of a par al or
complete re-crystalliza on of pre-exis ng rocks which have
been subjected to heat, pressure and hydrothermal
.solu on
Genesis of Sedimentary Rocks

Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Anhydrite Sandstone Shale rock Gypsum rock Gravel rock Marl rock
Limestone rock Conglomerate rock Dolomite rock Sand Salt rock Silt Siltstone
Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks

HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION
Surface Geology
 Geophysics is the science of finding traps for oil (using indirect methods such as Seismic Surveys).
 Seismic surveys involve crea ng sound waves on the surface that penetrate downward into the rock
layers. Each forma on reflects the sound wave back to the surface, where sensi ve instruments
record and measure the intensity of reflec ons. By carefully interpre ng the measurements,
explora on geologists are able to deduce the shape and extent of the subsurface forma ons.
 Readings taken from seismographs should reveal the possible existence of structure suitable for
petroleum trapping.
 Indirect methods reveal only the possibility of a petroleum trap. To confirm the presence of
hydrocarbons, a direct method is needed: a well must be drilled.
 The biggest ques on is where to drill.
 Explora on Project Steps :

1. Iden fica on of new research targets (prospects) in a defined area
2. Defini on of their technical value (reserves), the associated geological (POS=probability of success)
and economic (EMV=Expected Monetary Value) risks.
3. The opera ve phase (drilling of exploratory and development wells)
Prospect
Prospect Evalua on
Drilling
Iden fica on (Reserves
Es mates)
Explora on Project Steps

Explora on Projects Phases
in order to properly explore a new sedimentary basin, some conceptual steps are absolutely necessary.
These are:
1. Verify the presence of a possible source rock in the basin itself
2. Once the source is checked, through various methodologies, to locate the basin part/s (if any), where
the source rock has theore cally reached a temperature range capable of genera ng hydrocarbons
3. Only in case the previous steps are accomplished, to drill the structure/s nearest to the area where oil
and/or gas genera on was computed
 Basin Regional Study and Preliminary Area evalua on
1. Source Rock
2. Reservoir Rock
3. Seal (Cap ) Rock
4. Migra on Pathway (Charge Access)
5. Trap
 Interest on a Specific Area
1. Bid Rounds and Concession agreements Main terms
2. Seismic Data Acquisi on
3. Seismic Data Processing
4. Seismic Data Interpreta on
5. Prospect genera on and evalua on
 Drilling, Appraisal and Development
• Petroleum system is made of different elements

which encompass source rock, reservoir rock,
Cap rock , Mature hydrocarbons ,Charge Access
(Migra on Pathways) and trap .
• It is found in a sedimentary basin whereby

explora onists are able to study its stra graphy
and its sedimentology (rock history) to
determine if there is a likeliness of the existence
of petroleum system.
1. SOURCE ROCK
• A rock rich in organic ma er which, if subjected to sufficient pressure and temperature will generate
oil or gas according to the type of organic ma er origin.
• Typical source rocks, usually shales or limestones, contain about 1% organic ma er and at least 0.5%
Total Organic Carbon (TOC), although a rich source rock might have as much as 10% organic ma er.
• Terrestrial Organic ma er content (Coal ) tend to has gas prone while marine organic ma er content
tend to be oil prone.
• Preserva on of organic ma er without degrada on is cri cal to crea ng a good source rock, and
necessary for a complete petroleum system. Under the right condi ons, source rocks may also be
reservoir rocks, as in the case of shale gas reservoirs.
2. RESERVOIR ROCK
Reservoir rock is a place that oil migrates to and is held underground.

reservoir rock must contain porosity, permeability, sufficient hydrocarbon accumula on and a sealing
mechanism to form a reservoir from which commercial flows of hydrocarbons can be produced.
2. RESERVOIR ROCK
Reservoir Rock Proper es:
Porosity and permeability are two proper es describing the
reservoir rock capacity with regard to the fluid con nence
a) Porosity :Porosity the void space inside the rocks. It is also
defined as a measure of the capacity of reservoir rocks to
contain or store fluids
b) Permeability: the percentage of interconnected pores.
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to pass
through its porous medium. Permeability is one of important
to determine the effec ve reservoir
(Sor ng )The best sandstone reservoirs are those that are
composed mainly of quartz grains of sand size of nearly equal
sizes or silica cement, with minimal fragmented par cles.
2. RESERVOIR ROCK
Reservoir Rock Types:
1. Sandstones Reservoir Rock: The performance of the sandstone as a reservoir rock is described
by its combina on of porosity and permeability depending on the degree to which the sand
dominates its.
2. Carbonate reservoir rocks : Carbonates are usually made of fossils which “range from the very small
single cell to the larger shelled animals”.
A close-up of Ooli c
Most carbonate rocks are deposited at or in very close Limestone, which
neighborhood to their site of crea on. The "best-sorted" composed of ny
spherical ooids
carbonate rocks are Oolites in which encompass grains of the
same size and shapes even though Oolites are poorly sorted.
3. Highly fractured igneous and metamorphic: rocks are known to produce hydrocarbons (mainly oil )
albeit of a much smaller scale.
3. SEAL (CAP ROCK)
5. TRAP
The process of a source rock becoming capable of genera ng oil or gas when
exposed to appropriate pressures and temperatures. As a source rock begins to
mature, it generates hydrocarbons. As an oil-prone source rock matures, the
genera on of heavy oils is succeeded by medium and light oils and condensates
Bid Rounds and Concession agreements Main .1

terms
Seismic Data Acquisi on .2
Seismic surveying is the most widely used indirect method of explora on, both on land and
offshore. Because it is capable of offering large amounts of detailed informa on about subsurface
forma ons, seismic surveying almost always supplements gravity and magne c surveying.
Seismic surveys provide more precise details. A seismic survey is usually the last explora on step
before a prospect is actually drilled.
Seismic Surveying Principles

Seismic surveying is based on the principle that rock layers reflect sound waves; sound bounces
off the layers.
Seismic Techniques
Land Marine
Land and offshore seismic survey

Seismic Techniques
Other Non-Seismic Methods
:Magne c Surveys Magnetometer (a very sensi ve instrument that measures the magne c forces of
the rocks lying in the earth’s crust is used over the area of inves ga on). If the rocks are
homogeneous the magnetometer record will show a fairly uniform magne c field. When the
magnetometer found a non-homogeneous area it record a distor on (called anomaly). This area can
be further inves gated with other indirect methods. This survey indicate the depth of a basement.
:Gravity Surveys
This survey involves the use of a Gravimeter. The gravimeter weights an object that is placed inside the
meter. If the meter and the object pass over dense rocks, the weight of the object
increases. Conversely, if the meter and the object pass over light rocks, the weight of the object
.decreases. Gravita onal pull is directly affected by the density of rocks
Other Non-Seismic Methods
A posi ve gravity anomaly over an igneous A nega ve anomaly can indicate the presence of
upli can indicate the presence of an an cline. a salt dome with associated H/C’s
accumula on
3. Seismic Data Processing
• Reflec on seismic data, acquired in the field, has to be taken through several processing steps, before it
can be interpreted in terms of the subsurface structure. The source signal, on its way down, and back up to
the receivers is modified by many factors; the aim of processing is to undo (i.e., correct for) as many/much
of these effects as possible, leaving only the effects due to the causa ve structure of interest (geology) to
be interpreted
•
Is the science (and art) of inferring the geology at some depth from the processed seismic record.
proper interpreta on requires that the interpreter draw upon his geological understanding to pick the
most likely interpreta on from the many “valid” interpreta ons that the data allow.
Structural seismic interpreta on is directed toward the
crea on of structural maps of the subsurface from the
observed three-dimensional configura on of arrival mes.
Through explora on phase : Reservoir levels are indicated

on seismic lines using extended regional seismic
interpreta on
Seismic Data Interpreta on

An anomalous seismic a ribute value or pa ern that could be explained by the presence of
hydrocarbons in an oil or gas reservoir.
DHIs are par cularly useful in hydrocarbon explora on for reducing the geological risk of explora on
wells. Broadly, geophysicists recognize several
 Examples of DHI:
• Bright spots: localized amplitudes of greater magnitude

than background amplitude values.
• Flat spots: nearly horizontal reflectors that cross exis ng

stra graphy, possibly indica ng a hydrocarbon fluid
level within an oil or gas reservoir.
5. Prospect Genera on and Evalua on
 What is the chance that a well will find hydrocarbons,
 How much could it be?
Prospect can be defined as an area of explora on in which hydrocarbons have been

predicted to exist in economic quan ty. Jus fica on for drilling a prospect is made by
assembling evidence for an:
 Ac ve petroleum system.
 Reasonable probability of encountering reservoir-quality rock.
 A trap of sufficient size.
 Adequate sealing rock.
 Appropriate condi ons for genera on and migra on of hydrocarbons to fill the trap.
A single drilling loca on is also called a prospect, but the term is more properly used in the
context of explora on.
Probability of Success factors :
• Risk Factor : Risk comes from uncertainty (incomplete knowledge)

• Probability hydrocarbon charge
• Probability of good reservoir
• Probability of a trap
Chance of Success (Mul ply all the factors)
Hydrocarbon charge
• Source Rock Quality (TOC, Kerogen type)
• Maturity of Source Rock
• Migra on Pathways
Reservoir
• Porosity
• Permeability
Trap
• Closure (Trap volume)
• Top Seal, Fault Seal (Trapping efficiency)
• Timing
Reserves calcula ons require quan ta ve evalua on of all components of the Petroleum System
Reserves= A x NRT x Porosity x S X RF X Bg

• A :Area of Trap
• NRT :Net Reservoir Thickness
• S :Hydrocarbon Satura on
• RF :Recovery Factor
• Bg : Forma on Volume Factor
Recovery factors For gas fields is dependent on factors such as the abandonment pressure, the ini al
pressure, and the type of reservoir drive mechanism.
The forma on volume factor of gas The ra o of the volume of gas at the reservoir temperature and
pressure to the volume at the standard or surface temperature and pressure (ps and Ts). It is given the
symbol Bg and is o en expressed Standard cubic feet
 The only sure way to confirm the presence of hydrocarbons is drilling a well
 Engineers determine the number of wells needed to meet production requirements and the method of
extraction of the liquid hydrocarbons.
 Platform construction costs are estimated with regard to the site, offshore or onshore.
Development Well: A well drilled in a proven producing area for the production of oil or gas. A development
well stands in contrast to an Exploratory Well, which is one that is drilled to find oil or gas in an unproved
area.
Appraisal Plan: In case of Success of the (exploratory well) an appraisal plan is established to confirm
volumes discovered by the exploration well. During appraisal, delineation wells might be drilled
Aim: to determine the size of the oil or gas field and in order to assess the extent of the field, the
reserves, the possible rate of production, and the properties of the oil or gas how to develop it most
efficiently.
In case of Success of the wild Cat (exploratory well) an appraisal plan is established to confirm volumes
discovered by the explora on well. During appraisal, delinea on wells might be drilled
Aim: to determine the size of the oil or gas field and in order to assess the extent of the field, the reserves,
the possible rate of produc on, and the proper es of the oil or gas how to develop it most efficiently.
Well Explora on Appraisal

Drilling Loca on Highest point in the structure Near to GWC
Appraisal Plan Target • Confirm Reservoir thickness Confirm Volumes and
• Prove HCs Presence extension of the prospect
To drill or not to drill?
Basin-scale Conven onal Play Assessment:
Iden fy areas of a basin where there

are: source rocks, reservoirs and traps
Iden fy prospects in those areas
Rank the prospects by risk
Drill the best one, then re-

evaluate the others

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Basrah Oil Training Institute

Introduction To Oil Industry

Origin of Petroleum and Exploration

Examples of Structural Traps

Genesis of Sedimentary Rocks

Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks

 Explora on Project Steps :

Explora on Project Steps

• Petroleum system is made of diﬀerent elements

• It is found in a sedimentary basin whereby

Reservoir rock is a place that oil migrates to and is held underground.

Bid Rounds and Concession agreements Main .1

Seismic Surveying Principles

Land and oﬀshore seismic survey

Through explora on phase : Reservoir levels are indicated

Seismic Data Interpreta on

• Bright spots: localized amplitudes of greater magnitude

• Flat spots: nearly horizontal reﬂectors that cross exis ng

Prospect can be deﬁned as an area of explora on in which hydrocarbons have been

Probability of Success factors :

• Risk Factor : Risk comes from uncertainty (incomplete knowledge)

Reserves= A x NRT x Porosity x S X RF X Bg

 Drilling, Appraisal and Development

 Drilling, Appraisal and Development

Well Explora on Appraisal

To drill or not to drill?

Basin-scale Conven onal Play Assessment:

Iden fy areas of a basin where there

Iden fy prospects in those areas

Rank the prospects by risk

Drill the best one, then re-

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